ApseApse—Church of Sta Maria in Trastevere, Rome
Apse, a portion of any building forming a termination or projection semicircular or polygonal in plan, and having a roof forming externally a semi-dome or semi-cone, or having ridges corresponding to the angles of the polygon;especially such a semicircular or polygonal recess projecting from the east end of the choir or chancel of a church, in which the altar is placed. The apse was developed from the somewhat similar part of the Roman basilicæ, in which the magistrate (prætor) sat.
Ap´sheron, a peninsula on the western shore of the Caspian Sea formed by the eastern extremity of the Caucasus Mountains. It extends for about 40 miles, and terminates in Cape Apsheron. It yields immense quantities of petroleum. SeeBaku.
Apsidesaa, Apsides
Apsis, pl.Ap´sidesorApsi´des, in astronomy, one of the two points of the orbit of a heavenly body situated at the extremities of the major axis of the ellipse formed by the orbit, one of the points being that at which the body is at its greatest and the other that at which it is at its least distance from its primary. In regard to the earth and the other planets, these two points are called the aphelion and perihelion; and in regard to the moon they are called the apogee and perigee. The line of the apsides has a slow forward angular motion in the plane of the planet's orbit, being retrograde only in the case of Venus. This in the earth's orbit produces the anomalistic year. SeeAnomaly.
Apt(ät; ancientApta Julia), a town of Southern France, department Vaucluse, 32 miles east by south of Avignon, with an ancient Gothic cathedral. Pop. 6336.
Ap´tera(Gr.apteros, wingless), wingless insects, such as lice and certain others, popularly calledSpring-tails, and composed of two groups, Collembola and Thysanura.
ApteryxApteryx (Apteryx Mantelli)
Ap´teryx, a nearly extinct genus of cursorial birds, distinguished from the ostriches by having three toes with a rudimentary hallux, which forms a spur. They are natives of the South Island of New Zealand; are totally wingless and tailless, with feathers resembling hairs; about the size of a small goose; with long curved beak something like that of a curlew. They are entirely nocturnal, feeding on insects, worms, and seeds.—A. austrālis, calledKiwi-kiwifrom its cry, is the best-known species.
Apuleius, orAppuleius(ap-ū-lē´us), author of the celebrated satirical romance in Latin called theGolden Ass, born at Madaura, in Numidia, aboutA.D.125; the time of his death is unknown. He studied at Carthage, then at Athens, where he became warmly attached to the Platonic philosophy, and finally at Rome. Returning to Carthage he married a rich widow, whose relatives accused him of gaining her consent by magic, and the speech by which he successfully defended himself is still extant. Besides hisGolden Ass(which is also known as theMetamorphoses, and which was translated into English by W. Adlington in 1566), with its fine episode of Cupid and Psyche, he was also the author of many works on philosophy and rhetoric, some of which are still extant.
Apu´lia, a department or division in the south-east of Italy, on the Adriatic, composed of the provinces of Foggia, Bari, and Lecce; area, 7376 sq. miles. Pop. 2,237,791.
Apure(a˙-pö´rā), a navigable river of Venezuela, formed by the junction of several streams which rise in the Andes of Colombia; it falls into the Orinoco.—Apure, one of the States of Venezuela, has a pop. of 30,008.
Apurimac(a˙-pö-rē-ma˙k´), a river of South America, which rises in the Andes of Peru, and, being augmented by the Vilcamayu and other streams, forms the Ucayale, one of the principal head-waters of the Amazon.—The department of Apurimac in Peru has an area of 8187 sq. miles, and a pop. of 177,887.
Aq´ua(Lat. for water), a word much used in pharmacy and old chemistry.—Aqua fortis(= strong water), a weak and impure nitric acid. It has the power of eating into steel and copper, and hence is used by engravers, etchers, &c.—Aqua marina, a fine variety of beryl. SeeAquamarine.—Aqua regia, oraqua regalis(= royal water), a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, with the power of dissolving gold and other precious metals.—Aqua Tofana, a poisonous fluid made about the middle of the seventeenth century by an Italian woman Tofana or Toffania, who is said to have procured the death of no fewer than 600 individuals by means of it. It consisted chiefly, it is supposed, of a solution of crystallized arsenic.—Aqua vitæ(= water of life), or simplyaqua, a name familiarly applied to thewhiskyof Scotland, corresponding in meaning with theusquebaughof Ireland, theeau de vie(brandy) of the French.
Aq´uamarine, a name given to some of the finest varieties of beryl of a sea-green or blue colour. Varieties of topaz are also so called.
Aqua´rium, a vessel or series of vessels constructed wholly or partly of glass and containing salt or fresh water in which are kept living specimens of marine or fresh-water animals along with aquatic plants. In principle the aquarium is based on the interdependence of animal and vegetable life; animals consuming oxygen and exhaling carbonic acid, plants reversing the process by absorbing carbonic acid and giving out oxygen. The aquarium must consequently be stocked both with plants and animals, and for the welfare of both something like a proper proportion should exist between them. The simplest form of aquarium is that of a glass vase; but aquaria on a larger scale consist of a tank or a number of tanks with plate-glass sides and stone floors, and contain sand and gravel, rocks, sea-weeds, &c. By improved arrangements light is admitted from above, passing through the water in the tanks and illuminating their contents, while the spectator is in comparative darkness. The most important aquarium is at the zoological station at Naples. There is also one, on a smaller scale, at Plymouth, maintained by the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. Aquaria on a large scale have been constructed in connection with public parks or gardens, and the name is also given to places of public entertainment in which large aquaria are exhibited.—Cf. G. C. Bateman,Fresh-water Aquaria; M. J. Newbigin,The Aquarium.
Aquarius(Lat., the Water-bearer), a sign of the zodiac which the sun enters about the 21st of Jan.: it now enters the formerly coincident constellation Aquarius about a month later.
Aquatint, a method of etching on copper by which a beautiful effect is produced, resembling a fine drawing in sepia or Indian ink. The special character of the effect is the result of sprinkling finely-powdered resin or mastic over the plate, and causing this to adhere by heat, the design being previously etched, or being now traced out. The nitric acid (aqua fortis) acts only in the interstices between the particles of resin or mastic, thus giving a slightly granular appearance.
Aqua Tofa´na.SeeAqua.
Aqua vitæ.SeeAqua.
Aq´ueduct(Lat.aqua, water,duco, to lead), an artificial channel or conduit for the conveyance of water from one place to another: more particularly applied to structures for conveying water from distant sources for the supply of large cities. Aqueducts were extensively used by the Romans, and many of them still remain in different places on the Continent of Europe, some being still in use. The Pont du Gard in the south of France, 14 miles from Nîmes, is still nearly perfect, and is a grand monument of the Roman occupation of this country. The ancient aqueducts were constructed of stone or brick, sometimes tunnelled through hills, and carried over valleys and rivers on arches. The Pont du Gard spans the River Gard, and was built to convey to Nîmes the water of springs rising in the neighbourhood of the modern Uzés. It is built of great blocks of stone; its height is 160 feet; length of the highest arcade, 882 feet. The aqueduct at Segovia, originally built by the Romans, has in some parts two tiers of arcades 100 feet high, is 2921 feet in length, and is one of the most admired works of antiquity. One of the most remarkable aqueducts of modern times is that constructed by Louis XIV for conveying the waters of the Eure to Versailles. The extensive application of metal pipes has rendered the construction of aqueducts of the old type less necessary; but what may be called aqueduct bridges are still frequently constructed in connection with canals and also with water-works for the supply of towns. Where canals exist canal aqueducts are common, since the water in any section of a canal must be kept on a perfect level.
AqueductAqueduct at Segovia
Many large towns now derive a supply of water from sources at a great distance, and inbringing the water to the place where it is required much tunnelling is often necessary as well as digging and excavating in the open. A tunnel furnishing a water channel may be driven through miles of rock strata of various kinds, and in many places it may have to be lined with concrete or cement wholly or partially, brick-work also being much employed. Instead of tunnelling, the channel may be formed on the plan of 'cut and cover', being first cut in the ground and then covered over, leaving the surface much in the same state as before. And, of course, iron piping is often used in connection with such tunnels, the water being conveyed so far in an aqueduct of one kind, and so far in one of another kind, according as is deemed most suitable. In the Thirlmere aqueduct, which brings water to Manchester, there are 45 miles of cast-iron pipes, 37 miles of cut-and-cover work, and 14 miles of tunnels proper. Pipes are naturally laid where valleys occur, and the water simply enters the pipes at one end and flows out at the other by the influence of gravity, there being a suitable chamber constructed at either end of the pipe line where there is a junction with a section of tunnel. Aqueduct bridges were first introduced into England in the eighteenth century, the first being the aqueduct at Barton Bridge conveying the Bridgewater Canal across the Irwell. In such bridges the water-channel may be made of cast iron. There are great aqueduct bridges on some of the Indian canals, such as the Nadrai bridge on the Lower Ganges Canal. In America water is often carried long distances influmesor open wooden channels, supported, where necessary, on trestles. Great wooden pipes are also common there, built of large staves and hooped round with iron or steel. These often rest on the surface of the ground without any covering.—Bibliography: C. Herschel,Frontinus; Wegmann,Water-supply of City of New York; J. F. Bateman,The Manchester Waterworks; J. M. Gale,The Glasgow Waterworks; A. Prescott Folwell,Water Supply Engineering.
Aq´ueous humour, the limpid watery fluid which fills the space between the cornea and the crystalline lens in the eye.
Aqueous rocks, composed of matter deposited by water from suspension or solution. Called alsosedimentary rocks. SeeGeology.
Aquifolia´ceæ, a nat. ord. of plants; the holly tribe. The species consist of trees and shrubs, and the order includes the common holly (Ilex Aquifolium) and theI. paraguayensis, or Paraguayan tea tree.
Aquila(a˙k´wē-la˙), a town in Italy, capital of the province of Aquila, 55 miles north-east of Rome, the seat of a bishop, an attractive and interesting town with spacious streets and handsome palaces. In 1703 and 1706 it suffered severely from earthquakes. Pop. 22,050.—The province has an area of 2493 sq. miles. Pop. 422,634.
Aq´uila, a companion of St. Paul (Acts, xviii, 2, 3). Expelled from Rome, he and his wife, Priscilla, settled in Corinth, where Paul stayed with them. They were converted to Christianity by the Apostle.
Aq´uila, a native of Pontus, flourished aboutA.D.130. He became a Jewish proselyte, and made a close and accurate translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek, extant only in fragments.
Aq´uila, name of a constellation in the northern hemisphere. SeeConstellations.
Aquila´ria.SeeAloes-wood.
Aquile´gia.SeeColumbine.
Aquileia(ak-wi-lē´ya), an ancient city near the head of the Adriatic Sea, in Upper Italy, built by the Romans in 182 or 181B.C.Commanding theN.E.entrance into Italy, it became important as a commercial centre and a military post, and was frequently the base of imperial campaigns. In 425 it was destroyed by Attila. The modern Aquileia or Aglar is a small place of some 1700 inhabitants, consisting chiefly of fishermen.
Aquinas(a-kwī´nas; i.e. of Aquino), St. Thomas, a celebrated scholastic divine, born in 1225 or 1227, most probably at the castle of Rocco Secca, near Aquino. His father was Count of Aquino, in the kingdom of Naples. He was educated at the Benedictine monastery of Monte Casino, and at the University of Naples, where he studied for six years. About the age of seventeen he entered a convent of Dominicans, much against the wishes of his family. He attended the lectures of Albertus Magnus at Cologne, in whose company he visited Paris in 1245 or 1246. Here he became involved in the dispute between the university and the Begging Friars as to the liberty of teaching, advocating the rights claimed by the latter with great energy. In 1257 he received the degree of doctor from the Sorbonne, and began to lecture on theology, rapidly acquiring the highest reputation. In 1263 he is found at the Chapter of the Dominicans in London. In 1268 he was in Italy, lecturing in Rome, Bologna, and elsewhere. In 1271 he was again in Paris lecturing to the students; in 1272 he was professor at Naples. In 1263 he had been offered the archbishopric of Naples by Clement IV, but refused the offer. He died, in 1274, on his way to Lyons to attend a general council for the purpose of uniting the Greek and Latin Churches. He was called, after the fashion of the times, theangelic doctor, and was canonized by John XXII. The most important of his numerous works, which are all written in Latin, are theSumma Theologica,which, although only professing to treat of theology, is in reality a complete and systematic summary of the knowledge of the time, and theSumma Philosophica. The work of St. Thomas consisted in an effort to harmonize the new scientific teachings of the age—derived from Arabian and Byzantine sources—with the doctrine of the Church, and to refute heresy. His disciples were known asThomists. SeeThomism.—Cf. P. Conway,St. Thomas Aquinas; and article inHastings' Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics.
Aquita´nia, laterAquitaine, a Roman province in Gaul, which comprehended the countries on the coast from the Garonne to the Pyrenees, and from the sea to Toulouse. It was brought into connection with England by the marriage of Henry II with Eleanor, daughter of the last Duke of Aquitaine. The title to the province was for long disputed by England and France, but it was finally secured by the latter (1453).
Arabah´, a deep rocky valley or depression in north-western Arabia, between the Dead Sea and Gulf of Akabah, a sort of continuation of the Jordan valley.
Arabesque(ar´a-besk), a species of ornamentation for enriching flat surfaces, often consisting of fanciful figures, human or animal, combined with floral forms. There may be said to be three periods and distinctive varieties of arabesque—(a) the Roman or Græco-Roman, introduced into Rome from the East when pure art was declining; (b) the Arabesque of the Moors as seen in the Alhambra, introduced by them into Europe in the Middle Ages; (c) Modern Arabesque, which took its rise in Italy in the Renaissance period of art. The arabesques of the Moors, who are prohibited by their religion from representing animal forms, consist essentially of complicated ornamental designs based on the suggestion of plant-growth, combined with extremely complex geometrical forms.
Arabgir(a˙-ra˙b-gēr´), orArabkir´, a town in Asia, 147 milesW.S.W.of Erzerum, noted for its manufacture of silk and cotton goods. Pop. between 20,000 and 30,000.
Ara´bia, a vast peninsula in the S.W. of Asia, bounded on theN.by the great Syro-Babylonian plain,N.E.by the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman,S.orS.E.by the Indian Ocean, andS.W.by the Red Sea and Gulf of Suez. Its length fromN.W.toS.E.is about 1800 miles, its mean breadth about 600 miles, its area approximately 1,200,000 sq. miles, its population probably less than 5,000,000. Roughly described, it exhibits a central table-land surrounded by a series of deserts, with numerous scattered oases, while around this is a line of mountains parallel to and approaching the coasts, and with a narrow rim of low grounds (tehāma) between them and the sea. In its general features Arabia resembles the Sahara, of which it may be considered a continuation. Like the Sahara, it has its wastes of loose sand, its stretches of bare rocks and stones, its mountains devoid of vegetation, its oases with their wells and streams, their palm-groves and cultivated fields—islands of green amidst the surrounding desolation. Rivers proper there are none. By the ancients the whole peninsula was broadly divided into three great sections—Arabia Petræa (containing the city Petra), Deserta (desert), and Felix (happy). The first and last of these answer roughly to the modern divisions of the region of Sinai in theN.W.and Yemen in theS.W., while the nameDesertawas vaguely given to the rest of the country. (SeeExplorations, Modern.) The principal divisions at the present are Madian in the north-west; south of this, Hejaz, Assir, and Yemen, all on the Red Sea, the last named occupying the south-western part of the peninsula, and comprising atehāmaor maritime lowland on the shores of the Red Sea, with an elevated inland district of considerable breadth; Hadramaut on the south coast; Oman occupying the south-east angle; El-Hasa and Koveït on the Persian Gulf; El-Hamad (Desert of Syria), Nefûd, and Jebel Shammar in the north; Nejd, the Central Highlands, which occupies a great part of the interior of the country, while south of it is the great unexplored Dahkna or sandy desert. Between 1902-5 a joint commission of British and Turkish officers laid down a boundary line defining the limits between Turkish territory and that of the independent Arab tribes in political relations with Great Britain. Nearly the whole of Southern Arabia came within the sphere of British influence. Madian belongs to Egypt; the Hejaz, Yemen, Bahr-el-Hasa, Koveït, &c., were more or less under the suzerainty of Turkey until 1914. The rest of the country is ruled by independent chiefs—sheikhs, emirs, and imâms—while the title of sultan has been assumed by the chief of the Wahabis in Nejd, the sovereign of Oman (who has a subsidy from the Indian Government), and some petty princes in the south of the peninsula. On 9th June, 1916, the Grand Shereef of Mecca declared himself independent of the Turkish Government, and an Arab revolt spread rapidly. The Grand Shereef Hussein then announced to the Moslem world that the Shereefate of Mecca was henceforth independent, and on 4th Nov., 1916, he had himself formally proclaimed King, or Sultan, of Arabia. The status of the whole of Arabia was determined by the Peace Conference. (SeeHejaz,Mesopotamia,Syria,Sykes-Picot Treaty.) The chief towns are Mecca, the birthplace of Mahomet; Medina, the place to which he fled from Mecca (A.D.622), and where he is buried; Hodeida, a seaport exporting Mocha coffee;Aden, on theS.W.coast, belonging to Britain; Sana, the capital of Yemen; and Muscat, the capital of Oman. The chief towns of the interior are Haïl, the residence of the Emir of Jebel Shammar; Oneizah, under the same ruler; and Rijadh, capital of Nejd and Hasa. The most flourishing portions of Arabia are in Oman, Hadramaut, and Nejd. In the two former are localities with numerous towns and villages and settled industrious populations like that of India or Europe.
The climate of Arabia in general is marked by extreme heat and dryness. Aridity and barrenness characterize both high and low grounds, and the date-palm is often the only representative of vegetable existence. There are districts which in the course of the year are hardly refreshed by a single shower of rain. Forests there are few or none. Grassy pastures have their place supplied by steppe-like tracts, which are covered for a short season with aromatic herbs, serving as food for cattle. The date-palm furnishes the staple article of food; the cereals are wheat, barley, maize, and millet; various sorts of fruit flourish; coffee and many aromatic plants and substances, such as gum-arabic, benzoin, mastic, balsam, aloes, myrrh, frankincense, &c., are produced. There are also cultivated in different parts of the peninsula, according to the soil and climate, beans, rice, lentils, tobacco, melons, saffron, colocynth, poppies, olives, &c. Sheep, goats, oxen, the horse, the camel, ass, and mule supply man's domestic and personal wants. Among wild animals are gazelles, ostriches, the lion, panther, hyena, jackal, &c. Among mineral products are saltpetre, mineral pitch, petroleum, salt, sulphur, and several precious stones, as the carnelian, agate, and onyx. The people of Arabia, according to their own traditions, are derived from two stocks, the pure Arabs and the naturalized Arabs or Mustarab. They are leading either a settled agricultural life or a nomadic existence. In Southern Arabia the Jews form a large element in the towns' population. Commerce is largely in the hands of foreigners, among whom the Jews and Banians (Indian merchants) are the most numerous.
The history of Arabia previous to Mahomet is obscure. The earliest inhabitants are believed to have been of the Semitic race. Jews in great numbers migrated into Arabia after the destruction of Jerusalem, and, making numerous proselytes, indirectly favoured the introduction of the doctrines of Mahomet. With his advent the Arabians revolted and united for the purpose of extending the new creed; and under the caliphs—the successors of Mahomet—they attained great power, and founded large and powerful kingdoms in three continents. (SeeCaliphs.) On the fall of the caliphate of Bagdad in 1258 the decline set in, and on the expulsion of the Moors from Spain the foreign rule of the Arabs came to an end. In the sixteenth century Turkey subdued Hejaz and Yemen, and received the nominal submission of the tribes inhabiting the rest of Arabia. The allegiance of Hejaz was renounced early in the European War; but Yemen achieved its independence in the seventeenth century, and maintained it till 1871, when the territory again fell into the hands of the Turks. In 1839 Aden was occupied by the British. Oman early became virtually independent of the caliphs, and grew into a well-organized kingdom. In 1507 its capital, Maskat or Muscat, was occupied by the Portuguese, who were not driven out till 1659. The Wahabis appeared towards the end of the eighteenth century, and took an important part in the political affairs of Arabia, but their progress was interrupted by Mohammed Ali, pasha of Egypt, and they suffered a complete defeat by Ibrahim Pasha. He extended his power over most of the country, but the events of 1840 in Syria compelled him to renounce all claims to Arabia. The Hejaz thus again became subject to Turkish sway, and until 1914 Turkey continually extended its rule not only over Yemen, but also over the district of El-Hasa on the Persian Gulf.—Bibliography: Sir R. F. Burton,Pilgrimage to Medina and Mecca; E. Reclus,Les Arabes; C. M. Doughty,Arabia Deserta, andWanderings in Arabia; G. W. Bury,Arabia Infelix; S. M. Zwemer,Arabia, the Cradle of Islam.
Arabian Language and Literature.—The Arabic language belongs to the Semitic dialects, among which it is distinguished for its richness, softness, and high degree of development. By the spread of Islam it became the sole written language and the prevailing speech in all South-Western Asia and Eastern and Northern Africa, and for a time in Southern Spain, in Malta, and in Sicily; and it is still used as a learned and sacred language wherever Islam is spread. Almost a third part of the Persian vocabulary consists of Arabic words, and there is the same proportion of Arabic in Turkish. The Arabic language is written in an alphabet of its own, which has also been adopted in writing Persian, Hindustani, Turkish, &c. As in all Semitic languages (except the Ethiopic), it is read from right to left. The vowels are usually omitted in Arabic manuscripts, only the consonants being written.
Poetry among the Arabs had a very early development, and before the time of Mahomet poetical contests were held and prizes awarded for the best pieces. The collection called theMoallakâtcontains seven pre-Mahommedan poems by seven authors. Many other poems belonging to the time before Mahomet, someof equal age with those of theMoallakât, are also preserved in collections. Mahomet gave a new direction to Arab literature. The rules of faith and life which he laid down were collected by Abu-Bekr, first caliph after his death, and published by Othman, the third caliph, and constitute theKoran—the Mahommedan Bible. The progress of the Arabs in literature, the arts and sciences, may be said to have begun with the government of the caliphs of the family of the Abbassides,A.D.749, at Bagdad, several of whom, as Harun al Rashid and Al Mamun, were munificent patrons of learning: and their example was followed by the Ommiades in Spain. In Spain were established numerous academies and schools, which were visited by students from other European countries; and important works were written on geography, history, philosophy, medicine, physics, mathematics, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. Most of the geography in the Middle Ages is the work of the Arabs, and their historians since the eighth century have been very numerous. The philosophy of the Arabs was of Greek origin, and derived principally from that of Aristotle. Numerous translations of the scientific works of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers were made, principally by Christian scholars who resided as physicians at the Courts of the caliphs. These were diligently studied in Bagdad, Damascus, and Cordova, and, being translated into Latin, became known in the west of Europe. Of their philosophical authors the most celebrated are Alfarabi (tenth century), Ibn Sina or Avicenna (diedA.D.1037), Alghazzali (died 1111), Ibn Roshd or Averroes (twelfth century), called by pre-eminence The Commentator, &c. In medicine they excelled all other nations in the Middle Ages, and they are commonly regarded as the earliest experimenters in chemistry. Their mathematics and astronomy were based on the works of Greek writers, but the former they enriched, simplified, and extended. It was by them that algebra was introduced to the Western peoples, and the Arabic numerals were similarly introduced. Astronomy they especially cultivated, for which famous schools and observatories were erected at Bagdad and Cordova. TheAlmagestof Ptolemy in an Arabic translation was early a textbook among them. Alongside of science poetry continued to be cultivated, but after the ninth or tenth centuries it grew more and more artificial. Among poets were Abu Nowas, Asmai, Abu Temmam, Motenabbi, Abul-Ala, Busiri, Tograi, and Hariri. Tales and romances in prose and verse were written. The tales of fairies, genii, enchanters, and sorcerers in particular passed from the Arabians to the Western nations, as inThe Thousand and One Nights.Some of the books most widely read in the Middle Ages, such asThe Seven Wise Masters,theFables of Pilpay(or Bidpai), and theRomance of Antarfound their way into Europe through the instrumentality of the Arabs. At the present day Arabic literature is almost confined to the production of commentaries and scholia, discussions on points of dogma and jurisprudence, and grammatical works on the classical language. There are a few newspapers published in Arabic.—Bibliography: C. Huart,History of Arabic Literature;R. A. Nicholson,Literary History of the Arabs.
Arabian Architecture.SeeMoorish Architecture,Saracenic Architecture.
Arabian Gulf.SeeRed Sea.
Arabian Nights, orThe Thousand and One Nights, (Ar. Alf Layla wa-Layla), a celebrated collection of Eastern tales, based upon an old work, calledHazar Afsana, long current in the East, and supposed to have been derived by the Arabians from India, through the medium of Persia. They were first introduced into Europe in the beginning of the eighteenth century by means of the French translation of Antoine Galland. Of some of them no original MS. is known to exist; they were taken down by Galland from the oral communication of a Syrian friend. The story which connects the tales ofThe Thousand and One Nightsis as follows: The Sultan Shahriyar, exasperated by the faithlessness of his bride, made a law that every one of his future wives should be put to death the morning after marriage. At length one of them, Sheherazade, the generous daughter of the grand-vizier, succeeded in abolishing the cruel custom. By the charm of her stories the fair narrator induced the sultan to defer her execution every day till the dawn of another, by breaking off in the middle of an interesting tale which she had begun to relate. In the form we possess them these tales belong to a comparatively late period, though the exact date of their composition is not known. Lane, who published a translation of a number of the tales, with valuable notes, is of opinion that they took their present form some time between 1475 and 1525. Sir Richard Burton's complete English translation was issued in 16 vols. (1885-8).
Arabian Sea, the part of the Indian Ocean between Arabia and India.
Arabic Figures, the characters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0; of Indian origin, introduced into Europe by the Moors. They did not come into general use till after the invention of printing.
Ara´bi Pasha, Egyptian soldier and revolutionary leader, born 1839. In Sept., 1881, he headed a military revolt, and was for a time virtually dictator of Egypt. Britain interfered, and after a short campaign, beginning with the bombardment of Alexandria and ending with thedefeat of Arabi at Tel-el-Kebir, he surrendered, and was banished to Ceylon, being pardoned in 1900. He died in obscurity in Cairo in 1911.
Arable Land, land which is fit for ploughing, and capable of being cultivated, as distinguished from grass-land, wood-land, common pasture, mountains, forests, morasses, and waste. In Government returns the term is applied to land that is actually under regular cultivation. The land capable of being cultivated amounts in England and Wales to about 25 per cent, and in Ireland to about 13 per cent. In the course of the last thirty or forty years there has, however, been a considerable diminution in the area of land actually cultivated, as a result of large foreign imports of grain and other agricultural products.
Arabs.The Arabs, as a race, are of middle stature, of a powerful though slender build, and have a skin of a more or less brownish colour; in towns and the uplands often almost white. Their features are well cut, the nose straight, the forehead high. They are naturally active, intelligent, and courteous; and their character is marked by temperance, bravery, and hospitality. The first religion of the Arabs, the worship of the stars, was supplanted by the doctrines of Mahommedanism, which succeeded rapidly in establishing itself throughout Arabia. Besides the two principal sects of Islam, the Sunnites and the Shiites, there also exists, in considerable numbers, a third Mahommedan sect, the Wahabis, which arose in the latter half of the eighteenth century, and for a time possessed great political importance in the peninsula. The mode of life of the Arabs is either nomadic or settled. The nomadic tribes are termed Bedouins (or Bedawins), and among them are considered to be the Arabs of the purest blood.
Aracacha, orArracacha(ar-a-kä'cha), a genus of umbelliferous plants of Southern and Central America. The root ofA. esculentais divided into several lobes, each of which is about the size of a large carrot. These are boiled like potatoes and largely eaten in South America.
Aracan(ar-a-kan'), the most northern division of Lower Burmah, on the Bay of Bengal; chief town and seaport Akyab. It was ceded to the English in 1826, as a result of the first Burmese war.
Araçari(a˙-ra˙-sä'rē), native name of a genus of brilliant birds (Pteroglossus) closely allied to the toucans, but generally smaller; natives of the warm parts of South America.
Aracati(a˙-ra˙-ka˙-tē'), a Brazilian river-port, State of Ceará, on the River Jaguaribe, about 10 miles from its mouth. Exports hides and cotton. Pop. about 10,000.
Ara´ceæ, a nat. ord. of monocotyledonous plants, mostly tropical, having the genus Arum as the type. Most of the species have tuberous roots abounding in starch, which forms a wholesome food after the acrid juice has been washed out. SeeArum,Caladium,Dumb-cane.
Arachis(ar´a-kis), a genus of leguminous plants much cultivated in warm climates, and esteemed a valuable article of food. The most remarkable feature of the genus is that when the flower falls the stalk supporting the small undeveloped fruit lengthens, and bending towards the ground pushes the fruit into the ground, when it begins to enlarge and ripen. The pod ofA. hypogœa(popularly called ground, earth, or pea nut) is of a pale-yellow colour, and contains two seeds the size of a hazel-nut, in flavour sweet as almonds, and yielding when pressed an excellent oil.
Arachnida(a-rak´ni-da; Gr.arachnē, a spider), a class of Arthropoda or higher Annulose animals including the Spiders, Scorpions, Mites, Ticks, &c. They have the body divided into a number of segments orsomites, some of which have always articulated appendages (limbs, &c.). There is often a pair of nervous ganglia in each somite, although in some forms (as spiders) the nervous system becomes modified and concentrated. They are oviparous and somewhat resemble insects, but they have a united head and thorax, and do not undergo a metamorphosis similar to insects. They respire by tracheæ, by pulmonary sacs, or by the skin.
Ar´ack, orAr´rack, a spirituous liquor manufactured in the East Indies from a great variety of substances. It is often distilled from fermented rice, or it may be distilled from the juice of the coco-nut and other palms. Pure arack is clear and transparent, of a yellowish or straw colour, and with a peculiar but agreeable taste and smell; it contains at least 52 to 54 per cent of alcohol.
Arad(o'rod), a town of the former kingdom of Hungary, on the Maros, 30 miles north of Temeswar, divided by the river into O (Old) Arad and Uj (New) Arad, connected by a bridge; it has a fortress, and is an important railway centre, with a large trade and manufactures. The town is now within the confines of Roumania, Uj Arad being called Arodul Neo. Population of Old and New Arad together, 63,166.
Ar´adus(nowRuad), an inlet about a mile in circumference lying 2 miles off the Syrian coast, 35 milesN.of Tripolis; the site of the Phœnician stronghold Arvad, a city second only to Tyre and Sidon; now occupied by about 3000 people, mainly fishermen.
Arafat´, orJebel er Rahmeh('Mountain of Mercy'), a hill in Arabia, about 200 feet high, with stone steps reaching to the summit, 15 miles south-east of Mecca; one of the principal objects of pilgrimage among Mahommedans, whosay that it was the place where Adam first received his wife Eve after they had been expelled from Paradise and separated from each other 120 years. A sermon delivered on the mount constitutes one great ceremony of theHajj; or pilgrimage to Mecca, and entitles the hearer to the name and privileges of aHajjior pilgrim.
Ar´ago, Dominique François, a French physicist, born in 1786, died at Paris in 1853. After studying in the Polytechnic School at Paris, he was appointed a secretary of the Bureau des Longitudes. In 1806 he was associated with Biot in completing in Spain the measurements of Delambre and Méchain to obtain an arc of the meridian. Before he got back to France he had been shipwrecked and narrowly escaped being enslaved at Algiers. In 1809 he was elected to the Academy of Sciences and appointed a professor at the Polytechnic School. He distinguished himself by his researches in the polarization of light, galvanism, magnetism, astronomy, &c. His discovery of the magnetic properties of substances devoid of iron, made known to the Academy of Sciences in 1824, procured him the Copley medal of the Royal Society of London in 1825. A further consideration of the same subject led to the equally remarkable discovery of the production of magnetism by electricity. He took part in the revolution of 1848, and held the office of Minister of War and Marine in the provisional Government. At thecoup d'étatof Dec., 1852, he refused to take the oath to the Government of Louis Napoleon, but the oath was not pressed. His works, which were posthumously collected and published, consist, besides hisAstronomie Populaire, chiefly of contributions to learned societies, and biographical notices (éloges) of deceased members of the Academy of Sciences.
Arago, Emmanuel, son of Dominique François, French advocate and politician, was born at Paris in 1812; called to the bar 1837; took part in the revolution of 1848; renounced politics after thecoup d'étatof Dec., 1852, but continued to practise at the bar. After the fall of the Empire he again took a prominent part in public affairs, and held several important offices. He is author of a volume of poems and many theatrical pieces. He died in 1896.
Arago, Étienne, brother of Dominique Arago, born 1802, died 1892. He founded the journalsLa RéformeandLe Figaro; was director of the Théâtre du Vaudeville, 1829; took part in the revolution of 1848; was condemned to transportation, 1849; fled from France, but returned in 1859; was mayor of Paris during the Franco-Prussian war, and appointed archivist to the École des Beaux Arts, 1878. He was author of upwards of 100 dramas,La Vie de Molière,Les Bleus et les Blancs, and other works.
Aragon´, Kingdom of, a former province or kingdom of Spain, now divided into three provinces of Teruel, Huesca, and Saragossa; bounded on theN.by the Pyrenees,N.W.by Navarre,W.by Castile,S.by Valencia, andE.by Catalonia; length about 190 miles, average breadth 90 miles; area, 18,298 sq. miles. It was governed by its own monarchs until the union with Castile on the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella (1469).
Arago´na, a town in Sicily, 8 milesN.N.E.of Girgenti. Pop. 16,000. In the neighbourhood is the mud volcano of Macculuba.
Aragonite, a mineral formed of calcium carbonate crystallized in the rhombic system; specific gravity 2.94 (compareCalcite). Aragonite passes into calcite in the course of geological time, but is important as the mineral precipitated to form the oolitic limestones of warm seas, and from being the material of most molluscan shells. It was first found in Aragon.
Araguaya(a˙-ra˙-gwī'a˙), a Brazilian river, principal affluent of the Tocantins; rises about the 18th degree ofS.lat.; in its course northwards forms the boundary between the two States of Matto Grosso and Goyaz, and falls into the Tocantins near lat. 6°S.; length, about 1300 miles, of which over 1000 are navigable.
A´ral, a salt-water lake in Asia, in Russian territory, about 150 milesW.of the Caspian Sea, between 43° 42´ and 46° 44´N.lat., and 58° 18´ and 61° 46´E.long.; length 270 miles, breadth 165; area, 26,650 sq. miles (or not much smaller than Scotland). It stands 240 feet above the level of the Caspian, and 160 feet above the Mediterranean. It receives the Amu Darya or Oxus and the Syr Darya or Jaxartes, and contains a multitude of sturgeon and other fish. It is encircled by desert sandy tracts, and its shores are without harbours. It has no outlet. The Aral contains a large number of small islands; steamers have been placed on it by the Russians.
Ara´lia, a genus of plants with small flowers arranged in umbels and succulent berries, the type of the nat. ord. Araliaceæ, which is nearly related to the Umbelliferæ, but the species are of a more shrubby habit. They are natives chiefly of tropical or sub-tropical countries, and in Britain are represented by the ivy; ginseng belongs to the order. From the pith ofA. papyrifĕrais obtained the Chinese rice-paper.
A´ram, Eugene, a self-taught scholar whose unhappy fate has been made the subject of a ballad by Hood and a romance by Lord Lytton, was born in Yorkshire, 1704, executed for murder, 1759. In 1734 he set up a school at Knaresborough. About 1745 a shoemaker of that place, named Daniel Clarke, was suddenly missing under suspicious circumstances; and no light was thrown on the matter till full thirteenyears afterwards, when an expression dropped by one Richard Houseman, respecting the discovery of a skeleton supposed to be Clarke's, caused him to be taken into custody. From his confession an order was issued for the apprehension of Aram, who had long quitted Yorkshire, and was at the time acting as usher at the grammar-school at Lynn. He was brought to trial on 3rd Aug., 1759, at York, where, notwithstanding an able and eloquent defence which he made before the court, he was convicted of the murder of Clarke, and sentenced to death. He was among the first to recognize the affinity of the Celtic to the other European languages, and under favourable circumstances might have done some valuable work in philological science.—Cf. W. Bristow,The Genuine Account of the Life and Trial of Eugene Aram.
Aramæ´an, orAramaic. SeeSemitic Languages,Syriac.
Ar´an, an island lying off the W. coast of Donegal, Ireland, has an area of 4335 acres, a lighthouse, and a pop. of 1308, chiefly engaged in fishing.—Also calledNorth Island of Aran, orArranmore.
Arane´idæ, the spider family.
Aran Islands, orSouth Islands of Aran, three islands at the mouth of Galway Bay, off the W. coast of Ireland. The largest, Aranmore or Inishmore, comprises 7635 acres, and has a pop. of 2592; the next, Inishmaan, 2252 acres, pop. 473; and the least, Inishere, 1400 acres, pop. 456. They are remarkable for a number of architectural remains of a very early date. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged in agriculture and fishing.
Aranjuez(a˙-ra˙n-hu¨-eth´), a small town and palace in Spain, 30 miles from Madrid, with splendid gardens laid out by Philip II. The Court used to reside here from Easter till the close of June, when the number of people increased from 4000 to 20,000. It has a wireless station. Pop. 12,000.
Arany(o-ron´y), Janos, Hungarian poet, born 1817, died 1882. He was for some time a strolling player, but became professor of Latin at the Normal School of Szalonta, professor of Hungarian literature at Nagy Körös, and secretary of the Hungarian Academy. Author ofThe Lost Constitution,Katalin, and a series of three connected narrative poems on the fortunes of Toldi.
Arap´ahoes, a tribe of American Indians located near the head-waters of the Arkansas and Platte Rivers. They number in all about 2000.
Arapaima(a-ra-pī´ma), a genus of South American fresh-water fishes, ord. Physostomi, family Osteoglossidæ, one species of which (A. gigas) grows to the length of 15 or 16 feet, and forms a valuable article of food in Brazil and Guiana. It is covered with large bony scales, and has a bare and bony head.
Ar´arat, a celebrated mountain in Armenia, an isolated volcanic mass showing two separate cones known as the Great and Little Ararat, resting on a common base and separated by a deep intervening depression. The elevations are: Great Ararat, 16,916 feet; Little Ararat, 12,840 feet; the connecting ridge, 8780 feet. Vegetation extends to 14,200 feet, which marks the snow-line. According to the Bible Mount Ararat was the resting-place of the Ark when the waters of the Flood abated.
Araro´ba, orArraroba, the powdered bark ofAndīra ararōba. SeeAndira.
A´ras(the ancientAraxes), a river of Asia Minor, risingS.of Erzerum at the foot of the Bingol-dagh; it flows for some miles through South Caucasia, turning eastwards to the Erivan plainN. of Ararat. It then sweeps in a semi-circle mostly between Caucasia and Persia round to its confluence with the Kur, 60 miles from its mouth in the Caspian; length, 500 miles.
Ara´tus, a Greek poet, born at Soli in Cilicia; lived about 270B.C.; was a favourite of Ptolemy Philadelphus. His poemPhænomenais a version of a prose work on astronomy by Eudoxus; one verse of it is quoted by St. Paul in his address to the Athenians (Acts, xvii, 28).
Ara´tus of Sicyon, a statesman of ancient Greece, born 272B.C.In 251B.C.he overthrew the tyrant of Sicyon and joined that city to the Achæan League, which he greatly extended. He accepted the aid of Antigonus Doson, King of Macedon, against the Spartans, and became in time little more than the adviser of the Macedonian king, who had now made the League dependent on himself. He is said to have been poisoned by Philip V of Macedon, 213B.C.
Arauca´nians, a South American native race in the southern part of Chile, occupying a territory stretching from about 37° to 40° ofS.lat. They are warlike and more civilized than many of the native races of S. America, and maintained almost unceasing war with the Spaniards from 1537 to 1773, when their independence was recognized by Spain, though their territory was much curtailed. Their early contests with the Spaniards were celebrated in Ercilla's Spanish poemAraucana. With the Republic of Chile they were long at feud, and in 1861 had at their head a French adventurer named Antoine de Tounens, who claimed the title of king. In 1882 they submitted to Chile. The Chilian province of Arauco receives its name from them.