Assyrian bas-reliefAssyrian bas-relief from the Palace of Nimrûd showing Lion-hunting about 884B.C.
Assyr´ia(theAsshurof the Hebrews,Athurâof the ancient Persians), an ancient monarchy in Asia, intersected by the upper course of the Tigris, and having the Armenian Mountains on the north and Babylonia on the south; area, about 50,000 sq. miles; surface partly mountainous, hilly, or undulating, partly a portion of the fertile Mesopotamian plain. The numerous remains of ancient habitations show how thickly this vast flat must have once beenpeopled; now, for the most part, it is a mere wilderness. Geographically and historically, however, Assyria and Babylonia are interdependent, and the Assyrians and Babylonians are ethnographically and linguistically the same race. Whereas, however, the classical authors speak of Assyria to the exclusion of Babylonia, the decipherment of the inscriptions has proved that Babylonia was the mother-country, and that Assyria, except during a period of eight centuries, was a dependency of the former. This discovery coincides with the contents of the tenth chapter ofGenesis. SeeBabylonia.
Ast, Georg Anton Friedrich, German philosopher, 1776-1841. He wrote on æsthetics and the history of philosophy, but is best known as an editor of Plato, whose works he published with a Latin translation and commentary.
As´tacus.SeeCrayfish.
Astar´te, a Syrian goddess, probably corresponding to theAshtarothof the Hebrews, and representing the productive power of nature. She was a moon-goddess. Some regard her as corresponding toHera(Juno), and others identify her withAphroditē.
Astatic needle, a magnetic needle having another needle of the same intensity fixed parallel to it, the poles being reversed, so that the needles neutralize one another, and are unaffected by the earth's magnetism; used in theastatic galvanometer.
As´ter, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Compositæ, comprehending several hundred species, scattered over Europe and Asia, but mostly natives of North America. Many are cultivated as ornamental plants. One,A. Tripolium, is native in Britain, and is found in salt marshes, having a pretty purple flower. Asters generally flower late in the season, and some are hence called Michaelmas or Christmas Daisies. The China Aster, not an aster proper (AsterorCallistĕphus chinensis), is a very showy annual, of which there are many varieties.
Asterabad´.SeeAstrabad.
Aste´ria, a name applied to a variety of corundum, which displays an opalescent star of six rays of light when cut with certain precautions; and also to thecat's-eye, which consists of quartz, and is found especially in Ceylon.
Aster´idæ.SeeAsteroidea.
As´terisk, the figure of a star, thus *, used in printing and writing, as a reference to a passage or note in the margin, or to fill the space when a name, or the like, is omitted.
Asteroi´dea, the ord. of the Echinodermata to which the star-fishes belong. SeeStar-fishes.
As´teroids,Planetoids, orMinor Planets, a numerous group of very small planets revolving round the sun, in the great majority of cases at mean distances, intermediate between those of Mars and Jupiter, in orbits of large eccentricity at considerable inclination to the ecliptic. The diameter of the largest is not supposed to exceed 450 miles, while most of the others are very much smaller. Over one thousand are known, and new members are being constantly discovered. The first to be discovered was Ceres, on 1st Jan., 1801, and within seven years more Pallas, Juno, and Vesta were seen. The diminutive size of these four bodies, and resemblances in their orbits, gave rise to the opinion that they were but the fragments of a planet that had formerly existed and had been brought to an end by some catastrophe. For nearly forty years investigations were carried on, but no more planets were discovered till 8th Dec., 1845, when a fifth planet in the same region of the solar system was discovered. The rapid succession of discoveries that followed was for a time taken as a corroboration of the disruption theory, but the breadth of the zone occupied makes the hypothesis of a shattered planet more than doubtful. In recent years a few have been discovered which are at times considerably within the orbit of Mars, the nearest perihelia being less than 15 million miles beyond the earth's orbit. Another group, known as the 'Trojan Planets', has been found, whose mean distances are practically identical with that of Jupiter. The total mass of the asteroids cannot exceed one-fourth that of the earth, and is probably much less. SeePlanets.
Asterol´epis, a genus of primitive ganoid fishes, found only in a fossil state in the Old Red Sandstone. They were about 1 foot long, and the head and body were enclosed in armour of strong bony plates.
Asthma(ast´ma), difficulty of respiration, returning at intervals, with a sense of stricture across the chest and in the lungs, a wheezing, hard cough at first, but more free towards the close of each paroxysm, with a discharge of mucus, followed by a remission. Asthma is essentially a spasm of the muscular tissue which is contained in the smaller bronchial tubes. It generally attacks persons advanced in years, and seems, in some instances, to be hereditary. The exciting causes are various—accumulation of blood or viscid mucus in the lungs, noxious vapours, a cold and foggy atmosphere, or a close, hot air, flatulence, accumulated fæces, violent passions, organic diseases in the thoracic viscera, &c. In recent years a treatment first used by Dr. Alexander Francis has come into prominence. By far the most important part of the treatment consists in obviating or removing the several exciting causes. It seldom proves fatal except as inducing dropsy, consumption, &c.
Asti(a˙s´tē), a town of Northern Italy, province of Alessandria, 28 milesE.S.E.of Turin, the see ofa bishop, with an old cathedral. In the Middle Ages it was one of the most powerful republics of Northern Italy. It was the birthplace of Alfieri, the poet, whose statue adorns the principal square. There is also an equestrian statue of King Humbert. The industries comprise silk, matches, gold, mosaic wares, &c. A favourite wine is produced in the neighbourhood. Asti, ancientlyAsta, was a place of some importance under the Roman emperors, and in the Middle Ages was an independent republic. Pop. 41,252.
Astig´matism(Gr.a, not,stigma, spot, mark), a malformation or imperfection, congenital or accidental, of the globe of the eye, in consequence of which the individual does not see objects clear and distinct, but with a blurred outline. It is due to the cornea or transparent outer coat of the eye not being regularly spherical, but having different degrees of curvature in different directions. Usually the degree of convexity is not the same horizontally as it is vertically, so that the rays from an object, instead of converging into one focus, meet in more than one. If a person with this defect is looking at vertical lines crossed by horizontal ones he will see the one set more distinctly than the other, though a slight movement will enable him to see the other distinctly also, but not at the same time. Almost all eyes are more or less astigmatic, but persons only become aware of it when it is excessive. Special lenses are required to correct it—usually lenses plane in one direction and concave or convex in the other. Short sight or long sight is often associated with astigmatism, so that suitable spectacles cannot be very easily provided.
Astle, Thomas, English antiquary, born 1735, died 1803. He was a trustee of the British Museum and keeper of the public records in the Tower. His chief work,The Origin and Progress of Writing, appeared in 1784, and the portion dealing with mediæval handwriting is still of value. He formed a famous collection of MSS., the most valuable portion of which is now in the British Museum.
Astom´ata, one of the two groups into which the Protozoa are divided with regard to the presence or absence of a mouth, of which organ the Astomata are destitute. The group comprises two classes, Gregarinida and Rhizopoda. SeeStomatoda.
Aston Manor, formerly a municipal and parliamentary borough of Warwickshire, England, situated about 1½ milesE.N.E.of Birmingham, and engaged in similar branches of industry. It was incorporated with Birmingham in 1911 and gives its name to one of its parliamentary divisions. Pop. 75,029.
Astor, John Jacob, born near Heidelberg, Germany, 1703, died at New York, 1848. In 1783 he emigrated to the United States, settled at New York, and became extensively engaged in the fur trade. In 1811 the settlement of Astoria, founded by him, near the mouth of the Columbia River, was formed to serve as a central depot for the fur trade between the lakes and the Pacific. He subsequently engaged in various speculations, and died worth £4,000,000, leaving £80,000 to found the Astor Library in New York. This institution is contained in a splendid building, enlarged in 1859 at the cost of his son, and comprises about 260,000 volumes. Since 1895 it has formed part of the New York public library.—His great-grandson, William Waldorf Astor, born in 1848, died in 1919, naturalized in England in 1899, was made a baron in 1916 and a viscount in 1917.
Astor, Lady.Nancy Witcher, Viscountess Astor, married the second Viscount Astor in 1906. She is a daughter of the late Colonel Chiswell Dabney Langhorne, of Virginia, United States. In Nov., 1919, she was elected member of Parliament for the Sutton division of Plymouth, and was the first woman to take a seat in the House of Commons.
Astor´ga, a city of Spain, province of Leon; theAsturica Augustaof the Romans. It figured prominently during the Peninsular War; it was taken by the French after an obstinate defence, 1810, and retaken by the Spaniards, 1812. Pop. 5682.
Asto´ria, a town of Oregon, United States, on the Columbia River, with numerous salmon-canning establishments. Pop. 10,595. SeeAstor.
Astrabad´, a town of Persia, province of same name, about 24 milesE.of the Caspian. It was formerly the residence of the Kajar princes, the ancestors of the present Persian dynasty. It is very unhealthy, but is still the centre of a considerable trade. Pop. estimated at from 10,000 to 30,000. The province of Astrabad has an area of 5800 sq. miles, and a pop. of 150,000.
Astræ´a, in Greek mythology, the daughter of Zeus and Themis, the goddess of justice. During the golden age she dwelt on earth, but on that age passing away she withdrew from the society of men and was placed among the stars, where she forms the constellation Virgo. The name was given to one of the asteroids, discovered in 1845. It revolves round the sun in 1511.10 solar days, and is about 2½ times the distance of the earth from the sun.
As´tragal, in architecture, a small semicircular moulding, with a fillet beneath it, which surrounds a column in the form of a ring, separating the shaft from the capital.
Astrag´alus, a genus of papilionaceous plants, herbaceous or shrubby, and often spiny.A. gummiferyields gum tragacanth.
Astrag´alus, the upper bone of the footsupporting the tibia; the buckle, ankle, or sling bone. It is a strong irregularly-shaped bone, and is connected with the others by powerful ligaments.
Astrakhan(a˙s-tra˙-ha˙n'), a Russian city, capital of government of same name, on an elevated island in the Volga, about 30 miles above its mouth in the Caspian, communicating with the opposite banks of the river by numerous bridges. It is the seat of a Greek archbishop and has a large cathedral, as well as places of worship for Mahommedans, Armenians, &c. The manufactures are large and increasing, and the fisheries (sturgeon, &c.) very important. It is the chief port of the Caspian, and has regular steam communication with the principal towns on its shores. In 1919 the town was made a naval base by the Bolshevist Government of Moscow. Pop. 163,800, composed of various races.—The government (or province) has an area of 91,042 sq. miles. It consists almost entirely of two vast steppes, separated from each other by the Volga, and forming for the most part arid sterile deserts. In 1918 the district of Astrakhan proclaimed its autonomy and independence of Moscow. Pop. 1,427,500.
Astrakhan, a name given to sheepskins with a curled woolly surface obtained from a variety of sheep found in Búkhara, Persia, and Syria; also a rough fabric with a pile in imitation of this.
Astralite.SeeExplosives.
Astral Spirits, spirits formerly believed to people the heavenly bodies or the aerial regions. In the Middle Ages they were variously conceived as fallen angels, souls of departed men, or spirits originating in fire, and belonging neither to heaven, earth, nor hell. Paracelsus regarded them as demoniacal in character.
Astrin´gent, a medicine which contracts the organic textures and canals of the body, thereby checking or diminishing excessive discharges. The chief astringents are the mineral acids, alum, lime-water, chalk, salts of copper, zinc, iron, lead, silver; and among vegetables catechu, kino, oak-bark, and galls.
Astroca´ryum, a genus of tropical American palms, species of which yield oil and valuable fibre. Tucum oil and tucum thread are obtained fromA. vulgāre.
As´trolabe, an instrument formerly used for taking the altitude of the sun or stars, now superseded by the quadrant and sextant. The name was also formerly given to an armillary sphere.—Cf. Chaucer,Treatise on the Astrolabe.
Astrolabe Bay, an inlet on theN.E.coast of Australian New Guinea.
Astrol´ogy, literally, the science or doctrine of the stars. The name was formerly used as equivalent to astronomy, but is now restricted in meaning to the pseudo-science which pretends to enable men to judge of the effects and influences of the heavenly bodies on human and other mundane affairs, and to foretell future events by their situations and conjunctions. As usually practised, the whole heavens, visible and invisible, were divided by great circles into twelve equal parts, calledhouses. As the circles were supposed to remain immovable, every heavenly body passed through each of the twelve houses every twenty-four hours. The portion of the zodiac contained in each house was the part to which chief attention was paid, and the position of any planet was settled by its distance from the boundary circle of the house, measured on the ecliptic. The houses had different names and different powers, the first being called the house of life, the second the house of riches, the third of brethren, the sixth of marriage, the eighth of death, and so on. The part of the heavens about to rise was called theascendant, the planet within the house of the ascendant beinglord of the ascendant. The differentaspectsof the planets were of great importance. Tocast a person's nativity(ordraw his horoscope) was to find the position of the heavens at the instant of his birth, which being done, the astrologer, who knew the various powers and influences possessed by the sun, the moon, and the planets, could predict what the course and termination of that person's life would be. The temperament of the individual was ascribed to the planet under which he was born, assaturninefromSaturn,jovialfromJupiter,mercurialfromMercury,&c., words which are now used with little thought of their original meaning. The virtues of herbs, gems, and medicines were supposed to be due to their ruling planets. The history of astrology, which was the foster-sister of astronomy, goes back to the early days of the human race. Egyptians and Hindus, as well as the nations on the Euphrates and Tigris, were zealous astrologers. The Christian Church strongly opposed the teachings of astrology, but its study spread among Jews and Arabs during the Middle Ages. Francis Bacon abused the astrologers of his day, and Swift wrote against them his famousPrediction for the Year 1708, by Isaac Bickerstaff, Esq.—BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. H. Bennet,Astrology; G. Wilde,Chaldean Astrology Up-to-date; A. Maury,La Magie et l'astrologie à l'antiquité et au moyen âge; A. J. Pearce,Textbook of Astrology.
Astron´omy(from Gr.astron, a heavenly body, andnemein, to classify or arrange) is that science which investigates the motions, distances, magnitudes, and various phenomena of the heavenly bodies. The science may be divided into several branches.Descriptive astronomydenotes merely a presentation of astronomical facts in a systematic but popular form;practical astronomytreats of the instruments used in observing the celestial bodies, the methodsof their employment, and the manner of deducing results from the observations; investigation of the causes of the motions of these bodies was formerly termedphysical astronomy, but now generallydynamicalorgravitational astronomy;physical astronomyorastro-physicsis the comparatively modern branch which deals with their physical conditions, radiation, temperature, and chemical constitution. Recent years have added two new fields of investigation which are full of promise for the advancement of astronomical science. The first of these—celestial photography—has furnished us with invaluable light-pictures of the sun, moon, and other bodies, and has recorded the existence of myriads of stars invisible even to the best telescopes; while the second,spectrum analysis, now employed by many scientists, reveals to us a knowledge of the physical constituents of the universe, telling us for instance that in the sun (or his atmosphere) there exist many of the elements familiar to us on the earth. It is also applied to the determination of the velocities with which stars are approaching, or receding from, our system; and to the measurement of movements taking place within the solar atmospheric envelopes. From analysis of some of the unresolved nebulæ the inference is drawn that they are not star-swarms but simply incandescent gas; whence a second inference results favourable to the hypothesis of the gradual condensation of nebulæ, and the successive evolutions of suns and systems.
The most remote period to which we can go back in tracing the history of astronomy refers us to a time about 2500B.C., when the Chinese are said to have recorded the simultaneous conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Mercury, and the moon. This remarkable phenomenon is found, by calculating backward, to have taken place 2460B.C.Astronomy has also an undoubtedly high antiquity in India. The mean annual motion of Jupiter and Saturn was observed as early as 3062 yearsB.C.; tables of the sun, moon, and planets were formed, and eclipses calculated. In the time of Alexander the Great, the Chaldeans or Babylonians had carried on astronomical observations for 1900 years. They regarded comets as bodies travelling in extended orbits, and predicted their return; and there is reason to believe that they had correct ideas regarding the solar system. The priests of Egypt gave astronomy a religious character; but their knowledge of the science is testified to only by their ancient zodiacs and the position of their pyramids with relation to the cardinal points. It was among the Greeks that astronomy took a more scientific form. Thales of Miletus (born 639B.C.) predicted a solar eclipse, and his successors held opinions which are in many respects wonderfully in accordance with modern ideas. Pythagoras (500B.C.) and his followers formed theories of the planetary system. They taught the sphericity and revolution of the earth, but placed an imaginary 'Central Fire', not the sun itself, at the centre of the system. Great progress was made in astronomy under the Ptolemies, and we find Timochares and Aristyllus employed about 300B.C.in making useful planetary observations. But Aristarchus of Samos (born 267B.C.) is said, on the authority of Archimedes, to have far surpassed them, by teaching the double motion of the earth around its axis and around the sun. A hundred years later Hipparchus determined more exactly the length of the solar year, and the eccentricity of the ecliptic, discovered the precession of the equinoxes, and even undertook a catalogue of the stars. It was in the second century after Christ that Claudius Ptolemy, a famous mathematician of Pelusium in Egypt, propounded the system that bears his name, viz., that the earth was the centre of the universe, and that the sun, moon, and planets revolved around it in the following order: nearest to the earth was the sphere of the moon; then followed the spheres of Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn; then came the sphere of the fixed stars; these were succeeded by twocrystallinespheres and an outer sphere named theprimum mobileor first movable, which last was again circumscribed by thecœlum empyreum, of a cubic shape, wherein happy souls found their abode. The Arabs began to make scientific astronomical observations about the middle of the eighth century, and for 400 years they prosecuted the science with assiduity. Ibn-Yunis (A.D.1000) made important observations of the perturbations and eccentricities of Jupiter and Saturn. In the sixteenth century Nicolaus Copernicus, born in 1473, introduced the system that bears his name, and which recognized the sun's central place in the solar system, and that all the other bodies, the earth included, revolve around it. This arrangement of the universe (seeCopernicus) came at length to be generally received on account of the simplicity it substituted for the complexities and difficulties of the theory of Ptolemy. The observations and calculations of Tycho Brahe, a Danish astronomer, born in 1546, continued over many years, were of the highest value, and secured for him the title of regenerator of practical astronomy. His assistant and pupil, Kepler, born in 1571, was enabled, principally from the data provided by his master's labours, to arrive at those laws which have made his name famous: 1. That the planets move, not in circular, but in elliptical orbits, of which the sun occupies a focus. 2. That the radius vector, or imaginary straight line joining the sun and any planet, moves over equalspaces in equal times. 3. That the squares of the times of the revolutions of the planets are as the cubes of their mean distances from the sun. Galileo, who died in 1642, advanced the science by his observations and by the new revelations he made through his telescopes, which established the truth of the Copernican theory. Newton, born in 1642, carried physical astronomy suddenly to comparative perfection. Accepting Kepler's laws as a statement of the facts of planetary motion, he deduced from them his theory of gravitation. The science was enriched towards the close of the eighteenth century by the discovery by Herschel of the planet Uranus and its satellites, the resolution of the Milky Way into myriads of stars, and the investigation of nebulæ and of double and triple stars. The splendid analytical researches of Lalande, Lagrange, Delambre, and Laplace mark the same period. The nineteenth century opened with the discovery of the first four minor planets; and the existence of another planet (Neptune), more distant from the sun than Uranus, was, in 1845, independently predicted by Leverrier and Adams. Of late years the sun has attracted a number of observers, the spectroscope and photography having been especially fruitful in this field of investigation. By various methods the sun's mean distance has been ascertained within very small limits of error, and found to be nearly 93,000,000 miles. Many additions have been made to the known secondary planets or satellites, including some with retrograde motions. A vast number of asteroids has been discovered, and the width of the zone occupied by them found to be much more extensive. Much success has been achieved in ascertaining the parallax of fixed stars.
The objects with which astronomy has chiefly to deal are the earth, the sun, the moon, the planets, the fixed stars, comets, nebulæ, and meteors. The stellar universe is composed of an unknown host of stars, many millions in number. Those visible to the naked eye were in ancient times grouped into the constellations still recognized. The nebulæ are cloud-like patches of light scattered all over the heavens. Some of them have been resolved into star-clusters, but many of them are masses of incandescent gas. Of the so-called fixed stars, many form binary or multiple systems, the members revolving in orbits under each other's attractions, while other more scattered groups are moving clusters, travelling in parallel paths through space like flocks of birds. Variable stars and extinct or dark stars are also known. The fixed stars preserve, at least to unaided vision, an unalterable relation to each other, because of their vast distance from the earth. Their apparent movement from east to west is the result of the earth's revolution on its axis in twenty-four hours from west to east. The planets have not only an apparent, but also a real and proper motion, since, like our earth, they revolve around the sun in their several orbits and periods. The nearest of these bodies to the sun isMercury.Venus, the second planet from the sun, is to us the brightest and most beautiful of all the planets. TheEarthis the first planet accompanied by a satellite or moon.Mars, the next planet, has two satellites, discovered in 1877. Its surface has a variegated character, and the existence of land, water, snow, and ice has been inferred. TheAsteroids, of which over 1000 are known, form a broad zone of small bodies, at distances from a little beyond the earth's to that of Jupiter.Jupiter, the largest planet, has at least nine satellites, of which the two outermost have retrograde motion. Its surface is diversified by spots, markings, and bands parallel to its equator.Saturn, with its nine or more satellites and broad thin rings in its equatorial plane, is, perhaps, the most striking telescopic object in the heavens.Urănus—discovered by Herschel in 1781—is accompanied by four satellites.Neptune, the farthest removed from the sun, has one satellite, the motion of which is retrograde. Besides the planets, quite a number of comets are known to be members of the solar system. The physical constitution of these bodies is still one of the enigmas of astronomy. The observation of meteors has recently attracted much attention. They are seen in largest numbers in the autumn months. Meteor streams are supposed to represent the results of the disintegration of comets. Among the more modern astronomers we may mention: Gustav Kirchhoff, G. B. Donati, Christian Doppler, H. C. Vogel, Sir William Huggins, Simon Newcomb, and Sir David Gill. SeeEarth,Sun,Moon,Planet,Comet,Stars,Asteroids,Celestial Photography,Spectrography, &c.—BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. N. Lockyer,Dawn of Astronomy; Sir G. C. Lewis,Historical Survey of the Astronomy of the Ancients; Sir. F. W. Dyson,Astronomy; Sir R. Ball,Atlas, and Popular Guide to the Heavens; G. P. Serviss,Astronomy with an Opera-glass;The Pleasures of the Telescope; A. M. Clerke,History of Astronomy during the 19th Century, H. Macpherson,Romance of Modern Astronomy; C. A. Young,General Astronomy; G. F. Chambers,Handbook of Astronomy(3 vols.); E. W. Maunder,Astronomy of the Bible; A. C. D. Crommelin,The Star World; Agnes Giberne,Sun, Moon, and Stars(popular).
Astropalia, an island in the Ægean Sea. It was occupied during the Balkan war of 1912 by the Italians under Admiral Presbitero and General d'Ameglio.
Astrophysics.SeeSpectroscopy.
Astur.SeeGoshawk.
Astu´ria, orThe Asturias, a Spanish principality, now forming the province of Oviedo, on the north coast of Spain; an alpine region, with steep and jagged mountain ridges, valuable minerals, luxuriant grazing lands, and fertile well-watered valleys. The heir apparent of Spain has borne since 1388 the title of Prince of the Asturias. SeeSpain.
Asty´ages(-jēz), last king of the Medes, 593-558B.C., deposed by Cyrus, an event which transferred the supremacy from the Medes to the Persians.
Asuncion(a˙-su¨n-thē-on´), orNuestra Señora de la Asuncion(Eng.Assumption), the chief city of Paraguay, on the River Paraguay, picturesquely situated and with good public buildings. It was founded in 1537 on the feast of the Assumption. Its trade is mostly in the yerba tea, hides, tobacco, oranges, &c. It was taken and plundered by the Brazilians in 1869. A railway runs for a short distance into the interior. Pop. (1920), 99,836.
AswailAswail (Ursus labiātus)
As´wail, the native name for the sloth-bear (Ursus labiātus) of the mountains of India, an uncouth, unwieldy animal, with very long black hair, inoffensive when not attacked. Its usual diet consists of roots, bees'-nests, grubs, snails, ants, &c. Its flesh is in much favour as an article of food. When captured young it is easily tamed.
Asy´lum, a sanctuary or place of refuge, where criminals and debtors sheltered themselves from justice, and from which they could not be taken without sacrilege. Temples were anciently asylums, as were Christian churches in later times. (SeeSanctuary.) The term is now usually applied to an institution for receiving, maintaining, and, so far as possible, ameliorating the condition of persons labouring under certain bodily defects or mental maladies; sometimes also a refuge for the unfortunate.
Asylum, Right of.SeeExtradition.
Asymptote(as'im-tōt), in geometry, a line which is continually approaching a curve, but never meets it, however far either of them may be prolonged. This may be conceived as a tangent to a curve at an infinite distance. SeeConic Sections.
Asyn´deton, a figure of speech by which connecting words are omitted; as 'I came, I saw, I conquered', or Cicero's 'Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit'.
Atacama(a˙-ta˙-kä'ma˙), a desert region on the west coast of S. America belonging to Chile, partly in the province of Atacama, partly in the territory of Antofagasta. It mainly consists of a plateau extending from Copiapó northward to the River Loa, and lies between the Andes and the sea. It forms the chief nitrate district of Chile, there being also rich silver-mines, while gold is also found, as well as argentiferous lead, copper, nickel, cobalt, and iron; with guano on the coast. The northern portion belonged to Bolivia until 1904. The Chilian province of Atacama has an area of 30,711 sq. miles, and a pop. of 63,893.
Ataca´mite, a combination of the hydroxide and chloride of copper, occurring abundantly in some parts of South America, as at Atacama, whence it has its name. It is worked as an ore in South America, and is exported to England.
Atahual´pa, the last of the Incas, succeeded his father in 1529 on the throne of Quito, whilst his brother Huascar obtained the kingdom of Peru. They soon made war against each other, when the latter was defeated, and his kingdom fell into the hands of Atahualpa. The Spaniards, taking advantage of these internal disturbances, with Pizarro at their head invaded Peru, and advanced to Atahualpa's camp. Here, while Pizarro's priest was telling the Inca how the Pope had given Peru to the Spaniards, fire was opened on the unsuspecting Peruvians, Atahualpa was captured, and, despite the payment of a vast ransom in gold, was executed (1533).
Atalan´ta, in Greek mythology, a famous huntress of Arcadia. She was to be obtained in marriage only by him who could outstrip her in a race, the consequence of failure being death. One of her suitors obtained from Aphrodītē (Venus) three golden apples, which he threw behind him, one after another, as he ran. Atalanta stopped to pick them up, and was not unwillingly defeated. There was another Atalanta belonging to Bœotia, who cannot very well be distinguished, the same stories being told about both.
Ataman.SeeHetman.
At´avism(Lat.atăvus, an ancestor), in biology, the tendency to reproduce the ancestral type in animals or plants which have become considerably modified by breeding or cultivation; the reversion of a descendant to some peculiarity of a more or less remote ancestor. SeeMendelism,Natural Selection,Evolution,Heredity. The termatavismis also frequently used insociological literature, in the sense of reversion to more primitive types, as explanation of criminal instincts and pathological phenomena.
Ataxy, orAtaxia, in medicine, irregularity in the animal functions, or in the symptoms of a disease. SeeLocomotor Ataxy.
Atba´ra, the most northerly tributary of the Nile. It rises in the Abyssinian highlands, receives several large tributaries, and enters the Nile about 18°N.The town of Atbara is situated about 380 milesS.E.of Wadi Halfa. The battle of Atbara, between the British under Earl Kitchener (then Sir Herbert), and the followers of the Mahdi, was fought on 8th April, 1898.
Atchafalay´a('Lost Water'), a river of the United States, an outlet of the Red River which strikes off before the junction of that river with the Mississippi, flows southward, and enters the Gulf of Mexico by Atchafalaya Bay. Its length is about 225 miles.
Atcheen´.SeeAcheen.
Atch´ison, a city of Kansas, United States, on the Missouri, about 30 miles from Leavenworth, an important railway centre with an increasing trade. Pop. (1920), 12,630.
A´tē, among the Greeks, the goddess of hate, injustice, crime, and retribution, daughter of Zeus according to Homer, but of Ĕris (Strife) according to Hesiod.
At´eles, a genus of American monkeys. SeeSpider-monkey.
Ateliers Nationaux(a˙-tl-yā na˙-syo-nō), or national workshops, were established by the French Provisional Government in 1848. They interfered much with private trade, as about 100,000 workmen threw themselves on the Government for work. The breaking up of the system led to disorders, but it was abolished in July, 1848.
Atella´næ Fab´ulæ(called alsoOscan plays), a kind of light interlude, in ancient Rome, performed not by the regular actors, but by freeborn young Romans; it originated from the ancientAtella, a city of the Oscans. They were the origin of the Italiancommedie dell'arte. Cf. Munk,De Fabulis Atellanis.
Atesh´ga(the place of fire), a sacred place of the Guebres or Persian fire-worshippers, on the Peninsula of Apsheron, on the W. coast of the Caspian, visited by large numbers of pilgrims, who bow before the sacred flames which issue from the bituminous soil.
Ath(ät), a fortified town of Belgium, in the province of Hainaut, on the Dender; it carries on weaving, dyeing, and printing cottons. It was the scene of fighting in Nov., 1918. Pop. 11,108.
Athabas´ca, a river and lake of Canada. The river rises on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains not far from Mount Hooker, in the province of Alberta, flowsN.E.andN., and falls into Lake Athabasca after a course of about 600 miles.—Lake Athabasca, or Lake of the Hills, is about 190 milesS.S.E.of the Great Slave Lake, to which its waters are carried by means of the Slave River. It is about 200 miles in length from east to west, and 35 miles wide where widest, but narrows to a point at either extremity.—The former district ofAthabasca, in 1905 divided between the two new provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan, had British Columbia on the west, Keewatin on the east, Alberta and Saskatchewan districts on the south, the parallel of 60° on the north, being crossed by the Athabasca and the Peace Rivers. Lake Athabasca is partly in Alberta, partly in Saskatchewan.
Athali´ah, daughter of Ahab, King of Israel, and wife of Joram, King of Judah. After the death of her son Ahaziah, she opened her way to the throne by the murder of forty-two princes of the royal blood. She reigned six years; in the seventh the high-priest Jehoiada placed Joash, the young son of Ahaziah, who had been secretly preserved, on the throne of his father, and Athaliah was slain. Cf. 2Kings, xi. The story of Athaliah supplied Racine with the plot of one of his most famous tragedies.
Athana´sian Creed, a creed or exposition of Christian faith, supposed formerly to have been drawn up by St. Athanasius, though this opinion is now generally rejected, and the composition often ascribed to Hilary, Bishop of Arles (about 430). It is an explicit avowal of the doctrines of the Trinity (as opposed to Arianism, of which Athanasius was a great opponent) and of the incarnation, and contains what are known as the 'damnatory clauses', in which it declares that damnation must be the lot of those who do not believe the true and catholic faith. It is contained in theBook of Common Prayer, to be read on certain occasions.—BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. J. A. Hort,Two Dissertations; G. D. W. Ommanney,Critical Dissertation on the Athanasian Creed; J. A. Robinson,The Athanasian Creed; E. C. S. Gibson,The Three Creeds; R. O. P. Taylor,Athanasian Creed in the Twentieth Century.
Athana´sius, St., Archbishop of Alexandria, a renowned father of the Church, born in that city aboutA.D.296, died 373. While yet a young man he attended the Council at Nice (325), where he gained the highest esteem of the fathers by the talents which he displayed in the Arian controversy. He had a great share in the decrees passed here, and thereby drew on himself the hatred of the Arians. Shortly afterwards he was appointed Archbishop of Alexandria. The complaints and accusations of his enemies at length induced the Emperor Constantine to summon him in 334 before the Councils of Tyre and Jerusalem, when he was suspended, andafterwards banished to Trèves. The death of Constantine put an end to this banishment, and Constantius recalled the holy patriarch. His return to Alexandria resembled a triumph. Deposed again in 340, he was reinstated in 342. Again in 355 he was sentenced to be banished, when he retired into those parts of the desert which were entirely uninhabited. He was followed by a faithful servant, who, at the risk of his life, supplied him with the means of subsistence. Here Athanasius composed many writings, full of eloquence, to strengthen the faith of the believers, or expose the falsehood of his enemies. When Julian the Apostate ascended the throne, toleration was proclaimed to all religions, and Athanasius returned to his former position at Alexandria. His next controversy was with the heathen subjects of Julian, who excited the emperor against him, and he was obliged to flee in order to save his life. The death of the emperor and the accession of Jovian (363) again brought him back; but Valens becoming emperor, and the Arians recovering the superiority, he was once more compelled to flee. He concealed himself in the tomb of his father, where he remained four months, until Valens allowed him to return. From this period he remained undisturbed in his office till he died. Of the forty-six years of his official life he spent twenty in banishment, and the greater part of the remainder in defending the Nicene Creed. Athanasius was not so much a speculative theologian as a great Christian pastor (cf. L. Duchesne,Histoire ancienne. de l'Église, 1907). His writings, which are in Greek, are on polemical, historical, and moral subjects. The polemical treat chiefly of the doctrines of the Trinity, the incarnation of Christ, and the divinity of the Holy Spirit. The historical ones are of the greatest importance for the history of the Church. SeeAthanasian Creed.
A´theism(Gr.a, priv., andTheos, God), the disbelief of the existence of a God or supreme intelligent being; the doctrine opposed totheismordeism. The term has been often loosely used as equivalent withinfidelitygenerally, with deism, with pantheism, and with the denial of immortality. The most famous exponents of atheism were La Mettrie, Holbach, Feuerbach, and Carl Vogt; whilst Comte and Haeckel have put forward systems of thought essentially atheistic.—BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. Flint,Anti-theistic Theories; J. S. Blackie,Natural History of Atheism; F. A. Lange,History of Materialism.
Ath´eling, a title of honour among the Anglo-Saxons, meaning one who is of noble blood. The title was gradually confined to the princes of the blood royal, and in the ninth and tenth centuries was used exclusively for the sons or brothers of the reigning king.
Atheling, Edgar. SeeEdgar Atheling.
Ath´elney, formerly an island in the midst of fens and marshes, now drained and cultivated in Somersetshire, England, about 7 miles southeast of Bridgwater. Alfred the Great took refuge in it during a Danish invasion, and afterwards founded an abbey there.
Ath´elstan, King of England, born 895, died 941, succeeded his father, Edward the Elder, in 925. He was victorious in his wars with the Danes of Northumberland, and the Scots, by whom they were assisted. After a signal overthrow of his enemies at Brunanburgh he governed in peace and with great ability.
Athē´na, orAthēnē, a Greek goddess, identified by the Romans with Minerva, the representative of the intellectual powers; the daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) and Mētis (that is, wisdom or cleverness). According to the legend, before her birth Zeus swallowed her mother, and Athena afterwards sprang from the head of Zeus with a mighty war shout and in complete armour. In her character of a wise and prudent warrior she was contrasted with the fierce Ares (Mars). In the wars of the giants she slew Pallas and Enceladus. In the wars of the mortals she aided and protected heroes. She is also represented as the patroness of the arts of peace. The sculptor, the architect, and the painter, as well as the philosopher, the orator, and the poet, considered her their tutelar deity. She is also represented among the healing gods. In all these representations she is the symbol of the thinking faculty, the goddess of wisdom, science, and art; the latter, however, only in so far as invention and thought are comprehended. In the images of the goddess a manly gravity and an air of reflection are united with female beauty in her features. As a warrior she is represented completely armed, her head covered with a gold helmet. As the goddess of peaceful art she appears in the dress of a Grecian matron. To her insignia belong the Ægis, the Gorgon's head, the round Argive buckler; and the owl, the cock, the serpent, an olive branch, and a lance were sacred to her. All Attica, but particularly Athens, was sacred to her, and she had numerous temples there. Her most brilliant festival at Athens was the Panathenæa.
Athenæ´um, the temple of Athena or Minerva, at Athens, frequented by poets, learned men, and orators. The same name was given at Rome to the school which Hadrian established on the Capitoline Mount for the promotion of literary and scientific studies. In modern times the same name is given to literary clubs and establishments connected with the sciences. It is also the title of several literary periodicals.
Athenæ´us, a Greek rhetorician and grammarian, who lived at the end of the second andbeginning of the third century after Christ, author of an encyclopædic work, in the form of conversation, calledThe Professors at the Dinner-table(Deipnosophistæ), which is a rich but ill-arranged treasure of historical, antiquarian, philosophical, grammatical, &c., knowledge.
Athenag´oras, a Platonic philosopher of Athens, a convert to Christianity, who wrote a GreekApology for the Christians, addressed to the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, in 177, one of the earliest that appeared.
Ath´ens(Gr.Athēnai, Lat.Athēnæ), anciently the capital of Attica and centre of Greek culture, now the capital of the kingdom of Greece. It is situated in the central plain of Attica, about 4 miles from the Saronic Gulf or Gulf of Ægina, an arm of the Ægean Sea running in between the mainland and the Peloponnesus. It is said to have been founded about 1550B.C.by Cecrops, the mythical Pelasgian hero, and to have borne the name Cecropia until under Erechtheus it received the name of Athens in honour of Athēnē. The Acropolis, an irregular oval crag 150 feet high, with a level summit 1000 feet long by 500 in breadth, was the original nucleus of the city, which, according to tradition, was extended by Theseus when Athens became the head of the confederate Attic States. The three chief eminences near the Acropolis—the Areopagus to the north-west, the Pnyx to the south-west, and the Museum to the south of the Pnyx—were thus included within the city boundary as the sites of its chief public buildings, the city itself, however, afterwards taking a northerly direction. On the east ran the Ilissus and on the west the Cephissus, while to the south-west lay three harbours—Phalerum, the oldest and nearest; the Piræus, the most important; and Munychia, the Piræan Acropolis. At the height of its prosperity the city was connected with its harbours by three massive walls (the 'long walls'). The architectural development of Athens may be dated from the rule of the Pisistratids (560-510B.C.), who are credited with the foundation of the huge temple of the Olympian Zeus, completed by Hadrian seven centuries later, the erection of the Pythium or temple of the Pythian Apollo, and of the Lyceum or temple of Apollo Lyceus—all near the Ilissus; and to whom were due the enclosure of the Academy, a gymnasium and gardens to the north of the city, and the building of the Agora with its Portico or Stoa, Bouleuterium or Senate-house, Tholus, and Prytaneum. With the foundation of Athenian democracy under Clisthenes, the Pnyx or place of public assembly, with its semicircular area and cyclopean wall, first became of importance, and a commencement was made of the Dionysiac theatre (theatre of Dionysus or Bacchus) on the south side of the Acropolis. After the destruction wrought by the Persians in 480B.C., Themistocles reconstructed the city upon practical lines and with a larger area, enclosing the city in new walls 7½ miles in circumference, erecting the north wall of the Acropolis, and developing the maritime resources of the Piræus; while Cimon added to the southern fortifications of the Acropolis, placed on it the temple of Wingless Victory, planted the Agora with trees, laid out the Academy, and built the Theseum on an eminence north of the Areopagus; his brother-in-law, Peisianax, erected the famous Stoa Poecilē, a hall with walls covered with paintings (whence theStoicsgot their name). Under Pericles the highest point of artistic development was reached. An Odeum was erected on the east of the Dionysiac theatre for the recitations of rhapsodists and musicians; and with the aid of the architects Ictīnus, Callicrates, and Mnesicles, and of the sculptor Phidias, the Acropolis was perfected. Covering the whole of the western end rose the Propylæa, the splendid structure through which the Acropolis was entered, constructed of Pentelic marble and consisting of a central gateway portico with two wings in the form of Doric temples. Just outside the Propylæa was the small temple of Wingless Victory. A short distance within the entrance stood the bronze statue of Athena Promachus, a colossal work of Phidias, 66 feet high, showing the goddess in complete armour and leaning on a lance. Beyond it to the left was the Erechtheum, the shrine of Athena Polias, guardian of the city, containing a very ancient and sacred statue of Athena in olive-wood; while to the right, on the highest part of the Acropolis, was the marble Parthenon or temple of Athena, the crowning glory of the whole. This renowned structure, still glorious in its ruins, was built under the auspices of Pericles, Phidias being the sculptor and artistic adviser, and Ictīnus and Callicrates the architects. It is in the Doric style, and among its numerous sculptures were fifty life-size statues, while in the interior was a chryselephantine (gold and ivory) figure of the goddess, 39 feet high. (SeeParthenon.) Minor statues and shrines occupied the rest of the area of the Acropolis, which was for the time wholly appropriated to the worship of the guardian deities of the city. The Acropolis museum, a building of recent date, contains an interesting and valuable collection of works of art found here. In the interval between the close of the Peloponnesian War and the battle of Chæronea few additions were made to the city. But the long walls and Piræus, destroyed by Lysander, were restored by Conon, and under the orator Lycurgus the Dionysiac temple was completed, the Panathenaic stadium commenced, and the choragic monuments of Lysicrates and Thrasylluserected. Later on Ptolemy Philadelphus gave Athens the Ptolemæum near the Theseum, Attalus I the stoa north-east of the Agora, Eumenes II that near the great theatre, and Antiochus Epiphanes carried on the Olympieum. Under the Romans it continued a flourishing city, Hadrian in the second century adorning it with many new buildings, and constructing an aqueduct, finished by his son Antoninus Pius. At this time also a wealthy citizen, Herodes Atticus, did much to beautify the city, and in particular constructed an Odeum, the ruins of which are still conspicuous. Indeed Athens was at no time more splendid than under the Antonines, when Pausanias visited and described it. But after a time Christian zeal, the attacks of barbarians, and robberies of collectors made sad inroads among the monuments. AboutA.D.420 paganism was totally annihilated at Athens, and when Justinian closed even the schools of the philosophers, the reverence for buildings associated with the names of the ancient deities and heroes was lost. The Parthenon was turned into a church of the Virgin Mary, and St. George stepped into the place of Theseus. Finally, in 1456, the place fell into the hands of the Turks. The Parthenon became a mosque, and in 1687 was greatly damaged by an explosion at the siege of Athens by the Venetians. Enough, however, remains of it and of the neighbouring structures to attest the splendour of the Acropolis; while of the other buildings of the city, the Theseum, or temple of Theseus, and the Horologium, or temple of the Winds, are admirably preserved, as are also structures belonging to the Pnyx, Panathenaic stadium (restored and again used for games), &c. The Theseum, indeed, is said to be the best preserved building of all ancient Greece, and is hardly less imposing than the Parthenon. Of more than a hundred columns that belonged to the Olympieum or temple of the Olympian Zeus, completed by Hadrian, only fifteen are still standing. Soon after the commencement of the war of liberation in 1821 the Turks surrendered Athens, but captured it again in 1826-7. The Great Powers now intervened to bring about the independence of Greece. The Turks evacuated Athens in 1833, and the troops of King Otho then entered the city. In 1835 it became the royal residence, and it soon began to make rapid progress, though its natural position is by no means advantageous. The modern city mostly lies north, north-east, and north-west of the Acropolis, and consists mainly of straight and well-built streets. Among the principal buildings are the royal palace, a stately building with a façade of Pentelic marble (completed 1843), the university, the academy of science, national museum of archaeology, public library, exhibition building, polytechnic institute, theatre, and observatory. There are two universities, the National University, opened in 1836, and the Capodistrian University with 3250 students. There are valuable museums, in particular the National Museum and that in the Polytechnic School, which contains the Schliemann collection, &c. These are constantly being added to by excavations. There are four foreign archæological schools or institutes, the French, German, American, and British. The Zappeion or exhibition building is a handsome structure, erected at the expense of the brothers Zappas to exhibit Greek industries. Tramways have been made in the principal streets, and the city is connected by tramway and railway (6 miles) with its port, the Piræus. Athens has also railway connection with the north and west of the kingdom as well as with the Peloponnesus. The Piræus is the chief Greek centre of trade and industry. Water is brought from Mount Pentelicus on the north-east, the aqueduct begun by Hadrian being utilized in supplying the city. Pop. 167,479, and including the Piræus 241,058.—BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. A. Gardner,Ancient Athens; J. E. Harrison,Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens; W. Warde Fowler,The City-State, chapter vi; W. M. Leake,Topography of Athens and the Demi; C. H. Weller,Athens and its Monuments.
Athens, the name of many places in the United States, the chief being in Georgia, and containing the Georgia University and the State college of agriculture. It carries on the cotton manufacture, has manufactures of agricultural implements, &c., and is a centre of trade. It was founded in 1801. Pop. 14,913.
Ath´erine(Atherīna), the name of a genus of small fishes abundant in the Mediterranean and caught in British waters, especially on the coasts of the south of England, some of them being highly esteemed as food. They are also known asSand-smelts. There are two British species.
Athero´ma, in pathology, a term applied to a change that may take place in the inner coat of an artery, consisting in a kind of fatty degeneration, leading to an aneurism or bursting. Also an encysted tumour containing matter of a curdy appearance.
Ath´erstone, a town in Warwickshire, England, 8 milesS.E.of Tamworth, and equidistant (100 miles) from London, Liverpool, and Lincoln. It has manufactures of hats, and is the reputed birthplace of the poet Drayton. Pop. (1921), 20,849 (rural district).
Ath´erton, town of England, Lancashire, 13 miles north-west of Manchester; cotton-factories, collieries, and ironworks give chief employment to the inhabitants. Pop. (1921), 19,863.
Athletes(ath´lēts; Gr.athlētai, fromathlos, a contest,athlon, a prize), originally, in ancientGreece, combatants who took part and contended for a prize (athlon) in the public games. The profession was an honourable one; tests of birth, position, and character were imposed, and crowns, statues, special privileges, and pensions were among the rewards of success. (SeeGames.) The word is used in a similar sense at the present day, but is more especially applied to persons who can exhibit feats of strength. Games and athletic competitions, if they do not hold such an honourable position to-day as they did in antiquity, are still practised with great enthusiasm and excite the keenest interest in their patrons.
Athletic Sports, a general name for certain physical exercises demanding a special natural ability, and embodying a variety of events which conventionally include not only running and jumping but such feats of strength as putting the weight and throwing the hammer. The selection of these events at any athletic meeting is a somewhat arbitrary one, and the inclusion of those which require strength and skill rather than speed and agility rests more on a traditional than a logical basis. A particular feature which distinguishes these exercises as athletic sports is the presence of the idea of competition; thus running and walking, as isolated exercises, can be called 'sports' only when men compete against one another, although the factor of competition may be only indirectly present, as when an athlete endeavours to beat a record.
In this country athletic sports have long been a national characteristic, and records, more or less authentic, have been handed down for the last hundred years or more. Until comparatively recently, such sports have been the prerogative of the British Isles; but during the last thirty years the United States have adopted them with enormous enthusiasm and success, and more recently still the vogue has extended throughout the Continent, and good results have been obtained by representatives from France, Germany, Italy, Austria, Sweden, and Finland, as well as from all the Colonies. In this country no school, no matter how small or how humble its pretensions, fails to hold its athletic meeting annually. The same applies to all colleges of the leading universities, Oxford and Cambridge, the best representatives of which compete against one another, whilst the smaller universities hold similar competitions. In addition, a large number of clubs are in existence throughout the country for the promotion and encouragement of sports, the whole system of athletics being under the Amateur Athletic Association (founded in 1880), whose rules and regulations for the correct maintenance of athletics in the best interests of amateurism are regarded as a standard throughout the world. Under its auspices an annual meeting—the Amateur Championships—is held. This meeting is open to the whole world, and many of the championships have been held at one time or another by distinguished visitors from America, the Colonies, and the Continent. At the time of writing, the association is considering the project of holding two distinct annual meetings, one of which shall, as hitherto, be unrestricted, the other confined to residents in the British Isles. This, which is the most important meeting of the year, has taken place uninterruptedly since its origin in 1866 with the exception of the military interval, 1915-8, and has been successfully resumed in 1919. For the past fourteen or fifteen years the meeting has been held in London on the first Saturday in July, and this practice will probably be a permanent one, although hitherto the venue was, in rotation, London, the Midlands, and the North. The university and inter-university meetings are held before Easter, the former at the respective university towns, the latter at Queen's Club, London. Among other important representative contests may be mentioned the Public Schools' Championships (usually in April), the United Hospitals' Championships, the Irish, the Scottish, the Welsh, the Midland and the Northern Counties' Championships. During the war, athletics were practically restricted to the services, and the Army Athletic Championships, held in Aug., 1919, was a successful reunion of soldier athletes from the various theatres of war, and included, for the first time in history, coloured troops.
The standard inter-university meeting comprises ten events, namely, flat races—100 yards, ¼ mile, ½ mile, 1 mile, and 3 miles; 120-yards hurdle race; the high jump and long jump; putting the weight and throwing the hammer. These events appear in the programme of the Amateur Championship meeting, with the substitution of a 4-miles race for the 3 miles, and the addition of a 220-yards race, a 2-miles walking race, a 2-miles steeplechase (representing a miniature cross-country event), and the pole jump. A relay race, in which four representatives from each club run half a mile, a quarter of a mile, 220 yards, and 220 yards respectively, is also included as a standard event; whilst at the 1919 meeting a race of 440 yards over hurdles appeared for the first time, and will probably occupy a permanent place in the programme. Two additional Amateur Championship events, 7-miles walk and 10-miles flat race, are usually held at a separate meeting in the spring.
In addition to the preceding British meetings, a great International contest, the Olympic Games, is held every four years in a country selected by the Olympic committee. This meeting is truly international, the last before 1914having taken place at Stockholm in 1912, when representatives from the most distant parts of the world competed with representatives from every country in Europe in a remarkably elaborate programme, which included, in addition to the preceding, such feats as throwing the javelin and the discus, and the classic 'Marathon race' over the traditional distance of 26¼ miles. The 1920 Olympic meeting was arranged to take place at Antwerp.
Although many excellently arranged athletic sports are held successfully upon a grass course, at any important meeting the races are contested upon a properly-constructed cinder-path, a quarter or a third of a mile in length, and in shape an oval flattened on two sides so as to include as much straight as possible. The width of the running path is variable, but 18 to 24 feet may be regarded as an average. The centre is of grass, and spaces are prepared for the hurdle race, for the jumps, and the other events which are described as thefield, as opposed totrack, events.
Flat races are classified as 'sprint races', 'middle distance' and 'long distance' races, although the distinction between these is somewhat arbitrary. Whether or no a man is actually capable of running the whole distance in question at full speed, the term 'sprint' is applied to those distances in which an attempt is made to put forth a continuous maximum effort. The limit is, by general consent, fixed at 300 yards. At any good meeting the 100-yards race will be run in 10 seconds; at the very best meeting this time will be beaten; and many runners have been credited with 94/5seconds, a few, under exceptional conditions, with 93/5seconds. The record for 220 yards is 211/5seconds. Middle-distance running includes races from a quarter mile to a mile, and races are held at 440 yards, 600 yards, 880 yards, 1000 yards, 1 mile, and very occasionally at ¾ mile. With modern specialization, however, it is rare to find any one runner capable of supremacy at more than one of these distances. The ¼ mile is the common ground for the sprinter and the middle-distance runner, and 48 seconds has been beaten on several occasions, although it may be said that anything inside 50 seconds is a first-class performance. The record for 600 yards is 1 minute 11 seconds. The ½-mile race has demonstrated latterly, perhaps, the greatest advance of all; and whilst anything under 2 minutes may still be regarded as a good performance, a championship event will most always be won in 3 or 4 seconds faster time; whilst at an Olympic meeting the wonderful record of 1 minute 52½ seconds has been made. The mile, which was originally regarded as a long-distance event, is now legitimately considered as within the capacity of a middle-distance runner. At any first-class meeting 4 minutes 20 seconds will be accomplished, and any diminution of this time may be regarded as of superlative merit. The record, which has stood since 1886, is 4 minutes 12¾ seconds, although a recent performance in America, which is a tiny fraction of a second faster, has yet to be passed. Over 1 mile, long-distance running begins, and, as considerable staying-power is required, it is not unusual to find one man prove champion at 4 miles and 10 miles, and even the 1-mile race in the same year. No runner has yet achieved the capacity of running 12 miles within the hour, although two or three have been within a few hundred yards of this distance. About ten years ago the fashion became a craze of contesting 'Marathon races' in which all sorts of distances, quite independent of the classic 26¼ miles, were employed. At rare intervals very long-distance running, such as 50 miles, is indulged in. For any distance over 20 miles a special form of endurance is called for, rather than orthodox running in good style. As a competition 'walking' is an unsatisfactory exercise, because of the extreme difficulty in deciding when the athlete is still fulfilling the orthodox regulation as to what constitutes fair 'heel and toe', inasmuch as the style of a man who is ostensibly walking, yet actually progressing at a rate faster than 9 miles an hour (faster than the average untrained person can run), is exceedingly difficult to analyse. About fifteen years ago long-distance walking became exceedingly popular, and hundreds of competitors attempted the classic walk to Brighton and back.
The usual hurdle race is over 120 yards, with ten flights of hurdles 10 yards apart, so that a distance of 15 yards separates the start from the first flight, and the same distance the last flight from the finish. The hurdles are 3½ feet high, with perfectly-level top rails. In correct 'hurdling' the 'three-stride method' is essential, that is to say, three strides are taken on the flat between the hurdles, and the athlete rises 6 feet from the obstacle, taking it in his stride, so that retardation of speed is reduced to a minimum. The skill and accuracy of an accomplished hurdler is remarkable, and the race is frequently run inside 16 seconds; a record of 15 seconds, and even a trifle less, has been accomplished.
In this country, running long jump and high jump (and to a less extent the pole jump) alone are practised to any extent, although as occasional events the standing high and long jumps are contested, and, still less frequently, the old-fashioned hop, step, and jump. In the long jump the athlete employs all the impetus he can acquire by a sprint of about 30 yards. The ideal aimed at is to run at the fastest speed which isconsistent with reaching the taking-off board with accuracy, and then to leap as high as possible. A fraction of an inch under 25 feet has been cleared on two occasions, although it may be said that anything over 24 feet is exceptional, and that any jumper capable of 23 feet consistently has a good chance to win an Amateur Championship. The high jump requires skill of a very peculiar character. Whilst the novice regards this feat as dependent on momentum, and takes a correspondingly long run to acquire speed, the crack performer employs his capacity of manipulating his body and limbs so as to cross the bar in a horizontal position. In this way the prodigious height of 6 feet 7 inches has been cleared. In general it may be said that first-class jumping begins at 6 feet.
Pole jumping, a particularly pretty event to watch, has never been practised to any great extent in this country, and, in fact, does not even appear to be so popular here as twenty years ago. The pole employed is of light but strong bamboo about 14 feet long, with a sharp ferrule at one end, which is stuck firmly into the ground. By the help of the pole, which is firmly grasped near the other end, the jumper elevates himself to the bar, over which he throws his legs and his body, finally relinquishing his hold of the pole, to fall on the opposite side. Recent years have witnessed the development of great skill in this event, particularly by the Americans, Canadians, and Swedes, and 13 feet has been cleared.
The weight or shot is an iron ball weighing 16 lb., which must be put with one hand only from the shoulder within a circle of 7 feet diameter. Although great strength is essential, skill in utilizing the whole of the body plays a very important part. Over 50 feet has been put on several occasions.
The 'hammer' is a ball of lead or iron attached by a wire to a handle. The total length must not exceed four feet; the weight of the whole must be at least 16 lb. The performer grasps the handle with one or both hands, and, standing within a 7-foot circle, swings the ball round and round to acquire impetus, which is then increased by rapid rotatory movements of his body. Once again skill and co-ordination must be wedded to strength. A crack performer has thrown over 175 feet.
Throwing the javelin and discus are classical rather than popular events, and their cultivation is fashionable only when an Olympic contest is imminent. Among other 'strong-men' contests, which have long been favourite sports in Scotland, are tossing thecaberand putting the stone. The latter is usually a very heavy implement weighing about 56 lb.; the 'caber' is the trunk of a fir or other tree, freed from branches, which is held upright close to the chest by the smaller end, and thrown so as to alight on the heavier end.—Bibliography:Encyclopædia of Sports and Games;Annual Sporting and Athletic Register; F. A. M. Webster,The Evolution of the Olympic Games, 1829B.C.-A.D.1914; G. Le Roy,Athlétisme; E. W. Hjertberg,Athletics in Theory and Practice; P. Withington,The Book of Athletics.
Athlone´, a town of Ireland, divided by the Shannon into two parts, one in Westmeath, the other in Roscommon; about 76 miles west of Dublin. Its position has made it one of the chief military depots, and a centre of trade by river, canal, and railway. It manufactures woollen goods, linens, &c. Up to 1885 it sent one member to Parliament. Pop. 7500.
Ath´oll, orAthole, a mountainous and romantic district in the north of Perthshire, Scotland, giving the title to a duke of the Murray family who owns a large area there.
Athor,Hathor, orHet-her, an Egyptian goddess, identified with Aphrodītē or Venus. Her symbol was the cow bearing on its head the solar disc and hawk-feather plumes. Her chief temple was at Denderah. From her the third month of the Egyptian year derived its name.
A´thos(nowHagion OrosorMonte Santo, that is, Holy Mountain), a mountain 6700 feet high, terminating the most eastern of the three peninsulas of Macedonia that jut in parallel directions into the Archipelago. The name, however, is frequently applied to the whole peninsula, which is about 30 miles long by 5 broad. It is covered with forests, and plantations of olive, vine, and other fruit-trees. Both the surface and coast-line are irregular. The Persian fleet under Mardonius was wrecked here in 493B.C., and to avoid a similar calamity Xerxes caused a canal, of which traces may yet be seen, to be cut through the isthmus that joins the peninsula to the mainland. On the peninsula there are situated about twenty monasteries and a multitude of hermitages, which contain from 6000 to 8000 monks and hermits of the order of St. Basil. The libraries of the monasteries are rich in literary treasures and manuscripts. Every nation belonging to the Greek Church has here one or more monasteries of its own, which are annually visited by pilgrims. After having passed in the fifteenth century from the sovereignty of the Greek Emperors of Byzantium to that of the Sultans, it fell again into the hands of the Greeks, who occupied it in Nov., 1912. Each of the twenty monasteries is a little republic in itself, and until 1912 they used to pay an annual tribute of nearly £4000 to the Turks, and were governed by a synod of twenty monastic deputies and four presidents meeting weekly. They are now ruled either by abbots chosen for life, or by a board of overseers elected for a certain number of years. The revenue of the community is derived frompilgrims, and from a considerable trade in amulets, rosaries, crucifixes, images, and wooden furniture.