AnnattoAnnatto (Bixa Orellāna)
Annat´to, orAnnato, an orange-red colouring matter, obtained from the pulp surrounding the seeds ofBixa Orellāna, a shrub native to tropical America, and cultivated in Guiana, St. Domingo, and the East Indies. It is sometimes used as a dye for silk and cotton goods, though it does not produce a very durable colour, but it is much used in medicine for tinging plasters and ointments, and to a considerable extent by farmers for giving a rich colour to milk, butter, and cheese. The colour given by annatto approaches verynearly the natural colouring matter of milk fat. It is guaranteed to preserve the same colour throughout the year, and is considered to be a legitimate colouring matter.
Anne, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland was born at Twickenham, near London, 6th Feb., 1664. She was the second daughter of James II, then Duke of York, and Anne, his wife, daughter of the Earl of Clarendon. With her father's permission she was educated according to the principles of the English Church. In 1683 she was married to Prince George, brother of King Christian V of Denmark. On the arrival of the Prince of Orange in 1688, Anne wished to remain with her father; but she was prevailed upon by Lord Churchill (afterwards Duke of Marlborough) and his wife to join the triumphant party. After the death of William III in 1702 she ascended the English throne. Her character was essentially weak, and she was governed first by Marlborough and his wife, and afterwards by Mrs. Masham. Most of the principal events of her reign are connected with the war of the Spanish Succession. The only important acquisition that England made by it was Gibraltar, which was captured in 1704. Another very important event of this reign was the union of England and Scotland under the name of Great Britain, which was accomplished in 1707. Anne seems to have long cherished the wish of securing the succession to her brother James, but this was frustrated by the internal dissensions of the cabinet. Grieved at the disappointment of her secret wishes, she fell into a state of weakness and lethargy, and died, 20th July, 1714. The reign of Anne was distinguished not only by the brilliant successes of the British arms, but also on account of the number of admirable and excellent writers who flourished at this time, among whom were Pope, Swift, and Addison. Anne bore her husband many children, all of whom died in infancy, except one son, the Duke of Gloucester, who died at the age of twelve.
Anne(of Austria), daughter of Philip III of Spain, was born at Madrid in 1602, and in 1615 was married to Louis XIII of France. Richelieu, fearing the influence of her foreign connections, did everything he could to humble her. In 1643 her husband died, and she was left regent, but placed under the control of a council. But the Parliament overthrew this arrangement, and entrusted her with full sovereign rights during the minority of her son Louis XIV. Having brought upon herself the hatred of the nobles by her boundless confidence in Cardinal Mazarin, she was forced to flee from Paris during the wars of the Fronde. She ultimately quelled all opposition, and was able in 1661 to transmit to her son unimpaired the royal authority. She spent the remainder of her life in retirement, and died 20th Jan., 1666.
Annealing(an-ēl´ing), a process to which many articles of metal and glass are subjected after making, in order to render them more tenacious and which consists in heating them and allowing them to cool slowly. When the metals are worked by the hammer, or rolled into plates, or drawn into wire, they acquire a certain amount of brittleness, which destroys their usefulness, and has to be remedied by annealing. The tempering of steel is one kind of annealing. Annealing is particularly employed in glass-houses, and consists in putting the glass vessels, as soon as they are formed and while they are yet hot, into a furnace or oven, in which they are suffered to cool gradually. The toughness is greatly increased by cooling the articles in oil.
Annecy(a˙n-sē), an ancient town in France, department of Haute-Savoie, situated on the Lake of Annecy, 21 miles s. of Geneva; contains a cathedral and a ruinous old castle once the residence of the counts of Genevois; manufactures of cotton, leather, paper, and hardware. Pop. 15,622.—The lake is about 9 miles long and 2 broad.
LobwormLobworm (one of the Annelida)
Annel´ida, orAnnulata, an extensive division or class of Annulosa or articulate animals, so called because their bodies are formed of a great number of small rings, the outward signs of internal segmentation. The earth-worm, the lobworm, the nereis, and the leech belong to this division. They have red, rarely yellow or green, blood circulating in a double system of contractile vessels, a double ganglionated nervous cord, and respire by external branchiæ, internal vesicles, or by the skin. Their organs of motion consist of bristles orsetæ, which are usually attached to the lateral surfaces of each segment, the bristles being borne on 'foot processes' orparapodia. The number of body segments varies. As many as 400 may be found in some sea-worms. A complete digestive system is developed, consisting of a mouth—armed with horny jaws and a protrusible proboscis—gizzard, stomach, and intestine. SeeEarth-worm,Leech, &c.
Annexation, a term applied to the acquisition by a State of territory previously belonging to another Power, or independent. It is applicable not only to the extension of a State's sovereigntyover adjoining territory, but also to an acquisition of a remote territory. The inhabitants of the annexed territory are absolved from their allegiance to their former sovereign. Such annexations in modern history were those of Alsace-Lorraine by Germany in 1871, of California by the United States, of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria in 1908, and of the Boer Republics by Great Britain.
Annfield Plain, a straggling colliery town (urban district) of England, Durham, about 7 miles south-west of Gateshead. Pop. (1921), 16,524.
Annobon´, orAnnobom, a beautiful Spanish island of Western Africa, south of the Bight of Biafra, about 4 miles long by 2 miles broad, and rising abruptly to the height of 3000 feet, richly covered with vegetation. Pop. 2000.
Annonay(a˙n-o-nā), a town in southern France, department of Ardèche, 37 milesS.S.W.of Lyons, in a picturesque situation. It is the most important town of Ardèche, manufacturing paper and glove leather to a large extent, also cloth, felt, silk stuffs, gloves, hosiery, chemical manures, glue, gelatine, brushes, chocolate, and candles. There is an obelisk in memory of Joseph Montgolfier of balloon fame. Pop. 16,660.
An´nual, in botany, a plant that springs from seed, grows up, produces seed, and then dies, all within a single year or season. Among annual grasses may be noted all our cereals, barley, wheat, rye, and oats.
An´nual, in literature, the name given to a class of publications which at one time enjoyed an immense yearly circulation, and were distinguished by great magnificence both of binding and illustration, which rendered them much sought after as Christmas and New Year presents. Their contents were chiefly prose tales and ballads, lyrics, and other poetry. The earliest was theForget-me-not, started in 1822, and followed next year by theFriendship's Offering. TheLiterary Souvenirwas commenced in 1824, and theKeepsakein 1827. Among the names of the editors occur those of Alaric A. Watts, Mrs. S. C. Hall, Harrison Ainsworth, Lady Blessington, Mary Howitt, &c. The popularity of the annuals reached its zenith about 1829, when no less than seventeen made their appearance; in 1856 theKeepsake, the last of the series, ceased to exist.
Annual Register, an English publication commenced in 1758 by Dodsley, the publisher, and since continued in yearly volumes down to the present day. There was also anEdinburgh Annual Register, the historical part of which was for several years contributed by Sir Walter Scott and afterwards by Robert Southey. It commenced in 1808 and came to a close in 1827.
Annu´ity, a periodical payment, made annually, or at more frequent intervals, and continuing either a certain number of years, or for an uncertain period, to be determined by a particular event, as the death of the recipient or annuitant, or that of the party liable to pay the annuity; or the annuity may be perpetual. An annuity is usually raised by the present payment of a certain sum as a consideration whereby the party making the payment, or some other person named by him, becomes entitled to an annuity, and the rules and principles by which this present value is to be computed have been the subjects of careful investigation. The present value of a perpetual annuity is evidently a sum of money that will yield an interest equal to the annuity, and payable at the same periods; and an annuity of this description, payable quarterly, will evidently be of greater value than one of the same amount payable annually, since the annuitant has the additional advantage of the interest on three of the quarterly payments until the expiration of the year. In other words, it requires a greater present capital to be put at interest to yield a given sum per annum, payable quarterly, than to yield the same annual sum payable at the end of each year. The present value of an annuity for a limited period is a sum which, if put at interest, will at the end of that period give an amount equal to the sum of all the payments of the annuity and interest; and, accordingly, if it be proposed to invest a certain sum of money in the purchase of an annuity for a given number of years, the comparative value of the two may be precisely estimated, the rate of interest being given. But annuities for uncertain periods, and particularly life annuities, are more frequent, and the value of the annuity is computed according to the probable duration of the life by which it is limited. Such annuities are often created by contract, whereby the Government or a private annuity office agrees, for a certain sum advanced by the purchaser, to pay a certain sum in yearly, quarterly, or other periodical payments to the person advancing the money, or to some other named by him, during the life of the annuitant. Or the annuity may be granted to the annuitant during the life of some other person, or during two or more joint lives, or during the life of the longest liver or survivor among a number of persons named. If a person having a certain capital, and intending to spend this capital and the income of it during his own life, could know precisely how long he should live, he might lend his capital at a certain rate during his life, and by taking every year, besides the interest, a certain amount of the capital, he might secure the same annual amount for his support during his life in such manner that he should have the same sum to spend every year, and consume precisely his whole capital during his life. But since he does not know how longhe is to live, he agrees with the Government or an annuity office to take the risk of the duration of his life, and they agree to pay him a certain annuity for life in exchange for the capital which he proposes to invest in this way. The probable duration of his life therefore becomes a subject of computation; and for the purpose of making this calculation tables of longevity are made by noting the proportion of deaths at certain ages in the same country or district. Founding on a comparison of many such tables, the British Government has empowered the Postmaster-General to grant annuities at the following rates, which are probably more closely adjusted to their actual value than those of insurance companies and other dealers in annuities: To secure an immediate annuity of £100, the cost is, for males of 20 years, £2279, 3s.4d.; for females of same age, £2482, 10s.; for males of 30 years, £2045, 8s.4d., for females, £2258,6s.8d.; for males of 40 years, £1789, 6s.8d.; for females, £1990; for males of 60, £1148, 6s.8d.; females, £1275, 8s.4d.; and so on.Deferredannuities, that is, such as have their first payments postponed for a greater or less number of years, are also granted. We give the rates for an annuity of £100 deferred 20 years: Males aged 20, £848, 6s.8d.; females, £1014, 13s.4d.; males aged 35, £557, 1s.8d.; females, £697, 1s.8d.; and so on. If a person on whose life the deferred annuity is to depend should die before payment commences, the purchase-money may be returned to his or her representatives, provided that an agreement to that effect had been made in the first instance, but in this case the purchase-money is necessarily higher. SeeInsurance.—Bibliography: Baily,Life Annuities and Assurances; J. Henry,Government Life Annuity Commutation Tables.
Annuloi´da, one of Professor Huxley's eight primary groups, a division (sub-kingdom) of animals, including the Rotifera, Scolecida (tape-worms, &c.), all which are more or less ring-like in appearance, and the Echinodermata, whose embryos show traces of annulation.
Annulo´sa, a division (sub-kingdom) of animals regarded by some as synonymous with the Arthropoda or Articulata; according to other systematists, including both the Articulata and Annulata or worms.
Annunciation, the declaration of the angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary informing her that she was to become the mother of our Lord.—AnnunciationorLady Dayis a feast of the Church in honour of the annunciation, celebrated on the 25th of March.—The Italian order ofKnights of the Annunciationwas instituted by Amadeus VI, Duke of Savoy, in 1360. The king is always grand-master. The knights must be of high rank, and must already be members of the order of St. Mauritius and St. Lazarus. The decoration of the order consists of a golden shield suspended from a chain or collar of roses and knots, the letters F. E. R. T. being inscribed on the roses, and standing forFortitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit(its bravery held Rhodes).—There are two orders ofnuns of the Annunciation, one originally French, founded in 1501 by Joanna of Valois; the other Italian, founded in 1604 by Maria Vittoria Fornari of Genoa.
Annunzio(a˙n-nu¨nt´syō), Gabriele d', Italian poet, novelist, and dramatist, born at Pescara in 1863, his patronymic being Rapagnetta. He was educated at Prato and in Rome, and early took to literature and journalism. In 1898 he was elected a member of the Italian Chamber of Deputies, in which he joined the Socialist party. He came before the public when a schoolboy with a volume of verse calledPrimo Vere, to which others—naturally much more mature—were subsequently added. Several of his novels have been published in English, as:The Child of Pleasure,The Victim,The Triumph of Death,The Virgin of the Rocks,The Fire of Life. Some of these have been very successful, though disfigured to some extent by coarse realism and voluptuousness. He began to write plays later in life. Among themGioconda,The Dead City, andFrancesca da Riminimay be read in English versions, andGiocondaandFrancescahave been performed on the English stage. His more recent works include:Le Martyr de Saint Sebastien(1911),Le Chèvrefeuille(1914),La Beffa di Buccari(1918),Notturno(1918). D'Annunzio is the most prominent Italian writer of the present day, and in wealth of language and distinction of style stands far ahead of all others. He served in the European War from 1915-18, and was wounded. In Sept., 1919, he led a raid and occupied the port of Fiume. SeeEuropean WarandFiume.
An´oa, an animal (Anoa depressicornis) closely allied to the buffalo, about the size of an average sheep, very wild and fierce, inhabiting the rocky and mountainous localities of the Island of Celebes. The horns are straight, thick at the root, and set nearly in a line with the forehead.
Ano´bium, a genus of coleopterous insects, the larvae of which often do much damage by their boring into old wood. By means of their heads they produce a loud, ticking sound in the wood, the so-calleddeath-watchticking.A. striātum, a common species, when frightened, is much given to feigning death.
An´ode, (Gr.ana, up,hodos, way), the positive pole of the voltaic current, being that part of the surface of a decomposing body which the electric current enters: opposed tocathode(Gr.kata, down,hodos, way), the way by which it departs.
An´odon, orAnodon´ta, a genus oflamellibranchiate bivalves, including the fresh-water mussels, without or with very slight hinge-teeth. SeeMussel.
An´odyne, a medicine, such as an opiate or narcotic, which allays pain.
Anointing, rubbing the body or some part of it with oil, often perfumed. From time immemorial the nations of the East have been in the habit of anointing themselves for the sake of health and beauty. The Greeks and Romans anointed themselves after the bath. Wrestlers anointed themselves in order to render it more difficult for their antagonists to get hold of them. In Egypt it was common to anoint the head of guests when they entered the house where they were to be entertained. In the Mosaic law a sacred character was attached to the anointing of the garments of the priests, and things belonging to the ceremonial of worship. The Jewish priests and kings were anointed when inducted into office, and were called theanointed of the Lord, to show that their persons were sacred and their office from God. In the Old Testament also the prophecies respecting the Redeemer style himMessias, that is, theAnointed, which is also the meaning of his Greek name Christ. The custom of anointing still exists in the Roman Catholic Church in the ordination of priests and the confirmation of believers and the sacrament of extreme unction. The ceremony is also frequently a part of the coronation of kings.
AnomalureAnomalure (Anomalurus Peli)
Anom´alure(Anomalūrus), a genus of rodent animals inhabiting the west coast of Africa, resembling the flying-squirrels, but having the under surface of the tail furnished for some distance from the root with a series of large horny scales, which, when pressed against the trunk of a tree, may subserve the same purpose as those instruments with which a man climbs up a telegraph pole to set the wires.
Anom´aly, a deviation from the common rule. In astronomy, the angle which a line drawn from a planet to the sun has passed through since the planet was last at its perihelion or nearest distance to the sun. Theanomalistic yearis the interval between two successive times at which the earth is in perihelion, or 365 days 6 hours 13 minutes 48 seconds. In consequence of the advance of the earth's perihelion among the stars in the same direction as the earth's motion, and of the precession of the equinoxes, which carries the equinoxes back in the opposite direction to the earth's motion, the anomalistic year is about 4 minutes 40 seconds longer than the sidereal year, and about 25 minutes longer than the tropical or common year. The time of a complete revolution of the perihelion is computed at 108,000 years.
Anomu´ra, a section of the crustaceans of the ord. Decapoda, with irregular tails not formed to assist in swimming, including the hermit-crabs and others.
AnonaAnona or Sour-sop (Anōna muricāta)
Ano´na, a genus of plants, the type of the nat. ord. Anonaceæ.A. squamōsa(sweet-sop) grows in the West Indian Islands, and yields an edible fruit having a thick, sweet, luscious pulp.A. muricāta(sour-sop) is cultivated in the West and East Indies; it produces a large pear-shaped fruit, of a greenish colour, containing an agreeable slightly-acid pulp. The genus produces other edible fruits, as the common custard-apple or bullock's heart, fromA. reticulāta, and the cherimoyer of Peru, fromA. Cherimolia.
Anona´ceæ, a nat. ord. of trees and shrubs, having simple, alternate leaves, destitute of stipules, by which character they are distinguished from the Magnoliaceæ, to which they are otherwise closely allied. They are mostly tropical plants of the Old and the New World, and are generally aromatic. SeeAnona.
Anoplothe´rium, an extinct genus of the Ungulata or Hoofed Quadrupeds, forming the type of a distinct family, which were in many respects intermediate between the swine and the true ruminants. These animals were pig-like in form, but possessed long tails, and had a cleft hoof, with two rudimentary toes. Some of them were as small as a guinea-pig, others as large as an ass. Six incisors, two canines, eight premolars, and six molars existed in each jaw, the series being continuous, no interval existing in the jaw.A. commūne, from the Eocene rocks, is a familiar species.
Anoplu´ra, an order of apterous insects, of which the type is the genus Pedicŭlus or louse,
Anopshehr.SeeAnupshahr.
Anorexia.SeeAppetite.
Anos´mia, a disease consisting in a diminution or destruction of the power of smelling, sometimes constitutional, but most frequently caused by strong and repeated stimulants, as snuff, applied to the olfactory nerves.
Anoura.SeeAnura.
Anquetil-Duperron(a˙nk-tēl-du˙-pā-ron˙), Abraham Hyacinthe, a French orientalist, born 1731, died 1805. He studied theology for some time, but soon devoted himself to the study of Hebrew, Arabic, and Persian. His zeal for the Oriental languages induced him to set out for India, where he prevailed on some of the Parsee priests to instruct him in the Zend and Pehlevi and to give him some of the Zoroastrian books. In 1762 he returned to France with a valuable collection of MSS. In 1771 he published hisZend-Avesta, a translation of theVendidad, and other sacred books, which aroused much interest. Among his other works areL'Inde en rapport avec l'Europe(1790), and a selection from theVedas. His knowledge of the Oriental languages was by no means exact.
Ansbach.SeeAnspach.
An´selm, St., a celebrated Christian philosopher and theologian, born at Aosta, in Piedmont, in 1033, died at Canterbury 1109. At the age of twenty-seven (1060) he became a monk at Bec, in Normandy, whither he had been attracted by the celebrity of Lanfranc. Three years later he was elected prior, and in 1078 he was chosen abbot, which he remained for fifteen years. During this period of his life he wrote his first philosophical and religious works: the dialogues onTruthandFree-will, and the treatisesMonologionandProslogion; and at the same time his influence made itself so felt among the monks under his charge that Bec became the chief seat of learning in Europe. In 1093 Anselm was offered by William Rufus the archbishopric of Canterbury, and accepted it, though with great reluctance, and with the condition that all the lands belonging to the see should be restored. William II soon quarrelled with the archbishop, who would show no subservience to him, and would persist in acknowledging Pope Urban II in opposition to the antipope Clement. William ultimately had to give way. He acknowledged Urban as Pope, and conferred the pallium upon Anselm. The king became his bitter enemy, however, and so great were Anselm's difficulties that in 1097 he set out for Rome to consult with the Pope. Urban received him with great distinction, but did not venture really to take the side of the prelate against the king, though William had refused to receive Anselm again as archbishop, and had seized on the revenues of the see of Canterbury, which he retained till his death in 1100. Anselm accordingly remained abroad, where he wrote most of his celebrated treatise on the atonement, entitledCur Deus Homo(Why God was made Man). When William was succeeded by Henry I Anselm was recalled; but Henry insisted that he should submit to be reinvested in his see by himself, although the Popes claimed the right of investing for themselves alone. Much negotiation followed, and Henry did not surrender his claims till 1107, when Anselm's long struggle on behalf of the rights of the Church came to an end. Anselm was a great scholar, a deep and original thinker, and a man of the utmost saintliness and piety. Anselm's great achievement in philosophy was his ontological argument for the existence of God; and his importance in the ecclesiastical history of England cannot be exaggerated. The chief of his writings are theMonologion, theProslogion, and theCur Deus Homo. The first is an attempt to prove inductively the existence of God by pure reason without the aid of Scripture or authority; the second is an attempt to prove the same by the deductive method; theCur Deus Homois intended to prove the necessity of the incarnation. Among his numerous other writings are more than 400 letters. His life was written by his domestic chaplain and companion, Eadmer, a monk of Canterbury, and is edited by M. Rule for the 'Rolls Series'. SeeScholasticism. Cf. Père Ragey,Histoire de Saint Anselme; J. M. Rigg,Anselm of Canterbury.
Ans´gar, orAnshar, called theApostle of the North, born in 801 in Picardy, died in 864 or 865. He took the monastic vows while still in his boyhood, and in the midst of many difficulties laboured as a missionary in Denmark and Sweden. He died with the reputation of having made, if not the first, the most successful attempts to propagate Christianity in the North.
An´son, George, Lord, celebrated English navigator, born 1697, died 1762. He entered the navy at an early age and became a commander in 1722, and captain in 1724. He was for a long time on the South Carolina station. In 1740 he was made commander of a fleet sent to the South Sea, directed against the trade and colonies of Spain. The expedition consisted of five men-of-war and three smaller vessels, which carried 1400 men. After much suffering and many stirring adventures he reached the coast of Peru, made several prizes, and captured and burned the city of Paita. His squadron was now reduced to one ship, theCenturion, but with it he took the Spanish treasure galleon from Acapulco, and arrived in England in 1744 with treasure to the amount of £500,000, having circumnavigated the globe. His adventures and discoveries are described in the well-knownAnson's Voyage,compiled from materials furnished by Anson. A few days after his return he was made rear-admiral of the blue, and not long after rear-admiral of the white. His victory over the French admiral Jonquière, near Cape Finisterre in 1747, raised him to the peerage, with the title of Lord Anson, Baron of Soberton. Four years afterwards he was made First Lord of the Admiralty. In 1758 he commanded the fleet before Brest, protected the landing of the British at St. Malo, Cherbourg, &c., and received the repulsed troops into his vessels. Finally, in 1761, he was appointed to convey the queen of George III to England.
Anso´nia, a town of the United States, Conn., on the Nangatuck, with manufactures of brass and copper, and especially clocks. Pop. 17,643.
Anspach(a˙n´spa˙h), orAnsbach, a town in Bavaria, at the junction of the Holzbach with the Lower Rezat, 24 miles south-west of Nürnberg. Anspach gave its name to an ancient principality or margravate, which had a territory of about 1300 sq. miles, with 300,000 inhabitants. in the end of the eighteenth century. The last margrave sold his possessions in 1791 to Prussia. It was occupied by the French in 1806, and transferred by Napoleon to Bavaria. The town has manufactures of trimmings, buttons, straw-wares, &c. Pop. 19,995.
An´sted, David Thomas, an English geologist, born 1814, died 1880. He was professor of geology at King's College, London, and assistant-secretary to the Geological Society, whose quarterly journal he edited for many years.
An´ster, John,LL.D., professor of civil law in the University of Dublin, born in County Cork, 1793, died 1867. He published a volume of poems, but is chiefly known by his fine translation of Goethe'sFaust, Part I, 1835; Part II, 1864.
An´stey, Christopher, an English poet, born 1724, died 1805. He was author ofThe New Bath Guide, a humorous and satirical production describing fashionable life at Bath in the form of a series of letters in different varieties of metre, which had a great reputation in its day, but is now almost forgotten.
Anstruther(an´struth-ėr; popularly an´stėr), Easter and Wester, two small royal and police burghs of Scotland, in Fifeshire, forming, with the contiguous royal burgh of Cellardyke or Nether Kilrenny, one fishing and seaport town. Total pop. (1921), 4641.
Wood-antThe Wood-ant (Formica rufa)1. Egg. 2. Larva. 3. Cocoon of fine white silk. 4. Young ant, taken out of cocoon. 5. Male ant. 6. Female ant. 7. Worker ant. (All magnified.)
1. Egg. 2. Larva. 3. Cocoon of fine white silk. 4. Young ant, taken out of cocoon. 5. Male ant. 6. Female ant. 7. Worker ant. (All magnified.)
Ant, the common name of hymenopterous (or membranous-winged) insects of various genera, of the family Formicĭdæ, of which there are numerous species, at least 2000 being known. They are found in most temperate and tropical regions. They are small but powerful insects, and have long been noted for their remarkable intelligence and interesting habits. They are social insects, living in communities regulated by definite laws, each member of the society bearing a well-defined and separate part in the work of the colony. Each community consists of males; of females much larger than the males; and of barren females, otherwise called neuters, workers, or nurses. The neuters are wingless, and the males and females only acquire wings for their 'nuptial flight', after which the males perish, and the few females which escape the pursuit of their numerous enemies divest themselves of their wings, and either return to established nests, or become the foundresses of new colonies. The neuters perform all the labours of the ant-hill or abode of the community; they excavate the galleries, procure food, and feed the larvæ or young ants, which have not got organs of motion. In fine weather they carefully convey them to the surface for the benefit of the sun's heat, and as attentively carry them to a place of safety either when bad weather is threatened or the ant-hill is disturbed. In like manner they watch over the safety of the nymphs or pupæ about to acquire their perfect growth. Some communities possess a special type of neuters, known as 'soldiers', from the duties that specially fall upon them, and from their powerful biting jaws. There is a very considerable variety in the materials, size, and form of ant-hills, or nests, according to the peculiar nature or instinct of the species. Most of the British ants form nests in woods, fields, or gardens, their abodes being generally in the form of small mounds rising above the surface of the ground and containing numerous galleries and apartments. Some excavate nests in old tree-trunks. One little yellow ant (Myrmīca domestica) is common in houses in Britain in some localities. Someants live on animal food, very quickly picking quite clean the skeleton of any dead animal they may light on. Others live on saccharine matter, being very fond of the sweet substance, called honey-dew, which exudes from the bodies of aphides, or plant-lice. These they sometimes keep in their nests, and sometimes tend on the plants where they feed; sometimes they even superintend their breeding. By stroking the aphides with their antennæ they cause them to emit the sweet fluid, which the ants then greedily sip up. Various other insects are looked after by ants in a similar manner, or are found in their nests. It has been observed that some species, like the European Red Ant (Formīca sanguinĕa), resort to violence to obtain working ants of other species for their own use, plundering the nests of suitable kinds of their larvæ and pupæ, which they carry off to their own nests to be carefully reared and kept as slaves. In temperate countries male and female ants survive, at most, till autumn, or to the commencement of cool weather, though a very large proportion of them cease to exist long previous to that time. The neuters pass the winter in a state of torpor, and of course require no food. The only time when they require food is during the season of activity, when they have a vast number of young to feed. Some ants of Southern Europe feed on grain, and store it up in their nests for use when required. Some species have stings as weapons, others only their powerful mandibles, or an acrid and pungent fluid (formic acid) which they can emit. The name ant is also given to the neuropterous insects otherwise called Termites (q.v.).Bibliography: Lord Avebury (Sir John Lubbock),Ants, Bees, and Wasps; H. W. Bates,A Naturalist on the Amazons;Cambridge Natural History.
Antac´id, an alkali, or any remedy for acidity in the stomach. Dyspepsia and diarrhœa are the diseases in which antacids are chiefly employed. The principal antacids in use are magnesia, lime, and their carbonates, and the carbonates of potash and soda.
Antæ´us, the giant son of Poseidon (Neptune) and Gē (the Earth), who was invincible so long as he was in contact with the earth. Heracles (Hercules) grasped him in his arms and stifled him suspended in the air, thus preventing him from touching the earth.
Antakieh, orAntakia. SeeAntioch.
Antal´kali, a substance which neutralizes an alkali, and is used medicinally to counteract an alkaline tendency in the system. All true acids have this power.
Antananarivo(an-tan-an-a-rē´vō), the capital of Madagascar, situated in the central province of Imérina, on rocky eminences rising from a plain. Until 1869 all buildings within the city were of wood or rush, but since the introduction of brick and stone, the whole city has been rebuilt. It contains two former royal palaces, immense timber structures; a Protestant and a Roman Catholic cathedral, mission churches, schools, &c. Antananarivo is the residence of the French governor of Madagascar, and there is a strong French garrison. It has manufactures of metal work, cutlery, silk, &c. Pop. (exclusive of the troops) 63,115.
An´tar, an Arabian warrior and poet of the sixth century, author of one of the seven Moallakas (poems) hung up in the Kaaba at Mecca; hero of a romance analogous in Arabic literature to the Arthurian legend of the English. The romance ofAntaris composed in rhythmic prose interspersed with fragments of verse, many of which are attributed to Antar himself, and has been generally ascribed to Asmai (bornA.D.740, died aboutA.D.830), preceptor to Harun-al-Rashid. It has been published in 32 vols. at Cairo (1889).
Antarctic(ant-ärk´tik), a term signifying the opposite ofArctic, and therefore relating to the southern pole or to the regions near it. TheAntarctic Circle, which of course corresponds to theArctic Circle, is a circle parallel to the equator and distant from the south pole 23° 28´, marking the area within which the sun does not set when on the tropic of Capricorn. The Antarctic Circle has been arbitrarily fixed on as the limits of the Antarctic Ocean, it being the average limit of the pack-ice; but the name is often extended to embrace a much wider area. The lands within or near the Antarctic Circle are but imperfectly known, and a very large area around the south pole is altogether unknown. The work of exploration has been hitherto baffled at various points by what seems an unsurmountable ice-barrier, which in some places is connected with masses of land and may as a whole belong to a great Antarctic continent. Among land-masses that have long been known to exist in the Antarctic Ocean, though our knowledge of them is very imperfect, are those to which have been attached the names Graham Land, Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, Enderby Land, South Shetland Islands, &c. The Antarctic regions are even colder and more inhospitable than the Arctic, and partly on account of their remoteness from the maritime nations there have been far fewer efforts at their exploration, the south pole being far less a goal of discovery than the north. SeeSouth Polar Expeditions.
Ant-eaterAnt-eater (Myrmecophăga jubāta)
Ant-eater, a name given to mammals of various genera that prey chiefly on ants, but usually confined to the genus Myrmecophăga, ord. Edentata. In this genus the head is remarkably elongated, the jaws destitute of teeth, and the mouth furnished with a long, extensiletongue covered with glutinous saliva, by the aid of which the animals secure their insect prey. The eyes are particularly small, the ears short and round, and the legs, especially the fore-legs, very strong, and furnished with long, compressed, acute nails, admirably adapted for breaking into the ant-hills. The most remarkable species is theMyrmecophăga jubāta, or ant-bear, a native of the warmer parts of South America. It is from 4 to 5 feet in length from the tip of the muzzle to the root of the black bushy tail, which is about 2 feet long. The body is covered with long hair, particularly along the neck and back. It is a harmless and solitary animal, and spends most of its time in sleep. Some are adapted for climbing trees in quest of the insects on which they feed, having prehensile tails. All are natives of South America. The name ant-eater is also given to the pangolins and to the aardvark. The echidna of Australia is sometimes calledporcupine ant-eater.
Antece´dent, in grammar, the noun to which a relative or other pronoun refers; as, Solomon was theprince whobuilt the temple, where the wordprinceis the antecedent ofwho.—In logic, that member of a hypothetical or conditional proposition which contains the condition, and which is introduced byifor some equivalent word or words; as, if the sun is fixed, the earth must move. Here the first and conditional proposition is theantecedent, the second theconsequent.
Antedilu´vian, before the flood or deluge of Noah's time; relating to what happened before the deluge. In geology the term has been applied to organisms, traces of which are found in a fossil state in formations preceding the Diluvial (Glacial epoch), particularly to extinct animals such as the palæotherium, the mastodon, &c.
An´telope, the name given to the members of a large family of Ruminant Ungulata or Hoofed Mammalia, closely resembling the Deer in general appearance, but essentially different in nature from the latter animals. They are included with the Sheep and Oxen in the family of the Cavicornia or 'Hollow-horned' Ruminants. Their horns, unlike those of the Deer, are not deciduous, but are permanent; are never branched, but are often twisted spirally, and may be borne by both sexes. They are found in greatest number and variety in Africa. Well-known species are the chamois (European), the gazelle, the addax, the eland, the koodoo, the gnu, the springbok, the sasin or Indian antelope, and the prongbuck of America.
AntennaeAntennæ1,1. Filiform Antennæ of Cucujo Firefly of Brazil (Pyrophŏrus luminōsus). 2. Denticulate Antenna; 3. Bipinnate; 4. Lamellicorn; 5. Clavate; 6. Geniculate; 7. Antenna and Antennule of Crustacean.
1,1. Filiform Antennæ of Cucujo Firefly of Brazil (Pyrophŏrus luminōsus). 2. Denticulate Antenna; 3. Bipinnate; 4. Lamellicorn; 5. Clavate; 6. Geniculate; 7. Antenna and Antennule of Crustacean.
Anten´næ, the name given to the movable jointed organs of touch and hearing attached to the heads of insects, myriapods, &c., and commonly called horns or feelers. They present a very great variety of forms.
Antequera(a˙n-te-kā´ra˙), a city of Andalusia, in Spain, in the province of Malaga, a place of some importance under the Romans, with a ruined Moorish castle. It manufactures woollens, leather, soap, &c. Pop. 32,360.
Ant´eros, in Greek mythology, the god of mutual love. According to some, however, Anteros is the enemy of love, or the god of antipathy; he was also said to punish those who did not return the love of others.
Anthe´lion, pl.Anthelia, a luminous ring, or rings, seen by an observer, especially in alpine and polar regions, around the shadow of his head projected on a cloud or fog-bank, or on grass covered with dew, 50 or 60 yards distant, and opposite the sun when rising or setting. It is due to the diffraction of light.
Anthelmin´thics, orAnthelmin´tics, a class of remedies used to destroy worms when lodged in the alimentary canal; classed as vermicides or vermifuges, according as the object is to kill the worms, or to expel them by purgation.
An´them, originally a hymn sung in alternateparts; in modern usage, a sacred tune or piece of music set to words taken from the Psalms or other parts of the Scriptures, first introduced into church service in Elizabeth's reign; a developed motet. The anthem may be for one, two, or any number of voices, but seldom exceeds five parts, and may or may not have an organ accompaniment written for it.
AnthemionAnthemion
Anthe´mion, an ornament or ornamental series used in Greek and Roman decoration, which is derived from floral forms, more especially the honeysuckle. It was much used for the ornamentation of friezes and interiors, for the decoration of fictile vases, the borders of dresses, &c.
An´themis, a genus of composite plants, comprising the camomile or chamomile.
Anthe´mius, a Greek mathematician and architect of Lydia; designed the church of St. Sophia at Constantinople, and is credited with the invention of the dome; diedA.D.534.
Anther in LilyThe Reproductive Organs of the Lily
An´ther, the male organ of the flower; that part of the stamen which is filled with pollen.
Antheste´ria, an annual Greek festival held in honour of all the gods, but especially in honour of Dionysus. It celebrated the beginning of spring, and the season when the wine of the previous vintage was considered fit for use.
Anthocy´anin, the blue colour of flowers, a pigment obtained from those petals of flowers which are blue, by digesting them in spirits of wine.
Anthol´ogy(Gr.anthos, a flower, andlegein, to gather), the name given to several collections of short poems which have come down from antiquity. The first to compile a Greek anthology was Meleager, a Syrian, about 60B.C.He entitled his collection, which contained selections from forty-six poets besides many pieces of his own, theGarland; a continuation of this work by Philip of Thessalonica in the age of Tiberius was the first entitledAnthology. Later collections are that of Constantine Cephalas, in the tenth century, who made much use of the earlier ones, and that of Maximus Planudes, in the fourteenth century, a monk of Constantinople, whose anthology is a tasteless series of extracts from theAnthologyof Cephalas, with some additions. The treasures contained in both, increased with fragments of the older poets, idylls of the bucolic poets, the hymns of Callimachus, epigrams from monuments and other works, have been published in modern times as theGreek Anthology. There is no ancient Latin anthology, the oldest being that of Scaliger (1573).
An´thon, Charles,LL.D., an American editor of classical school-books, and of works intended to facilitate the study of Greek and Latin literature; born 1797, died 1867. He was long a professor in Columbia College, New York.
An´thony, St. the founder of monastic institutions, born near Heraclea, in Upper Egypt,A.D.251. Giving up all his property he retired to the desert, where he was followed by a number of disciples, who thus formed the first community of monks. He died at the age of 105.—St. Anthony's Fire, a name given to erysipelas.
An´thracene(C14H10) occurs in coal-tar in small quantity, about 0.25-0.45 per cent. During the distillation of tar a high-boiling fraction, boiling above 270° C., is obtained; this is crude anthracene oil, a greenish oily substance which, on further distillation, yields a crystalline mass, 50 per cent anthracene. This is carefully purified by distillation and chemical treatment to separate the anthracene from the other substances occurring with it, and the product obtained is finally purified by crystallization. When pure it forms colourless crystalline scales melting at 216° C., and having a violet fluorescence. It forms a series of derivatives, the most important being anthraquinone and alizarine and the numerous derivatives of these. Anthracene was originally a useless product in coal-tar distillation, but it became valuable as soon as it was discovered that alizarine—from which many dyes are manufactured directly or indirectly—could be prepared from it.
An´thracite, glance or blind coal, a non-bituminous coal of a shining lustre, approaching to metallic, and which burns without smoke, with a weak or no flame, and with intense heat. It consists of, on an average, 90 per cent carbon, 2 oxygen, 3 hydrogen, and 5 ashes. It has some of the properties of coal or charcoal, and, like that substance, represents an extreme alteration of vegetable substances by loss of gases, either during conditions of decay or after entombment among stratified rocks. It is found in England,Scotland, and Ireland, and in large quantities in the United States (Pennsylvania), and near Swansea (South Wales). SeeCoal.
An´thrax, a fatal disease to which animals are subject, always associated with the presence of an extremely minute micro-organism (Bacillus anthrăcis) in the blood. It attacks cattle more frequently than other animals; sheep, horses, pigs, dogs, and fowls are liable to anthrax, but not cats. The mode of infection in animals is chiefly by ingestion. It may also be contracted through a wound or scratch in the skin, but this mode of infection is commoner in human beings than in animals. It frequently assumes an epizootic form, and extends over large districts, affecting all classes of animals which are exposed to the exciting causes. It is also called splenic fever, and is communicable to man, appearing as carbuncle, malignant pustule, or wool-sorter's disease.
Anthropol´atry, the worship of man, a word always employed in reproach; applied by the Apollinarians, who denied Christ's perfect humanity, towards the orthodox Christians.
Anthro´polite, a petrifaction of the human body or skeleton, or of parts of the body, by the encrusting action of calcareous waters, and hence hardly to be considered fossil or sub-fossil.
Anthropol´ogy, the science of man, including the study of man's place in nature, that is, of the measurement of his agreement with and divergence from other animals and the history of the emergence of human characteristics; of the distinctive features and geographical distribution of the races of mankind, their customs and beliefs; of the remains of extinct types of the human family and the evidence relating to their modes of life. It puts under contribution all sciences which have man for their object, as anatomy, palæontology, psychology, archæology, history, and comparative religion. All the races of mankind that are now living, much as they differ in external appearance, such as colour of skin, character of hair, form of skull, face, and body, and stature, belong to one species,Homo Sapiens; but an earlier species of more brutal type,H. neanderthalensis, now completely extinct, is known from fossil remains found in Germany, Belgium, France, Gibraltar, and Croatia. Three more ancient and primitive types, probably representing distinct genera of the human family, have been discovered respectively at Piltdown, in Sussex (Eoanthropus), at Mauer, near Heidelberg (Palæanthropus), and in Java, the Ape-man (Pithecanthropus). The Piltdown man may represent the very remote, but direct, ancestor of modern man; but the Heidelberg man and the Ape-man were probably divergent 'sports' whose descendants never became men of the modern type.
In structure the gorilla reveals a close kinship with the human family, and was probably derived from a common ancestry which probably differentiated into man's forerunner and the gorilla's in Miocene times. Of existing races the aboriginal Australian is much the most primitive, and represents the survival of the earliest type ofHomo Sapienssoon after this species became differentiated from men of the Neanderthal species. The negro, whose home is tropical Africa, is primitive in some respects, but in others is highly specialized. He is distinguished by his black skin, flat nose, prominent jaws and thick everted lips, and so-called 'woolly' or 'pepper-corn' hair. In stature he shows a wider range of variation than any other race, including, as he does, the tallest and the shortest varieties of mankind. The Bushman is a peculiarly distinct racial type now restricted to the deserts of South Africa. Though his skin is yellowish rather than black, he is akin to the negro. The Mongolian race probably assumed its distinctive features, yellowish skin, coarse black hair, and characteristic facial and bodily traits, in Eastern Asia; and the aboriginal population of America was sprung mainly from the less-specialized branch of this race. The so-called white races include three main stocks, a people of short stature, olive complexion, and long heads, the Mediterranean race; a taller people with fair hair and long heads, the Nordic race; and a short, thick-set, black-haired, broad-headed Alpine race, which made its way from Asia into Europe many centuries after the other two chief components of Europe's population. For long ages in every part of the world intermixture has been taking place in varying degrees between the different races of mankind, so that to-day probably no pure race exists. SeeEthnography,Ethnology,Man, &c.—Bibliography: E. B. Tylor,Anthropology; D. G. Brinton,Races and Peoples; W. Z. Ripley,The Races of Europe; E. Carpenter,Anthropology; G. Elliott Smith,The Migrations of Early Culture; H. G. F. Spurrell,Modern Man and his Forerunners;Dictionnaire des Sciences Anthropologiques;The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain.
Anthropom´etry, the systematic examination of the height, weight, and other physical characteristics of the human body. It was shown in the British Association Report of 1888 that variations in stature, weight, and complexion, existing in different districts of the British islands, are chiefly due to difference of racial origin.
The Scotch male adults stand first in height (68.71 inches), the Irish second (67.90 inches), the English third (67.66 inches), and the Welsh last (66.66 inches). In weight the Scotch take the first place (165.3 lb.), the Welsh the second(158.3 lb.), the English the third (155.0 lb.), and the Irish the last (154.1 lb.). The average height of adult females is 4.71 inches less than the male average, and their average weight 32.2 lb. under that of the males. The average height of the adult males of the principal races or nationalities of the world may be given as under; but it is acknowledged that more numerous measurements might alter some of the figures considerably: Polynesians 69.33 inches, Patagonians 69 inches, Negroes of the Congo 69 inches, Scotch 68.71 inches, Iroquois Indians 68.28 inches, Irish 67.90 inches, United States (whites) 67.67 inches, English 67.66 inches, Norwegians 67.66 inches, Zulus 67.19 inches, Welsh 66.66 inches, Danes 66.65 inches, Dutch 66.62 inches, American Negroes 66.62 inches, Hungarians 66.58 inches, Germans 66.54 inches, Swiss 66.43 inches, Belgians 66.38 inches, French 66.23 inches, Berbers 66.10 inches, Arabs 66.08 inches, Russians 66.04 inches, Italians 66 inches, Spaniards 65.66 inches, Esquimaux 65.10 inches, Papuans 64.78 inches, Hindus 64.76 inches, Chinese 64.17 inches, Poles 63.87 inches, Finns 63.60 inches, Japanese 63.11 inches, Peruvians 63 inches, Malays 62.34 inches, Lapps 59.2 inches, Bosjesmans 52.78 inches. General average, 65.25 inches.
Anthropomor´phism, the representation or conception of the Deity under a human form, or with human attributes and affections.Anthropomorphismis based upon the natural inaptitude of the human mind for conceiving spiritual things except through sensuous images, and in its consequent tendency to accept such expressions as those of Scripture when it speaks of the eye, the ear, and the hand of God, of his seeing and hearing, of his remembering and forgetting, of his making man in his own image, &c., in a too literal sense. In a general sense anthropomorphism is the assumption of man that his own characteristics are present in beings or things widely different from himself, more particularly in forces of nature and gods. The term is, therefore, also applied to that doctrine which attributes to animals mental faculties of the same nature as those of man, though much lower in degree: strictly calledbiological anthropomorphism, to distinguish it from anthropomorphism proper, ortheological anthropomorphism. Cf. E. Caird,Evolution of Religion; J. R. Illingworth,Personality, Human and Divine.
Anthropoph´agi, man-eaters, cannibals. Cannibalism was practised in very ancient times; and though some peoples, as the New Zealanders and Fijians, have given it up in recent times, it is still practised over a wide area in Central Africa, where human flesh is a common article of food. Superstitious ideas are often associated with cannibalism among those who practise it. The Caribs were cannibals at the time of the Spanish conquest, and the word 'cannibal' is derived from their name. SeeCannibalism.
Anthus.SeePipit.
Anti-aircraft gunsare guns so mounted that they may be pointed upward to fire directly against objects in the air. During the European War these guns, fitted with special appliances and ammunition, were used for defence against air-raids of the enemy, against Zeppelins and Gothas. The anti-aircraft guns are of various types, ranging from light machine-guns up to batteries of 3-inch and 6-inch guns. Some of them have brought down enemy machines flying at a height of 10,000 or 12,000 feet.
Antibes(a˙n˙-tēb) (ancientAntipolis), a fortified town and seaport of France, department Alpes-Maritimes, on the Mediterranean, 11 milesS.S.W.of Nice; founded about 340B.C.Pop. 12,198.
Anti-burgher Synod, a section of the Scottish Secession Church, which held its first meeting in Edinburgh in the house of Adam Gib on 10th April, 1747. It was formed in consequence of a breach resulting from a controversy respecting the religious clause of the oath taken by burgesses in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Perth. Those in favour of the oath were designated Burghers, whilst their opponents, who condemned the oath of the burgesses, became known as Anti-burghers. The union of the burgher and anti-burgher sections was brought about in 1820 through the exertions of John Jamieson, minister at the Anti-burgher Church in Nicholson Street, Edinburgh. SeeUnited Free Church of Scotland.
An´tichlor, the name given to any chemical substance, such as hyposulphite of sodium, employed to remove the small quantity of chlorine which obstinately adheres to the fibres of the cloth when goods are bleached by means of chlorine.
An´tichrist, a word occurring in the first and secondEpistles of St. John, and nowhere else in Scripture, in passages having an evident reference to a personage real or symbolical mentioned or alluded to in various other passages both of the Old and New Testaments. Theidea itself, however, of Antichrist can be traced back to the second centuryB.C., and appears first of all in theBook of Daniel. In every age the Church has held through all its sects some definite expectation of a formidable adversary of truth and righteousness prefigured under this name. Thus Roman Catholics have found Antichrist in heresy, and Protestants in Romanism. In one point the sects have generally been agreed, namely, in regarding the various intimations on this subject in the Old and New Testaments as a homogeneous declaration or warning, inspired by the spirit of prophecy, of danger to the truereligion from some disaffection and revolt organized in the latter days by Satan. Most modern critics take a different view of the matter. They do not regard the various Scriptural writers who have dealt with this subject as having had any common inspiration or design. They believe that each writer from his own point of view, guided by mere human sagacity, gives expression in his predictions to his own individual apprehensions, or narrates as prediction what he already knows. Originally Antichrist is nothing else than the incarnate devil, and the idea of the battle of God with a human opponent, endowed with devilish wickedness, arose under the influence of historical conditions. It is the near political horizon which suggests the danger, or contemporary history the substance of the prophecy; thus the Antichrist of Daniel is Antiochus Epiphanes, that of St. John Nero, that of St. Paul some adversary of Christianity about to appear in the time of the Emperor Claudius.—Bibliography: S. Baring-Gould,Curious Myths of the Middle Ages; W. Bousset,Antichrist.
Anticli´max, a sudden declension of a writer or speaker from lofty to mean thoughts or language, as in the well-known lines, quoted in Pope'sMartinus Scriblerus on the Art of Sinking in Poetryas from an anonymous author: