Army WormArmy Worm
Army Worm, the very destructive larva of the mothHeliophĭlaorLeucania unipuncta, so called from its habit of marching in compact bodies of enormous number, devouring almost every green thing it meets. It is about 1½ inches long, greenish in colour, with black stripes, and is found in various parts of the world, but is particularly destructive in North America. The larva ofSciăra militaris, a European two-winged fly, is also called army worm.
Arnat´to, orAnnotta. SeeAnnatto.
Arnauld(a˙r-nō), the name of a French family, several members of which greatly distinguished themselves.—Antoine, an eminent French advocate, was born 1560, died 1619. Distinguished as a zealous defender of the cause of Henry IV, and for his powerful and successful defence of the University of Paris against the Jesuits in 1594. His family formed the nucleus of the sect of the Jansenists (seeJansenius) in France.—His son Antoine, called theGreat Arnauld, was born 6th Feb., 1612, at Paris, died 9th Aug., 1694, at Brussels. He devoted himself to theology, and was received in 1641 among the doctors of the Sorbonne. He engaged in all the quarrels of the French Jansenists with the Jesuits, the clergy, and the Government, was the chief Jansenist writer, and was considered their head. Excluded fromthe Sorbonne, he retired to Port Royal, where he wrote, in conjunction with his friend Nicole, a celebrated system of logic (hence called thePort Royal Logic). On account of persecution he fled, in 1679, to the Netherlands. His works, which are mainly controversies with the Jesuits or the Calvinists, are very voluminous.—His brother Robert, born 1588, died 1674, retired to Port Royal, where he wrote a translation of Josephus, and other works.—Robert's daughter Angélique, born 1624, died 1684, was eminent in the religious world, and was subjected to persecution on account of her unflinching adherence to Jansenism.
Ar´nauts.SeeAlbania.
Arndt(a˙rnt), Ernst Moritz, German patriot and poet, was born 1769, died 1860. He was appointed professor of history at Greifswald in 1806, and stirred up the national feeling against Napoleon in his workGeist der Zeit(Spirit of the Time). In 1812-3 he zealously promoted the war of independence by a number of pamphlets, poems, and spirited songs, among which it is sufficient to refer to hisWas ist des Deutschen Vaterland?,Der Gott, der Eisen wachsen liess, andWas blasen die Trompeten? Husaren, heraus!, which were caught up and sung from one end of Germany to the other. In 1817 he married a sister of the theologian Schleiermacher, and settled at Bonn in order to undertake the duties of professor of history. He was, however, suspended till 1840 on account of his liberal opinions, when he was restored to his chair on the accession of Frederick William IV.
Arndt, Johann, celebrated German mystic theologian, born 1555, died 1621. His principal work,Wahres Christenthum(True Christianity), is still popular in Germany, and has been translated into almost all European languages. Another of his publications isParadiesgaertlein, translated into English (The Garden of Paradise).
Arne(a˙rn), Thomas Augustine, English composer, born at London 1710, died 1778. His first opera,Fair Rosamond, was performed in 1733 at Lincoln's-Inn Fields, and was received with great applause. Then followed a version of Fielding'sTom Thumb, altered intoThe Opera of Operas, a musical burlesque. His style in theComus(1738) is still more original and cultivated. To him we owe the national airRule, Britannia, originally given in a popular piece called theMasque of Alfred. After having composed two oratorios and several operas he received the degree of Doctor of Music at Oxford. He composed, also, music for several of the songs in Shakespeare's dramas, and various pieces of instrumental music.
Arnee´, one of the numerous Indian varieties of the buffalo(Bubălus arni), remarkable as being the largest animal of the ox kind known. It measures about 7 feet high at the shoulders, and from 9 to 10½ feet long from the muzzle to the root of the tail. It is found chiefly in the forests at the base of the Himalayas.
Arn´hem, orArnheim, a town in Holland, province of Gelderland, 18 miles south-west of Zutphen, on the right bank of the Rhine. Pleasantly situated, it is a favourite residential resort, and it contains many interesting public buildings; manufactures cabinet wares, mirrors, carriages, mathematical instruments, &c.; has paper-mills, and its trade is important. In 1795 it was stormed by the French, who were driven from it by the Prussians in 1813. Pop. 70,664 (1917).
Arnhem Land, a portion of the northern territory of S. Australia, lying west of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and forming a sort of peninsula.
Ar´ni, a town of Madras, on the Cheyair River, 16 miles south of Arcot; formerly a large military station; stormed by Clive in 1751, and scene of defeat of Hyder Ali by Sir Eyre Coote in 1782. Pop. 5050.
Ar´nica, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Compositæ, containing eighteen species, one of which is found in Central Europe,A. montāna(leopard's bane or mountain tobacco), but is not a native of Britain. It has a perennial root, a stem about 2 feet high, bearing on the summit flowers of a dark golden yellow. In every part of the plant there is an acrid resin and a volatile oil, and in the flowers an acrid bitter principle calledarnicin. The root contains also a considerable quantity of tannin. A tincture of it is employed as an external application to wounds and bruises. It was introduced into English gardens about the middle of the eighteenth century.
Ar´nim, Elisabeth von, a German writer, also known as Bettina, wife of Louis Achim von Arnim, and sister of the poet Clemens Brentano; born at Frankfort in 1785, died at Berlin 1859. Even in her childhood she manifested an inclination towards eccentricities and poetical peculiarities of many kinds. She entered into correspondence with Goethe, for whom she entertained a violent passion, although he was then in his sixtieth year. In 1835 she published Goethe'sBriefwechsel mit einem Kinde(Goethe's Correspondence with a Child), containing, among others, the letters that she alleged to have passed between her and Goethe. Her later writings dealt with subjects like the emancipation of the Jews, and the abolition of capital punishment. Her husband, Ludwig Achim von Arnim, born at Berlin in 1781, died 1831, distinguished himself as a writer of novels. In concert with her brother, Clemens Brentano, he published a collection of popular German songs and ballads entitledDes Knaben Wunderhorn.—Her daughter,Gisela von Arnim, is known in literature by herDramatische Werke(3 vols., 1857-63).
Ar´no(ancientArnus), a river of Italy which rises in the Etruscan Apennines, makes a sweep to the south and then flows westwards, divides Florence into two parts, washes Pisa, and falls, 4 miles below it, into the Tuscan Sea, after a course of 130 miles.
Arno´bius, an early Christian writer, was a teacher of rhetoric at Sicca Veneria, in Numidia, and in 303 became a Christian; he died about 326. He wrote seven books ofDisputationes adversus Gentes(orAdversus Nationes), in which he refuted the objections of the heathens against Christianity. This work betrays a defective knowledge of Christianity, but is rich in materials for the understanding of Greek and Roman mythology.
Arnold, an urban district or town of England, Nottinghamshire, 3 miles north-east of Nottingham, with lace and hosiery manufactures, &c. It has a church built in the twelfth century, and a tower dating from the fifteenth century and restored in 1868 and 1877. Pop. 11,800.
Ar´nold, Benedict, a general in the American army during the War of Independence, born in 1741. He rendered his name infamous by his attempt to betray the strong fortress of West Point, with all the arms and immense stores which were there deposited, into the hands of the British. The project failed through the capture of Major André, when Arnold made his escape to the British lines. He received a commission as brigadier-general in the British army, and took part in several marauding expeditions. He subsequently settled in the West Indies, and ultimately came to London, where he died in 1801.
Ar´nold, Sir Edwin,K.C.I.E., poet, Sanskrit scholar, and journalist, born 1832. Educated at Oxford, where he took the Newdigate prize for a poem entitled theFeast of Belshazzarin 1852, he was successively second master in King Edward VI's College at Birmingham, and principal of the Sanskrit College at Poonah in Bombay. In 1861 he joined the editorial staff of theDaily Telegraph, with which he was henceforth connected. He died in 1904. He was author ofPoems, Narrative and Lyrical; translations from the Greek and Sanskrit;The Light of Asia, a poem on the life and teaching of Buddha;The Light of the World;Pearls of the Faith;Lotus and Jewel, &c.
Ar´nold, Matthew, English critic, essayist, and poet, was born at Laleham, near Staines, 1822, being a son of Dr. Arnold of Rugby. He was educated at Winchester, Rugby, and Oxford, and became a Fellow of Oriel College. He was private secretary to Lord Lansdowne, 1847-51; appointed inspector of schools, 1851; professor of poetry at Oxford, 1858; publishedA Strayed Reveller and other poems, 1848;Empedocles on Etna, 1853;Merope, 1858;Essays in Criticism, 1865;On the Study of Celtic Literature, 1867;Schools and Universities on the Continent, 1868;St. Paul and Protestantism, 1870;Literature and Dogma, 1873;Last Essays on Church and Religion, 1877;God and the Bible, 1878;Discourses on America, 1885, &c. He received the degree ofLL.D.from Edinburgh, and that ofD.C.L.from Oxford, and lectured in Britain and in America. He died in 1888. A complete edition of his works in 15 vols. appeared in 1905.—Bibliography: H. W. Paul,Matthew Arnold(English Men of Letters Series); G. Saintsbury,Matthew Arnold(Modern English Writers Series); G. W. E. Russell,Matthew Arnold(Literary Lives Series); F. Bickley,Matthew Arnold and his Poetry.
Ar´nold, Thomas, headmaster of Rugby School, and professor of modern history in the University of Oxford, born at Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, in 1795, died 1842. He entered Oxford in his sixteenth year, and in 1815 he was elected Fellow of Oriel College, and both in that year and 1817 he obtained the chancellor's prize for Latin and English essays. After taking deacon's orders he settled at Laleham, near Staines, where he employed himself in preparing young men for the universities. In 1828 he was appointed headmaster of Rugby School, and devoted himself to his new duties with the greatest ardour. While giving due prominence to the classics, he deprived them of their exclusiveness by introducing various other branches into his course, and he was particularly careful that the education which he furnished should be in the highest sense moral and Christian. His success was remarkable. Not only did Rugby School become crowded beyond any former precedent, but the superiority of Dr. Arnold's system became so generally recognized that it may be justly said to have done much for the general improvement of the public schools of England. In 1841 he was appointed professor of modern history at Oxford, and delivered his introductory course of lectures with great success. His chief works are his edition of Thucydides, hisHistory of Rome(unhappily left unfinished), and hisSermons. There is an admirable memoir of him by A. P. Stanley, Dean of Westminster (London, 2 vols., 1845).—Cf Lytton Strachey,Eminent Victorians.
Ar´nold of Brescia, an Italian religious and political reformer and martyr of the twelfth century. He was one of the disciples of Abélard, and attracted a considerable following by preaching against the corruption of the clergy. Excommunicated by Innocent II, he withdrew to Zürich, but soon reappeared in Rome, where he was taken and burned (1155).
Arnold-Forster, Hugh Oakeley, grandson ofDr. Arnold of Rugby, and adopted son of the late W. E. Forster,M.P., whose wife was his aunt, was born in 1855, died in 1909. He was educated at Rugby and University College, Oxford. He sat as member of Parliament for West Belfast from 1892, for Croydon from 1906, as a Liberal Unionist, was Parliamentary Secretary to the Admiralty from 1900 to 1903, then Secretary of State for War, a position which he held till Dec., 1905, having put forward sweeping proposals for the improvement of our army. He wrote on various subjects, especially books for popular instruction, includingHow to Solve the Irish Land Question,The Citizen Reader,This World of Ours,Things New and Old,In a Conning Tower,A History of England,English Socialism of To-day,Military Needs and Military Policy, &c.
Ar´non, a river in Palestine, the boundary between the country of the Moabites and that of the Amorites, afterwards of the Israelites, a tributary of the Dead Sea. It is now called Wady-el-Mojib.
Ar´not, orAr´nut, a name of the agreeably flavoured farinaceous tubers of the earth-nut or pig-nut (Bunium flexuōsumandB. Bulbocastănum). SeeEarth-nut.
Ar´nott, Dr. Neil, an eminent physician and physicist, was born at Arbroath, 1788, died 1874. Having graduated asM.A.at Aberdeen, he then studied medicine, and was appointed a surgeon in the East India Company's naval service. In 1811 he commenced practice in London. In 1837 he was appointed extraordinary physician to the queen. In 1827 he publishedElements of Physics, and in 1838 a treatise onWarming and Ventilation, &c. He is widely known as the inventor of a stove which is regarded as one of the most economical arrangements for burning fuel, a ventilating chimney-valve, and his water-bed for the protection of the sick against bed-sores. In 1869 he gave £1000 to each of the four Scottish universities and £2000 to London University for the promotion of the study of physics. He was a strong advocate of a scientific as opposed to a purely classical education.
Arnprior, a town of Canada, province Ontario, 35 miles west of Ottawa, on the right bank of the River Ottawa, where it is joined by the Madawaska, and with important railway connections. Pop. 4405.
Arnsberg(a˙rnz´berh), a town in Prussia, province Westphalia, capital of the district of same name, on the Ruhr. Pop. 10,256.—The district of Arnsberg has an area of 2972 sq. miles, and a population of 2,400,000.
Arnstadt(a˙rn´sta˙t), a town of Germany, in Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, 11 miles south by west of Erfurt, upon the Gera, which divides it into two parts. It has manufactures in leather, &c., and a good trade in grain and timber. Pop. 17,907.
Arnswalde(a˙rnz´va˙l-de), a town of Prussia, province Brandenburg, 39 miles south-east of Stettin. Pop. 8730.
Ar´nulf, great-grandson of Charlemagne, elected King of Germany inA.D.887; invaded Italy, captured Rome, and was crowned emperor by the Pope (896); diedA.D.898.
Aroi´deæ.SeeAraceæ.
Ar´olsen, a German town, capital of Waldeck. Pop. 2793.
Aromat´ics, drugs, or other substances which yield a fragrant smell, and often a warm pungent taste, as calamus (Acōrus Calămus), ginger, cinnamon, cassia, lavender, rosemary, laurel, nutmegs, cardamoms, pepper, pimento, cloves, vanilla, saffron. Some of them are used medicinally as tonics, stimulants, &c.
Aromatic Vinegar, a very volatile and powerful perfume made by adding the essential oils of lavender, cloves, &c., and often camphor, to crystallizable acetic acid. It is a powerful excitant in fainting, languor, and headache.
Aro´na, an ancient Italian town near the south extremity of Lago Maggiore. Pop. 4474. In the vicinity is the colossal statue of San Carlo Borromeo, 70 feet in height, exclusive of pedestal 42 feet high.
Aroos´took, a river of the north-eastern United States and New Brunswick, a tributary of the St. John, length 120 miles.
Arou´ra, orAru´ra, an ancient Egyptian measure of surface, according to Herodotus the square of 100 cubits, containing, 21,904 sq. feet.
Arpad, founder of the Magyar monarchy, born about 870, died 907. SeeHungary.
Arpeggio(a˙r-pej´ō), the distinct sound of the notes of an instrumental chord; the striking the notes of a chord in rapid succession, as in the manner of touching the harp instead of playing them simultaneously.
Arpent(a˙r-pän˙), formerly a French measure of land, equal to five-sixths of an English acre; but it varied in different parts of France; the Parisian arpent contained 32,400 sq. feet, the common arpent 40,000 sq. feet.
Arpino(a˙r-pē´nō; ancientArpinum), a town of Southern Italy, province of Caserta, celebrated as the birthplace of Gaius Marius and Cicero. It manufactures woollens, linen, paper, &c. Pop. 10,309.
Arqua(a˙r´kwa˙), a village of Northern Italy, about 13 miles south-west of Padua, where the poet Petrarch died, 18th July, 1374. A monument has been erected over his grave. Pop. 1700.
Ar´quebus, a hand-gun; a species of fire-arm of the sixteenth century, resembling a musket. It was fired from a forked rest, and sometimescocked by a wheel, and carried a ball that weighed nearly 2 ounces. A larger kind used in fortresses carried a heavier shot.
Arraca´cha.SeeAracacha.
Arracan´.SeeAracan.
Ar´rack.SeeArack.
Ar´ragon.SeeAragon.
Ar´rah, a town of British India, in Shahabad district, Bengal, rendered famous during the mutiny of 1857 by the heroic resistance of a body of twenty civilians and fifty Sikhs, cooped up within a detached house, to a force of 3000 sepoys, who were ultimately routed and overthrown by the arrival of a small European reinforcement. Pop. 46,170.
Arraignment(ar-rān´-), the act of calling or setting a prisoner at the bar of a court to plead guilty or not guilty to the matter charged in an indictment or information. In Scots law the term iscalling the diet.—TheClerk of Arraignsis an officer attached to assize courts and to the Old Bailey, who assists in the arraignment of prisoners, and puts formal questions to the jury.
Ar´ran, an island of Scotland, in the Firth of Clyde, part of Bute county; length, north to south, 20 miles; breadth, about 10 miles; area, 165 sq. miles, or 105,814 acres, of which about 15,000 are under cultivation. It is of a wild and romantic appearance, particularly the northern half, where the island attains its loftiest summit in Goatfell, 2866 feet high. The coast presents several indentations, of which that of Lamlash, forming a capacious bay, completely sheltered by Holy Island, is one of the best natural harbours in the west of Scotland. On the small island of Pladda, about a mile from the south shore, a lighthouse has been erected. The geology of Arran has attracted much attention, as furnishing within a comparatively narrow space distinct sections of the great geological formations; while the botany possesses almost equal interest, both in the variety and the rarity of many of its plants. Among objects of interest are relics of Danish forts, standing stones, cairns, &c. Lamlash and Brodick are villages. The island is a favourite resort of summer visitors, and is reached by steamer from Ardrossan. Pop. 8294.
Arran, Earls of.SeeHamilton, Family of.
Arrangement, in music, the adaptation of a composition to voices or instruments for which it was not originally written; also, a piece so adapted.
Ar´ran Islands.SeeAran.
Arraro´ba.SeeAraroba.
Arras(a˙-rä), a town of France, capital of the department Pas-de-Calais, well built, with several handsome squares and a citadel, cathedral, public library, botanic garden, museum, and numerous flourishing industries. In the Middle Ages it was famous for the manufacture of tapestry, to which the English applied the name of the town itself (arrazo). The battle of Arras was fought and Vimy Ridge taken by the Allies on 9th April, 1917. Pop. 24,200.
Arrest´is the apprehending or restraining of one's person, which, in civil cases, can take place legally only by process in execution of the command of some court or officers of justice; but in criminal cases any man may arrest without warrant or precept, and every person is liable to arrest without distinction, but no man is to be arrested unless charged with such a crime as will at least justify holding him to bail when taken.Magna Chartaand theHabeas Corpus Actare the two great statutes for securing the liberty of the subject against unlawful arrests and suits.
Arrest´ment, in Scots law, a process by which a creditor may attach money or movable property which a third party holds for behoof of his debtor. In 1870 an Act was passed for Scotland which provides that only that part of the weekly wages of labourers, and of workpeople generally, which is in excess of 20s. is liable to arrestment for debt.
Arrest of Judgment, in law, the staying or stopping of a judgment after verdict, for causes assigned. Courts have power to arrest judgment for intrinsic causes appearing upon the face of the record; as when the declaration varies from the original writ; when the verdict differs materially from the pleadings; or when the case laid in the declaration is not sufficient in point of law to found an action upon.
Arre´tium.SeeArezzo.
Arrhenath´erum, a genus of oat-like grasses, of whichA. elatius, sometimes called French rye-grass, is a valuable fodder plant.
Arrhenius, Svante August, famous Swedish physicist and chemist, born 19th Feb., 1859, at Wyk, near Upsala. He was educated at the Universities of Upsala (1876-81) and Stockholm (1881-4), spent two years in travelling, and after doing much original research was appointed professor of physics at the University of Stockholm. To him is due the establishment of the theory of electrolytic dissociation, supplying a reasonable explanation of many chemical phenomena otherwise insoluble. He subsequently extended the application of the electrolytic theory to the phenomena of atmospheric electricity. His dissertationSur la conductibilité galvanique des électrolytesappeared in 1884. Among his other works isWorlds in the Making(English translation, 1908).
Ar´ria, the heroic wife of a Roman named Cæcīna Pætus. Pætus was condemned to death inA.D.42 for his share in a conspiracy against the emperor Claudius, and was encouraged to suicide by his wife, who stabbed herself and thenhanded the dagger to her husband with the words, 'It does not hurt, Pætus!'
Ar´rian, orFlavius Arrianus, a Greek historian, native of Nicomedia, flourished in the second century, under the emperor Hadrian and the Antonines. He was first a priest of Ceres; but at Rome he became a disciple of Epictetus, was honoured with the citizenship of Rome, and was advanced to the senatorial and even consular dignities. His extant works are:The Expedition of Alexander, in seven books; a bookOn the Affairs of India; anEpistle to Hadrian; aTreatise on Tactics; aPeriplus of the Euxine Sea; aPeriplus of the Red Sea; and hisEnchiridion, a moral treatise, containing the discourses of Epictetus.
Ar´ris, in architecture, the line in which the two straight or curved surfaces of a body, forming an exterior angle, meet each other.
Arro´ba(Spanish), a weight formerly used in Spain, and still used in the greater part of Central and South America. In the States of Spanish origin its weight is generally equal to 25.35 lb. avoirdupois; in Brazil it equals 32.38 lb.—Also a measure for wine, spirits, and oil, ranging from 2¾ gallons to about 10 gallons.
Arröe, Danish island. SeeAeröe.
Arrondissement.SeeFrance.
Arrow.SeeArchery, Bow.
Arrowhead(Sagittaria), a genus of aquatic plants found in all parts of the world within the torrid and temperate zones, nat. ord. Alismaceæ, distinguished by possessing barren and fertile flowers, with a three-leaved calyx and three coloured petals. The common arrowhead (S. sagittifolia), the only native species in Britain, is known by its arrow-shaped leaves with lanceolate straight lobes.
Arrowheaded Characters.SeeCuneiform Writing.
Arrow Lake, an expansion of the Columbia River, in British Columbia, Canada; about 95 miles long fromN.toS.; often regarded as forming two lakes—Upper and Lower Arrow Lake.
Arrowrock Dam.SeeDamsandReservoirs.
Arrow-rootArrow-root (Maranta arundinācĕa)
Arrow-root, a starch largely used for food and for other purposes. Arrow-root proper is obtained from the rhizomes or rootstocks of several species of plants of the genus Maranta (nat. ord. Marantaceæ), and perhaps owes its name to the scales which cover the rhizome, which have some resemblance to the point of an arrow. Some, however, suppose that the name is due to the fact of the fresh roots being used as an application against wounds inflicted by poisoned arrows, and others say thatarrowis a corruption ofara, the Indian name of the plant. The species from which arrow-root is most commonly obtained isM. arundinācĕa, hence called thearrow-root plant. Brazilian arrow-root, or tapioca meal, is got from the large fleshy root ofManihot utilissima, after the poisonous juice has been got rid of; East Indian arrow-root, from the large rootstocks ofCurcŭma angustifolia; Chinese arrow-root, from the creeping rhizomes ofNelumbium speciōsum; English arrow-root, from the potato; Portland arrow-root, from the corms ofArum maculātum; and Oswego arrow-root, from Indian corn. Analyses made in 1902 and 1906 show that the idea generally held of the nourishing qualities of arrow-root is a delusion, and that the proteids, which are true muscle-builders, are present in an extremely small extent. Arrow-root, however, mixed with eggs, milk, and flavourings, is largely used in the dietary of invalids.
Arrowsmith, Aaron, a distinguished English chartographer, born 1750, died 1823; he raised the execution of maps to a perfection it had never before attained.—His nephew, John, born 1790, died 1873, was no less distinguished in the same field; hisLondon Atlas of Universal Geographymay be specially mentioned.
Arroyo(a˙r-rō´yo), the name of two towns of Spain, in Estremadura, the one, called Arroyo del Puerco (pop. 5727), about 10 miles west of Caceres; the other, called Arroyo Molinos de Montanches, about 27 miles south-east of Caceres, memorable from the victory gained by Lord Hill over a French force under General Gerard, 28th Oct., 1811.
Ar´ru(orAroo)Islands,a group belonging to the Dutch, south of western New Guinea, and extending from north to south about 127 miles. They are composed of coralline limestone, nowhere exceeding 200 feet above the sea, and are well wooded and tolerably fertile. The natives belong to the Papuan race, and some of them are Christians. The chief exports are trepang, tortoise-shell, pearls, mother-of-pearl, and edible birds'-nests. Pop. of group about 20,000.
Arsa´ces,the founder of a dynasty of Parthian kings (256B.C.), who, taking their name from him, are called Arsacidæ. There were thirty-one in all. SeeParthia.
Ar´samas, a manufacturing town in the Russian government of Nijni-Novgorod, on the Tesha, 250 miles east of Moscow, with a cathedral and large convent. Pop. 12,000.
Ar´senal, a royal or public magazine or place appointed for the making, repairing, keeping, and issuing of military stores. An arsenal of the first class should include factories for guns and gun-carriages, small-arms, small-arms ammunition, harness, saddlery, tents, and powder; a laboratory and large store-houses. In arsenals of the second class workshops take the place of the factories. The Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, which manufactures warlike implements and stores for the army and navy, was formed about 1720, and comprises factories, laboratories, &c., for the manufacture and final fitting up of almost every kind of arms and ammunition. Great quantities of military and naval stores are kept at the dockyards of Chatham, Portsmouth, Plymouth, and Pembroke. In France there are various arsenals or depots of war-material, which is manufactured at Mézières, Toulouse, Besançon, &c.; the great naval arsenals are Brest and Toulon. Until 1919 the chief German arsenals were at Spandau, Strassburg, and Dantzig. The chief Austrian arsenal was the immense establishment at Vienna, which included gun-factory, laboratory, small-arms and carriage factories, &c. Russia had her principal arsenal at Petrograd, with supplementary factories of arms and ammunition at Briansk, Kiev, and elsewhere. In Italy Turin is the centre of the military factories. There are a number of arsenals in the United States, but individually they are of little importance.
Ar´senic(symbolAs, atomic weight 75), a common element usually found combined with metals as arsenides, the commonest of which is arsenical pyrites, FeAsS. It has a steel colour and high metallic lustre, and tarnishes on exposure to the air, first changing to yellow, and finally to black. In hardness it equals copper; it is extremely brittle, and very volatile, beginning to sublime before it melts. It burns with a blue flame, and emits a smell of garlic. Its specific gravity is 5.76. It forms compounds with most of the metals. Combined with sulphur it forms orpiment and realgar, which are the yellow and red sulphides of arsenic. Orpiment is the truearsenicumof the ancients. With oxygen arsenic forms two compounds, the more important of which is arsenious oxides or arsenic trioxide (As4O6), which is thewhite arsenic, or simplyarsenicof the shops. It is usually seen in white, glassy, translucent masses, and is obtained by sublimation from several ores containing arsenic in combination with metals, particularly from arsenical pyrites. Of all substances arsenic is that which has most frequently occasioned death by poisoning, both by accident and design. The best remedies against the effects of arsenic on the stomach are ferric hydroxide or magnesic hydroxide, or a mixture of both, with copious draughts of bland liquids of a mucilaginous consistence, which serve to procure its complete ejection from the stomach. Oils and fats generally, milk, albumen, wheat-flour, oatmeal, sugar or syrup, have all proved useful in counteracting its effect. Like many other virulent poisons it is a safe and useful medicine, especially in skin diseases, when judiciously employed. It is used as a flux for glass, and also for forming pigments. The arsenite of copper (Scheele's green) and a double arsenite and acetate of copper (emerald green) were formerly largely used to colour paper-hangings for rooms; but as poisonous gases are liable to be given off, the practice has been to a great extent abandoned. Arsenic compounds have been used for colouring confectionery, and other articles, bright green, but their chief industrial use is in the preparation of insecticides. Arsenic is found in crude oil of vitriol, and occasionally in products such as grape-sugar, beer, &c., in the manufacture of which oil of vitriol is employed. Plants die when placed in a solution of arsenic, but corn is often steeped in such a solution, previous to planting, for preventing smut, and the growth of the future plant is not injured thereby.
Arshin(a˙r-shēn´), a Russian measure of length equal to 28 inches.
Arsin´oë, a city of ancient Egypt on Lake Mœris, said to have been founded about 2300 B. C., but renamed after Arsinoë, wife and sister of Ptolemy II of Egypt, and called alsoCrocodilopolis, from the sacred crocodiles kept at it.
Ar´sis, a term applied in prosody to that syllable in a measure where the emphasis is put; in elocution, the elevation of the voice, in distinction fromthesis, or its depression.Arsisandthesis, in music, are the strong position and weak position of the bar, indicated by the down-beat and up-beat in marking time.
Ar´son, in English law, the malicious burning of a dwelling-house or outhouse of another man, which by the common law is felony, and which, ifany person is therein, is capital. Also, the wilful setting fire to any church, chapel, warehouse, mill, barn, agricultural produce, ship, coal-mine, and the like. In Scotland it is calledwilful fire-raising, and in both England and Scotland it is a considerable aggravation of the crime if the burning is to defraud insurers.
Art, in its most extended sense, as distinguished from nature on the one hand and from science on the other, has been defined as every regulated operation or dexterity by which organized beings pursue ends which they know beforehand, together with the rules and the result of every such operation or dexterity. Science consists inknowing, art indoing. In this wide sense it embraces what are usually called the useful arts. In a narrower and purely æsthetic sense it designates what are more specifically termed the fine arts, as architecture, sculpture, painting, music, and poetry. The useful arts have their origin in positive practical needs, and restrict themselves to satisfying them. The fine arts minister to the sentiment of taste through the medium of the beautiful in form, colour, rhythm, or harmony. SeeFine Arts,Painting,Sculpture, &c.—In the Middle Ages it was common to give certain branches of study the name of arts.—Cf. A. C. R. Carter,History of Art,The Year's Art.
Art Collections.SeeCollections, Artistic.
Art, Teaching of. With the advent of the present industrial age the teaching of art has undergone a profound change. The fine and the industrial arts have been equally affected. In mediæval times, and in the earlier classic ages, the system of apprenticeship prevailed, and all teaching of the arts and of the artistic crafts was given by masters of the various arts or trades to the apprentices who worked under their guidance as assistants. Standards of excellence were maintained by trade guilds, who enforced rules as to workmanship as well as rules for the economic conditions of each trade or craft. The painter of pictures, or of mural decorations, was trained in the same way as any other craftsman, working as an apprentice under a master.
When, in the last century, machinery driven by steam-power took the place of hand labour in industry, the small independent workshops gradually disappeared, as the industrial centres increased in those localities where coal or raw material was most easily obtained; and, as the processes of each trade or craft became more and more subdivided and specialized, the old system of apprenticeship, which had become unnecessary, broke down. The teaching and tradition of the small independent craft workshops had no counterpart in the new centralized industrial systems. Even the painters of pictures needed no longer to prepare their own materials, for special industries arose, and mechanical processes were developed, for the work which formerly had been done in the artists' workshops by apprentices. The fine arts in this way suffered the loss of their old systems of teaching and instruction.
To meet the need for a revival of art teaching in the crafts and other industries, there arose a movement towards the centralization of teaching in schools of art during the latter half of the nineteenth century. Following the impulse given to that movement by the great exhibition in 1850, the British Government founded the schools of science and art in London and in most of the important provincial towns. Earlier in the century bodies of artists had founded national academies for the teaching of art; and the teaching of drawing was gradually adopted as a part of ordinary school education. Step by step training in schools of art or technical schools took the place of the teaching formerly given during apprenticeship in every craft workshop. The ancient guilds were replaced by the new trades unions, but these took no part in the maintenance of artistic standards nor of quality in workmanship.
At the present time the teaching of art begins with the early school lessons in drawing, and is carried on in special technical classes or schools of art, where teachers of the 'fine arts' and of the artistic crafts give instruction to students preparing for professional work. In a few of the artistic trades the system of apprenticeship still survives, but the teaching given by that means is usually supplemented by attendance at a school of art or technical school. Under the Education Act of 1918 attendance at technical classes in the daytime became compulsory for apprentices in all industrial trades.
The subject of art teaching was formerly disregarded by the universities, but has become definitely within their province since the founding of the Slade professorships at Oxford, Cambridge, and London Universities, and of the professorship of fine art at the University of Edinburgh.
The chief schools of art in Great Britain are the schools of the Royal Academy in London, the Slade School at University College, London, and the Royal College of Art at South Kensington, also the Central School of Arts and Crafts, and the other large metropolitan schools of the London County Council.
In most of the English provincial towns are municipal or other schools of art under the control of the Board of Education.
In Scotland the chief schools are the four central institutions—the Edinburgh College of Art, and the schools of art of Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Dundee. In each of these a diploma is given on the satisfactory completion of a prescribed course of study.
In Ireland the chief schools are those of the Royal Hibernian Academy in Dublin, and the provincial schools of art under the Department of Agriculture and Technology.
On the Continent the chief centre of artistic training has for many years been in Paris. Advanced students from most European and American art schools spend some of the later period of their study in the schools of Paris, in painting, in sculpture, or in architecture. There is, naturally, a valuable incentive and stimulation due to this gathering together of advanced students from all countries, as well as to the high academic tradition and sense of style of the French.
The 'atelier' system, which is followed in the French schools, is simple and personal. The expenses of an 'atelier', or studio, are borne by a group of students by the consent and under the guidance of an artist of reputation, who visits the 'atelier' at stated intervals, but is not concerned in its administration. In this way the relations between the professor and his pupils are extremely direct and personal. Most of the distinguished artists of Paris are attached to some 'atelier' to which chosen pupils are admitted.
There are also in Paris excellent schools for training in the applied arts, schools for furniture-making, printing, jewellery, and other artistic trades. These are on private foundations, but also receive State aid.
The teaching of art that is given at the present day as a part of ordinary general education attempts little more than a training in the elements of drawing, with some practice in the use of colour. The purpose of the drawing lesson is the attainment of skill in the representation of objects rather than the training of the æsthetic sense, or of artistic judgment or taste.
In the schools of art opportunities are provided for training in drawing and painting, sculpture, and architecture, and in the general principles of design in these arts, and in many of the artistic crafts and industrial processes. In some localities, where particular industries or artistic trades are concentrated, special schools for artistic and technical training are provided. The present tendency is towards the development of special schools for particular artistic trades or professions.
A complete system of training in any art must of necessity include: (1) actual technical practice; (2) teaching of the canons of workmanship of the art; (3) acquaintance with its historical development, especially with the notable examples and the highest achievements of past masters in the art.
Arta(ancientAmbracia), a gulf, town, and river of north-western Greece. The town was transferred by Turkey to Greece in 1881 (pop. 8000). It stands on the River Arta, which for a considerable distance above its mouth formed a part of the boundary between Greece and Turkey.—The province of Arta has an area of 395 sq. miles, and a pop. of 52,400.
Artaxerx´es(Old Pers.Artakhsathra, 'the mighty'), the name of several Persian kings:—1.Artaxerxes, surnamed Longimănus, succeeded his father Xerxes I, 465B.C.He subdued the rebellious Egyptians, terminated the war with Athens, governed his subjects in peace, and died 425B.C.—2.Artaxerxes, surnamed Mnemon, succeeded his father Darius II in the year 405B.C.After having vanquished his brother Cyrus he made war on the Spartans, who had assisted his enemy, and forced them to abandon the Greek cities and islands of Asia to the Persians. On his death, 359B.C., his son Ochus ascended the throne under the name of—3.Artaxerxes Ochus(359 to 339B.C.). After having overcome the Phœnicians and Egyptians, and displayed great cruelty in both countries, he was poisoned by his general Bagoas.
Arte´di, Peter, a Swedish naturalist, born 1705, drowned at Amsterdam 1735. He studied at Upsala, turned his attention to medicine and natural history, and was a friend of Linnæus. HisBibliotheca IchthyologicaandPhilosophia Ichthyologica, together with a life of the author, were published at Leyden in 1738.
Artel, a name for co-operative associations in Russia. These associations were known in ancient Russia asdrushinaorwataga. The artels originally consisted of bodies of men associating for the purpose of jointly undertaking a piece of work and dividing the profits. Artels were formed in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries for the co-operation of their members in hunting and fishing. Inspired and stimulated by the Schulze-Delitzsch associations established in Germany, the Russian artels have extended their activity to various branches of industrial life. There are now consum artels, credit artels, and insurance artels, but the most important are the artisan and industrial artels. Some of the artels, however, are little more than trade guilds with mutual responsibility.
Ar´tĕmis, an ancient Greek divinity, identified with the Roman Diana. She was the daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto or Latona, and was the twin sister of Apollo, born in the Island of Delos. She is variously represented as a huntress, with bow and arrows; as a goddess of the nymphs, in a chariot drawn by four stags; and as the moon-goddess, with the crescent of the moon above her forehead. She was a maiden divinity, never conquered by love, except when Endymion made her feel its power. She demanded the strictest chastity from her worshippers, and she is represented as having changedActæon into a stag, and caused him to be torn in pieces by his own dogs, because he had secretly watched her as she was bathing. The Artemisia was a festival celebrated in her honour at Delphi. The famous temple of Artemis at Ephesus was considered one of the wonders of the world, but the goddess worshipped there was very different from the huntress goddess of Greece, being of Eastern origin, and regarded as the symbol of fruitful nature.
Artemi´sia, Queen of Caria, in Asia Minor, about 352-350B.C., sister and wife of Mausōlus, to whom she erected in her capital, Halicarnassus, a monument, called the Mausolēum, which was reckoned among the seven wonders of the world.
Artemi´sia, a genus of plants of numerous species, nat. ord. Compositæ, comprising mugwort, southernwood, and wormwood. Certain alpine species are the flavouring ingredient in absinthe. SeeWormwood.
Artemi´sium, a promontory in Eubœa, an island of the Ægean, near which several naval battles between the Greeks and Persians were fought, 480B.C.
Ar´temus Ward. SeeBrowne, Charles Farrar.
Ar´teries, the system of cylindrical vessels or tubes, membranous, elastic, and pulsatile, which convey the blood from the heart to all parts of the body, by ramifications which, as they proceed, diminish in size and increase in number, and terminate in minute capillaries uniting the ends of the arteries with the beginnings of the veins. There are two principal arteries or arterial trunks: theaorta, which rises from the left ventricle of the heart and ramifies through the whole body, sending off great branches to the head, neck, and upper limbs, and downwards to the lower limbs, &c.; and thepulmonary artery, which conveys venous blood from the right ventricle to the lungs, to be purified in the process of respiration.
Arteriot´omy, the opening or cutting of an artery for the purpose of blood-letting, as, for instance, to relieve pressure of the brain in apoplexy.