Renaissance ArchitectureRenaissance—St. Peter's, Rome
A few words may be added on the architecture of India and China. Although many widely-differing styles are to be found in India, the oldest and only true native style of Indian ecclesiastical architecture is the Buddhist, the earliest specimens dating from 250B.C.Among the chief objects of Buddhist art arestupasortopes, built in the form of large towers, and employed asdágobasto contain relics of Buddha or of some noted saint. Other works of Buddhist art are temples or monasteries excavated from the solid rock, and supported by pillars of the natural rock left in their places. Buddhist architecture is found in Ceylon, Tibet, Java, &c., as well as in India. The most remarkable Hindu or Brahmanical temples are in Southern India. They are pyramidal in form, rising in a series of stories. The Saracenic or Mohammedan architecture afterwards introduced into India is, of course, of foreign origin. The Chinese have made thetentthe elementary feature of their architecture; and of their style any one may form an idea by inspecting the figures which are depicted upon common chinaware. Chinese roofs are concave on the upper side, as if made of canvas instead of wood. (For further information seeGreek,Roman,Gothic,English,French,Russian Architecture; andBuilding,Fine Arts,Arch,Column,Aqueduct,Corinthian,Doric,Ionic,Theatre, &c.)—Bibliography: J. Ruskin,Seven Lamps of Architecture; E. A. Freeman,History of Architecture; Viollet-le-Duc,How to build a House; J. T. Micklethwaite,Modern Parish Churches; H. H. Statham,Architecture for General ReadersandCritical History of Architecture; J. Fergusson,History of Architecture in all Countries; F. M. Simpson,A History of Architectural Development;Cyclopedia of Architecture.
Architrave(är´ki-träv), in architecture, the part of an entablature which rests immediately on the heads of the columns, being the lowest of its three principal divisions, the others being thefriezeand thecornice.
Archives(är´kīvz). SeeRecords.
Archivolt(är´ki-volt), in architecture, the ornamental band of mouldings on the face of an arch and following its contour.
Archons(är´konz), the chief magistrates of ancient Athens, chosen to superintend civil and religious concerns. They were nine in number; the first was properly thearchōn, orarchōn epōnўmos, by whose name the year was distinguished in the public records; the second was calledarchōn basileus, or king archon, who exercised the functions of high priest; the third,polemarchos, or general of the forces. The other six were calledthesmothĕtai, or legislators.
Archytas(a˙r-kī´tas), an ancient Greek mathematician, statesman, and general, who flourished about 400B.C., and belonged to Tarentum in Southern Italy. The invention of the analytic method in mathematics is ascribed to him, as well as the solution of many geometrical and mechanical problems. He constructed various machines and automata, among the most celebrated of which was his flying pigeon. He was a Pythagorean in philosophy, and Plato and Aristotle are said to have been both deeply indebted to him. Only inconsiderable fragments of his works are extant.
Arcis-sur-Aube(a˙r-sē-su˙r-ōb), a small town of France, department Aube, at which, in 1814, was fought a battle between Napoleon and the Allies, after which the latter marched to Paris. Pop. 3000.
Arc-light, a certain kind of electric light in which the illuminating source is the current of electricity passing between two sticks of carbonkept a short distance apart, one of them being in connection with the positive, the other with the negative terminal of a battery or dynamo.
Arco, a town of Tyrol, near Lake Garda, a favourite winter resort of invalids. Pop. 3800.
Arcole(a˙r´ko-la˙), a village in North Italy, 15 milesS.E.of Verona, celebrated for the battles of 15th, 16th, and 17th Nov., 1796, fought between the French under Bonaparte and the Austrians, in which the latter were defeated with great slaughter.
Arcos´ de la Fronte´ra, a city of Spain, 30 milesE.byN.from Cadiz, on the Guadalete, here crossed by a stone bridge, on a sandstone rock 570 feet above the level of the river. On the highest part of the rock stands the castle of the dukes of Arcos, partly in ruins. The principal manufactures are leather, hats, and cordage. Pop. 13,980.
Ar´cot, two districts and a town of India, within the Presidency of Madras.—North Arcotis an inland district with an area of 7616 sq. miles. The country is partly flat and partly mountainous, where intersected by the Eastern Gháts. Pop. 2,200,000.—South Arcotlies on the Bay of Bengal, and has two seaports, Cuddalor and Porto Novo. Area 5217 sq. miles. Pop. 2,170,000.—The townArcotis in North Arcot, on the Palar, about 70 milesW.byS.of Madras. There is a military cantonment at 3 miles' distance. The town contains handsome mosques, a nabob's palace in ruins, and the remains of an extensive fort. Arcot played an important part in the wars which resulted in the ascendancy of the British in India. It was taken by Clive, 31st Aug., 1751, and heroically defended by him against an apparently overwhelming force under Raja Sahib. Pop. 11,475.
Arctic(a˙rk´tik), an epithet given to the north pole from the proximity of the constellation of the Bear, in Greek calledarktos. TheArctic Circleis an imaginary circle on the globe, parallel to the equator, and 23° 28´ distant from the north pole. This and its opposite, theAntarctic, are called the two polar circles.
Arctic Expeditions.SeeNorth Polar Expeditions.
Arctic Ocean, that part of the water surface of the earth which surrounds the north pole, and washes the northern shores of Europe, Asia, and America; its southern boundary roughly coinciding with the Arctic Circle (lat. 66° 30´N.). It encloses many large islands, and contains large bays and gulfs which deeply indent the northern shores of the three continents. Its great characteristic is ice, which is perpetual nearly everywhere.
Arctic Regions, the regions round the north pole, and extending from the pole on all sides to the Arctic Circle in lat. 66° 30´N.The Arctic or North Polar Circle just touches the northern headlands of Iceland, cuts off the southern and narrowest portion of Greenland, crosses Fox's Strait north of Hudson's Bay, whence it goes over the American continent to Behring's Strait. Thence it runs to Obdorsk at the mouth of the Obi, then crossing Northern Russia, the White Sea, and the Scandinavian Peninsula, returns to Iceland. Though much skill and heroism have been displayed in the exploration of this portion of the earth, there is still an area round the pole estimated at 2,500,000 sq. miles, which is a blank to geographers. Many have adopted the belief in the existence of an open polar sea about the north pole. But this belief is not supported by any positive evidence. Valuable minerals, fossils, &c., have been discovered within the Arctic regions. In the archipelago north of the American continent excellent coal frequently occurs. The mineral cryolite is mined in Greenland. Fossil ivory is obtained in islands at the mouth of the Lena. In Scandinavia, parts of Siberia, and north-west America, the forest region extends within the Arctic Circle. The most characteristic of the natives of the Arctic regions are the Esquimaux. The most notable animals are the white-bear, the musk-ox, the reindeer, and the whalebone whale. Fur-bearing animals are numerous. The most intense cold ever registered in those regions was 74° below zero F. The aurora borealis is a brilliant phenomenon of Arctic nights. SeeNorth Polar Expeditions.
Arc´tium.SeeBurdock.
Arc´tomys.SeeMarmot.
Arctu´rus, orAlpha Boötis, a fixed star of the first magnitude in the constellation of Boötes (the Ploughman), is one of the brightest stars in the northern heavens, yellow in colour. Its light is believed to be intrinsically at least 140 times as brilliant as the sun's, and to take over 40 years to reach us. It is notable as having a comparatively large proper motion.
Ardahan´, a small fortified town about 6400 feet above the sea, between Kars and Batúm in Armenia. It was captured by the Russians in 1877, and ceded to them by the Berlin Treaty, 1878. It was handed over to Turkey by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918, but the Turkish troops evacuated it after the armistice in 1918.
Ar´dea, the genus to which the heron belongs, type of the family Ardēidæ, which includes also cranes, storks, bitterns, &c.
Ar´debil, orArdabil, a Persian town, province of Azerbaijan, near the Karasu, a tributary of the Aras, about 40 miles from the Caspian, in an elevated and healthy situation; it has mineral springs and a considerable trade. Pop. 16,000.
Ardèche(a˙r-dāsh), a department in the south of France (Languedoc), on the west side of theRhone, taking its name from the River Ardèche, which rises within it, and falls into the Rhone after a course of 46 miles; area, 2144 sq. miles. It is generally of a mountainous character, and contains the culminating point of the Cevennes. Silk and wine are produced. Annonay is the principal town, but Privas is the capital. Pop. (1921), 294,308.
Arden, Forest of, a wood in Warwickshire. Shakespeare is supposed to have used it as a setting forAs You Like It.
Ardennes(a˙r-den´), an extensive tract of hilly land stretching over a large portion of the north-east of France and south-west of Belgium. Anciently the whole tract formed one immense forest (Arduenna Silvaof Cæsar); but large portions are now occupied by cultivated fields and populous towns.
Ardennes(a˙r-den´), a frontier department in the north-east of France; area, 2027 sq. miles, partly consisting of the Forest of Ardennes. There are extensive slate-quarries, numerous ironworks, and important manufactures of cloth, ironware, leather, glass, earthenware, &c. It was the scene of many battles during the European War (1914-8). Chief towns, Mézières (the capital), Rocroi, and Sedan. Pop. 277,791.
Ardnamurchan(-mur´han)Point, the most westerly point of the Island of Great Britain, in Argyllshire, having a lighthouse, 180 feet above sea-level, visible 18 to 20 miles off.
Ar´doch, a parish in south Perthshire, celebrated for its Roman remains, one, a camp, being the most perfect existing in Scotland.
Ardross´an, a seaport of Scotland, in Ayrshire, on the Firth of Clyde. It has a large harbour and shipbuilding yards, and is a centre of steamship services with Arran, Ireland, and Douglas, I.O.M. Pop. (1921), 7214.
Ards´ley, East and West, an urban district or town of England, W. Riding of Yorkshire, several miles north-west of Wakefield, with collieries, iron-mines, ironworks, &c. Pop. (1921), 7058.
Are(är), the unit of the French land measure, equal to 100 sq. metres, or 1076.44 English sq. feet. Ahectareis 100 ares, equal to 2.47 English acres. The tenth part of an are is called adéciare, and a hundredth part acentiare.
A´rea, the superficial content of any figure or space, the quantity of surface it contains in terms of any unit. SeeMensuration.
Are´ca, a genus of lofty palms with pinnated leaves, and a drupe-like fruit enclosed in a fibrous rind.A. Catĕchuof the Coromandel and Malabar coasts is the common areca palm which yields areca or betel-nuts, and also the astringent juice catechu.A. oleracĕais the cabbage tree or cabbage palm of the West Indies. With lime and the leaves of the betel-pepper, the areca-nuts when green form the celebrated masticatory of the East. They are an important article in Eastern trade.
Arecibo(a˙-re-thē´bō), a seaport town on the north coast of the Island of Porto Rico. Pop. 9612.
Areiopagus.SeeAreopagus.
Are´na, the enclosed space in the central part of the Roman amphitheatres, in which took place the combats of gladiators or wild beasts. It was usually covered with sand or saw-dust to prevent the gladiators from slipping, and to absorb the blood. SeeAmphitheatre.
Arenaceous Rocksinclude all sediments in which quartz sand is the most important constituent. Owing to its resistance to comminution and to chemical attack, quartz accumulates in sea-beaches while other mineral matter becomes removed. Hence sands gather near a shore and ultimately become consolidated by various natural cements into sandstones, those cemented by silica being styled quartzites. Sand-dunes in deserts or on coasts are unconsolidated arenaceous rock-masses.
Ar´endala seaport of Southern Norway, exporting timber, wood pulp, and iron, and owning numerous ships. It is a well-built place, having been rebuilt since the great fire of 1868. Wood pulp, paper, and cotton are manufactured. Pop. 11,000.
Arenenberg Castle(mediæval,Narrenberg), a castle and estate in the Swiss Canton Thurgau, the possession of Queen Hortense, who died there in 1837. In 1855 it became the property of the Empress Eugénie.
Arenga, a term sometimes used as the generic name of the areng or gomuti palm, which is then botanically designatedArenga saccharifera. SeeGomuti.
Arenic´ola.SeeLobworm.
Are´olar Tissue, an assemblage of fibres in bundles, pervading almost every part of the animal structure, and connected with each other so as to form innumerable small cavities, the whole serving as a means by which the various organs and parts of organs are connected together. It is called alsoCellular TissueandConnective Tissue. The fibres are of two kinds—white fibrous tissue and yellow elastic fibrous tissue, and interspersed among the bundles or occupying the cellular cavities are cells and corpuscles of several kinds. It is a tissue found in large quantities under the skin, covering the muscles, the blood-vessels, and nerves, and in various parts forming a kind of protective covering for delicate and important organs. It is because of its general distribution, and because of its binding various structures together, that it is calledconnective.—In botany the term is sometimes applied to thenon-vascular substance, composed entirely of untransformed cells, which forms the soft substance of plants.
Areom´eter(from Gr.araios, thin,metron, a measure), an instrument for measuring the specific gravity of liquids; ahydrometer(q.v.).
Areop´agus, the oldest of the Athenian courts of justice, an assembly having a position more august than an ordinary court, and in its best days exercising a general supervision over public morals. It obtained its name from its place of meeting, on the Hill of Ares (Mars), near the Acropolis or citadel of Athens. Another explanation connects the word withAræ(Curses), commonly known asSemnæ(Awful Goddesses), who were the guardians of the hill. It existed from very remote times, and the crimes tried before it were wilful murder, poisoning, robbery, and arson, while it had under its control also dissoluteness of morals, and innovations in the State and in religion. Its meetings were held in the open air, and its members were selected from those who had held the office of archon. The tribunal eventually lost many of its powers, but it continued to exist in name at least as late as the time of Cicero or later, having had an existence of seven or eight hundred years.
Arequipa(a˙-rā-kē´pa˙), a city of Peru, capital of a province of same name, situated in a fertile valley, 7850 feet above sea-level, at a distance of about 55 miles from the coast and on the railway which runs from its port Mollendo inland to Puno on Lake Titicaca. Behind the city rises the volcano of Arequipa, or Peak of Misti (20,328 feet). The climate is healthy but the locality is liable to earthquakes, one of which almost completely destroyed the town in 1868, after which it was rapidly rebuilt. A considerable trade is carried on through Mollendo, there being a large transit trade with the interior, and the town carries on various industries, manufacturing cotton and woollen goods, &c. It was founded in 1540. Pop. 35,000 to 40,000.—The province has an area of 21,947 sq. miles, and a pop. of 229,007.
Ares(ā´rēz). SeeMars.
Arethu´sa, in Greek mythology, a daughter of Nereus and Doris, a nymph changed by Artĕmis into a fountain in order to free her from the pursuit of the river-god Alpheus. This fountain was said to exist in the small Island of Ortygia, near Syracuse, and was fabled to have a subterranean connection with the River Alpheus in Greece.
Aretino(ä-rā-tē´nö), Guido. SeeGuido.
Aretino, Pietro, Italian poet, born at Arezzo 1492, died at Venice 1556, the natural son of a nobleman called Luigi Bacci. He early displayed a talent for satirical poetry, and when still a young man was banished from Arezzo on account of a sonnet against indulgences. He went to Perugia, and thence to Rome (1517), where he secured the papal patronage, but subsequently lost it through writing licentious sonnets. Through the influence of the Medici family he found an opportunity to insinuate himself into the favour of Francis I. In 1527 Aretino went to Venice, where he acquired powerful friends, among them the Bishop of Vicenza. By his devotional writings he regained the favour of the Roman Court. He called himself 'the divine', and 'the scourge of princes', but he was also their abject flatterer, and that solely to obtain money. The obscenity of some of his writings was such that his name has become proverbial for licentiousness. Among them are five comedies and a tragedy.
Arezzo(a˙-ret´sō; ancientArretium), a city of Central Italy, capital of a province of the same name in Tuscany, near the confluence of the Chiana with the Arno. It has a noble cathedral, containing some fine pictures and monuments; remains of an ancient amphitheatre, &c. It was one of the twelve chief Etruscan towns, and in later times fought long against the Florentines, to whom it had finally to succumb. It is the birthplace of Mæcenas, Petrarch, Pietro Aretino, Redi, and Vasari. Pop. 50,093.—The province of Arezzo contains 1274 sq. miles, and 292,763 inhabitants (1915).
Ar´gal,Argol, orTartar, a hard crust formed on the sides of vessels in which wine has been kept, red or white according to the colour of the wine. It is an impure bitartrate of potassium.
ArgaliArgali (Ovis ammon)
Ar´gali, a species of wild sheep (Caprŏvis ArgăliorOvis ammon) found on the mountainsof Siberia, Central Asia, and Kamtchatka. It is 4 feet high at the shoulders, and proportionately stout in its build, with horns nearly 4 feet in length measured along the curve, and at their base about 19 inches in circumference. It lives in small herds. This true argali must not be confounded with the North-African wild sheep, called the bearded argali and known as the arni, the Algerian moufflon, and the Barbary sheep.
Ar´gall, Sir Samuel (1572-1639), one of the early English adventurers to Virginia. He planned and executed the abduction of Pocahontas, the daughter of the Indian chief Powhattan, in order to secure the ransom of English prisoners. He was deputy-governor of Virginia (1617-9), and was accused of many acts of rapacity and tyranny. In 1620 he served in an expedition against Algiers, and was knighted by James I.
Ar´gand Lamp, a lamp named after its inventor, AiméArgand, a Swiss chemist and physician (born 1755, died 1803), the distinctive feature of which is a burner forming a ring or hollow cylinder covered by a chimney, so that the flame receives a current of air both on the inside and on the outside.
Argaum(a˙r-ga˙´u¨m), a village of India, in Berar, celebrated for the victory of General Wellesley (Duke of Wellington) over the Mahrattas under Scindia and the Rajah of Berar, 29th Nov., 1803.
Ar´gelander, Friedrich Wilhelm August, German astronomer, born in 1799. He added to the knowledge of the progressive motion of the solar system in space, and published a catalogue of 560 stars having 'proper motion'. His works include:Atlas des nördlichen gestirnten Himmels(1857),Neue Uranometrie(1843), &c. He died in 1875.
Argemone(a˙r-jem´o-nē), a small genus of ornamental American plants of the poppy order. From the seeds ofA. mexicānais obtained an oil very useful to painters. The handsomest species isA. grandiflōra, which has large flowers of a pure white colour.
Argensola(a˙r-hen-sō´la˙), Lupercio and Bartolomé Leonardo de, brothers, born at Barbastro, in Aragon, the former in 1565, died in 1613; the latter born in 1566, died in 1631. Lupercio produced tragedies and lyric poems; Bartolomé a number of poems and a historical work,The Conquest of the Moluccas. Their writings are singularly alike in character, and are reckoned among the Spanish classics. The tragedies are of the heavy Senecan type, but the satirical writings of both brothers are full of pungent wit of a pleasing kind.
Argenson(a˙r-zha˙n˙-sōn˙), Marc Pierre de Voyer, Comte d', celebrated French statesman, born in 1696, died 1764. After holding a number of subordinate offices he became minister for foreign affairs, and succeeded in bringing about the Congress of Breda, which was the prelude to that of Aix-la-Chapelle. He was present at the battle of Fontenoy, and was exiled to his estate for some years through the machinations of Madame Pompadour. HisConsidérations sur le Gouvernement de la Francewas a very advanced study on the possibility of combining with a monarchic form of government democratic principles and local self-government.Les Essais, ou Loisirs d'un Ministre d'État, published in 1785, is a collection of characters and anecdotes in the style of Montaigne.
Ar´gent, in coats of arms, the heraldic term expressing silver: represented in engraving by a plain white surface.
Argentan(a˙r-zha˙n˙-tän˙), a French town, department of Orne (Normandy), with an old castle and some manufactures. Pop. 6300.
Argenteuil(a˙r-zha˙n˙-teu-yė), a town in France, department Seine-et-Oise, 7 miles below Paris; it has an active trade in wine, fruit, and vegetables. Pop. 24,282.
Argentie´ra, orKimōli(ancient,Cimōlus), an island in the Grecian Archipelago, one of the Cyclades, about 18 miles in circumference, rocky and sterile. It produces a detergent chalk calledCimolian earth(q.v.), used in washing and bleaching. Pop. 1337.
Ar´gentine, a silvery-white slaty variety of calc-spar, containing a little silica with laminæ usually undulated. It is found in primitive rocks and frequently in metallic veins.—Argentine is also the name of a small British fish (Scopĕlus boreālis) less than 2 inches long and of a silvery colour.
Ar´gentine Republic, formerly called the United Provinces ofLa Plata, a vast country of South America, the extreme length of which is 2300 miles, and the average breadth a little over 500 miles, the total area 1,153,119 sq. miles. It consists of fourteen provinces, ten territories, and one federal district. It is bounded on theN.by Bolivia; on theE.by Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and the Atlantic; on theS.by the Antarctic Ocean; and on theW.by the Andes. It comprises four great natural divisions: (1) the Andine region, containing the provinces of Mendoza, San Juan, Rioja, Catamarca, Tucuman, Salta, and Jujuy; (2) the Pampas, containing the provinces of Santiago, Santa Fé, Cordova, San Luis, and Buenos Ayres, with the territories Formosa, Pampa, and Chaco; (3) the Argentine 'mesopotamia', between the Rivers Paraná and Uruguay, containing the provinces of Entre Rios and Corrientes, and the territory Misiones; (4) Patagonia, including the eastern half of Tierra del Fuego. With the exception of theN.W., where lateral branches of the Andes run into theplain for 150 or 200 miles, and the province of Entre Rios, which is hilly, the characteristic feature of the country is the great monotonous and level plains called 'pampas'. In the north these plains are partly forest-covered, but all the central and southern parts present vast treeless tracts, which afford pasture to immense herds of horses, oxen, and sheep, and are varied in some places by brackish swamps, in others by salt steppes. The great water-course of the country is the Paraná, having a length of fully 2000 miles from its source in the mountains of Goyaz, Brazil, to its junction with the Uruguay, where begins the estuary of La Plata. The Paraná is formed by the union of the Upper Paraná and Paraguay Rivers, near theN.E.corner of the State. Important tributaries are the Pilcomayo, the Vermejo, and the Salado. The Paraná, Paraguay, and Uruguay are valuable for internal navigation. Many of the streams which tend eastward terminate in marshes and salt lakes, some of which are rather extensive. Not connected with the La Plata system are the Colorado and the Rio Negro, the latter formerly the southern boundary of the State, separating it from Patagonia. The source of the Negro is Lake Nahuel Huapi, in Patagonia (area, 1200 sq. miles), in the midst of magnificent scenery. The level portions of the country are mostly of tertiary formation, and the river and coast regions consist mainly of alluvial soil of great fertility. In the pampas clay have been found the fossil remains of extinct mammalia, some of them of colossal size.
European grains and fruits, including the vine, have been successfully introduced, and large areas are now under wheat, maize, flax, and other crops, another source of wealth consisting in the countless herds of cattle and horses and flocks of sheep, which are pastured on the pampas, and which multiply there very rapidly. Gold, silver, nickel, copper, tin, lead, and iron, besides marble, jasper, precious stones, and bitumen, are found in the mountainous districts of theN.W., while petroleum wells have been discovered on the Rio Vermejo; but the development of this mineral wealth has hitherto been greatly retarded by the want of proper means of transport. As a whole there are not extensive forests in the State except in the region of the Gran Chaco (which extends also into Bolivia), where there is known to be 60,000 sq. miles of timber. Thousands of square miles are covered with thistles, which grow to a great height in their season. Cacti also forms great thickets. Peach and apple trees are abundant in some districts. The native fauna includes the puma, the jaguar, the tapir, the llama, the alpaca, the vicuña, armadillos, the rhea or nandu, a species of ostrich, &c. The climate is agreeable and healthy, 97° being about the highest temperature experienced. The rainfall is very scanty in some districts, and is nowhere very large.
As a whole this vast country is very thinly inhabited, some parts of it as yet being very little known. The native Indians were never very numerous, and have given little trouble to the European settlers. Tribes of them yet in the savage state still inhabit the less-known districts, and live by hunting and fishing. Some of the Gran Chaco tribes are said to be very fierce, and European travellers have been killed by them. The European element is strong in the republic, more than half the population being Europeans or of pure European descent. Large numbers of immigrants arrive from Southern Europe, the Italians having the preponderance among those of foreign birth. The typical inhabitants of the pampas are theGauchos, a race of half-breed cattle-rearers and horse-breakers; they are almost continually on horseback, galloping over the plains, collecting their herds and droves, taming wild horses, or catching and slaughtering cattle. In such occupations they require a marvellous dexterity in the use of the lasso and bolas.
The River La Plata was discovered in 1512 by the Spanish navigator Juan Diaz de Solis, and the La Plata territory had been brought into the possession of Spain by the end of the sixteenth century. In 1810 the territory cast off the Spanish rule, and in 1816 the independence of the United States of the Rio de la Plata was formerly declared, but it was long before a settled government was established. The present constitution dates from 1853, being modified in 1866 and 1898. The executive power is vested in a president—elected by the representatives of the fourteen provinces for a term of six years. A national congress of two chambers—a Senate and a House of Deputies—wields the legislative authority, and the republic is making rapid advances in social and political life. The national revenue for 1918 amounted to about £32,860,306, while the expenditure amounted to £34,407,074; the public debt was, at the end of 1916, about £120,000,000. There are about 22,000 miles of railway opened. The external commerce is important, the chief exports being beef and mutton, wheat, maize, and linseed, wool, skins and hides, tallow. The imports are chiefly manufactured goods. The trade is largely with Britain and France, and is increasing rapidly, the exports having advanced from £9,000,000 in 1876 and £73,200,000 in 1908 to £201,360,000 in 1920. The imports in 1920 were £170,820,000. The chief denomination of money is the dollar orpeso, value (in gold) 4s.Buenos Ayres (or Aires) is the capital. Other towns are Rosario, Cordova, La Plata, Tucuman, Mendoza, andSanta-Fé. The population of the republic, which is rapidly increasing by immigration, was, in 1905, 5,678,197, and 8,284,266 in 1918; of the capital, 1,637,155 (1918).—Bibliography: C. E. Akers,History of South America, 1854 to 1904; W. H. Hudson,The Naturalist in La Plata; Keane and Markham,Central and South America(in Stanford'sCompendium of Geography and Travel); Martinez and Lewandowski,Argentine in the Twentieth Century; Sir John Foster Fraser,The Amazing Argentine; H. Stephens,Illustrated Descriptive Argentina;The Argentine Year Book.
Ar´gentite, sulphide of silver, a blackish or lead-grey mineral, a valuable ore of silver found in the crystalline rocks of many countries.
Argentometer.SeeHydrometer.
Argillaceous Rocksare rocks in which clay prevails (including shales and slates).
Argives(a˙r´jīvz), orArgivi, the inhabitants of Argos; used by Homer and other ancient authors as a generic appellation for all the Greeks.
Ar´go.SeeArgonauts.
Argol.SeeArgal.
Argolis.SeeArgos.
Argon, a gas which is fairly widely distributed in the free state and is a constant constituent of the atmosphere, of which it forms about 1 per cent by volume. It was discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Professor Ramsay in 1894. During their determinations of the density of nitrogen they noticed that the density of nitrogen derived from the air differed from the density of nitrogen derived from ammonia and other compounds of nitrogen, and after a series of very careful experiments they succeeded in isolating a new gas, which they named Argon. The gas occurs in sea and river water, in plants, in the blood of animals, and the gases issuing from volcanoes and mineral springs. It is always in the free state and never in combination, and is associated with nitrogen. It is colourless, odourless, and tasteless, and may be liquefied and solidified. It is heavier than air, and is chemically a very inert substance. It is usually referred to as one of theraregases of the atmosphere. Argon is manufactured in fairly large quantity from air, making use of the inertness of the substance compared to oxygen and nitrogen, the chief constituents of the air. Several methods are in use, e.g. nitrogen may be removed by passing it repeatedly over red-hot magnesium; thus the nitrogen is absorbed and the argon left. When oxygen and nitrogen of air are absorbed by a mixture of 90 per cent calcium carbide and 10 per cent calcium chloride previously heated to rednessin vacuo, a gas becoming richer and richer in argon is obtained. Another method of preparing argon is by fractionation of liquid air. It is used for filling electric bulbs.
ArgonautArgonaut—Female
Ar´gonaut, a molluscous animal of the genus Argonauta, belonging to the dibranchiate or two-gilled cuttle-fishes, distinguished by the females possessing a single-chambered external shell, not organically connected with the body of the animal. The males have no shell and are of much smaller size than the females. The shell is fragile, translucent, and boat-like in shape; it serves as the receptacle of the ova or eggs of the female, which sits in it with the respiratory tube or 'funnel' turned towards the carina or 'keel'. This famed mollusc swims only by ejecting water from its funnel, and it can crawl in a reversed position, carrying its shell over its back like a snail. The account of its floating on the surface of the sea, with its sail-shaped arms extended to catch the breeze, and with the six other arms as oars, is a mere fable. The argonaut, orpaper-nautilus, must be carefully distinguished from thepearly-nautilusor nautilus proper (Nautilus Pompilius).
Argonauts, in the legendary history of Greece, those heroes who performed a hazardous voyage to Colchis, a far-distant country at the eastern extremity of the Euxine (Black Sea), with Jason in the shipArgo, for the purpose of securing a golden fleece, which was preserved suspended upon a tree, and under the guardianship of a sleepless dragon. By the aid of Medea, daughter of the King of Colchis, Jason was enabled to seize the fleece, and, after many strange adventures, to reach his home at Iolcos in Thessaly. Among the Argonauts were Hercules, Castor and Pollux, Orpheus and Theseus.—Bibliography: A. R. Hope Moncrieff,Classic Myth and Legend; Kingsley,The Heroes; N. Hawthorne,The Wonder-book.
Argo-Navis, the southern constellation of the Ship, is almost entirely invisible in Britain. It contains Canopus, next to Sirius the brightestfixed star. In the great nebula in Argo is situated the remarkable star Eta Argûs. It is variable, generally faint, but in 1837 it became temporarily one of the brightest stars in the sky.
Argonne, a district of France, between the Rivers Meuse, Marne, and Aisne, celebrated for the campaign of Dumouriez against the Prussians in 1792, and for the military movements and actions which took place therein previous to the battle of Sedan, in 1870.
Argonne, Battle of.When, in the autumn of 1914, the Allies retreated towards the Marne, the German Crown Prince's army endeavoured to invest Verdun. His right wing advanced through the thick and extensive forest of Argonne, but took precipitate flight after the battle of the Marne before the army of General Sarrail. In the summer of 1915 the Crown Prince endeavoured to hack his way through the French Argonne lines, using much heavy artillery, poison-gas, liquid-fire, and tear-shells. A final effort to break through was made in September, between Le Four de Paris and Vienne-le-Château, but, after gaining a footing in the first line of French trenches, the Germans were hurled back by a dashing counter-attack. The great salient from the Argonne to St. Mihiel was the salvation of Verdun.
Ar´gos, a town of Greece, in the north-east of the Peloponnesus, between the Gulfs of Ægina and Nauplia or Argos. This town and the surrounding territory of Argolis were famous from the legendary period of Greek history onwards. Here, besides Argos, was Mycenæ, where Agamemnon ruled. Modern Argos is a straggling place of 10,000 inhabitants, with some ancient remains. The territory Argolis forms a nomarchy of Greece. Pop., Argolis and Corinthia, 153,172. The capital is Nauplia.
Argos´toli, a city of the Ionian Islands, capital of Cephalonia, and the residence of a Greek bishop. Pop. 14,000.
Ar´gosy, a poetical name for a large merchant-vessel; derived fromRagusa, a port which was formerly more celebrated than now, and whose vessels did a considerable trade with England. It is popularly but erroneously connected with the shipArgoin which Jason sailed. SeeArgonauts.
Argot(Fr.; a˙r-gō), the jargon, slang, or peculiar phraseology of a class or profession; originally the conventional slang of thieves and vagabonds, invented for the purpose of disguise and concealment. Some of François Villon's poems are written in argot.—Cf. W. von Knoblauch,Dictionary of Argot.
Arguim, orArguin(a˙r-gwim´, a˙r-gwin´), a small island on the west coast of Africa, not far from Cape Blanco, formerly a centre of trade. Its possession was violently disputed between the Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French.
Ar´gument, a term sometimes used as synonymous with thesubjectof a discourse, but more frequently appropriated to any kind of method employed for the purpose of confuting or at least silencing an opponent. Logicians have reduced arguments to a number of distinct heads, such as theargumentum ad judicium, which founds on solid proofs and addresses to the judgment; theargumentum ad verecundiam, which appeals to the modesty or bashfulness of an opponent by reminding him of the great names or authorities by whom the view disputed by him is supported; theargumentum ad ignorantiam, the employment of some logical fallacy towards persons likely to be deceived by it; and theargumentum ad hominem, an argument which presses a man with consequences drawn from his own principles and concessions, or his own conduct. SeeFallacy,Logic.
Argument of the People, the document set forth by the Council of the Army on 15th Jan., 1649, fifteen days before the execution of King Charles I. SeeLevellers.
Ar´gus, in Greek mythology, a fabulous being, said to have had a hundred eyes, placed by Juno to guard Io. Hence 'argus-eyed', applied to one who is exceedingly watchful.
Argus-pheasantArgus-pheasant (Argus gigantēus)
Argus-pheasant(Argus gigantēus), a large,beautiful, and very singular species of pheasant, found native in the south-east of Asia, more especially in Sumatra and some of the other islands. The males measure from 5 to 6 feet from the tip of the beak to the extremity of the tail, which has two greatly-elongated central feathers. The plumage is exceedingly beautiful, the secondary quills of the wings, which are longer than the primary feathers, being each adorned with a series of ocellated or eye-like spots (whence the name—seeArgus) of brilliant metallic hues. The general body plumage is brown.
Argyll, orArgyle(a˙r-gīl´), an extensive county in the south-west of the Highlands of Scotland, consisting partly of mainland and partly of islands belonging to the Hebrides group, the chief of which are Islay, Mull, Jura, Tiree, Coll, Luing, Lismore, and Colonsay, with Iona and Staffa. On the land side the mainland is bounded north by Inverness; east by Perth and Dumbarton; elsewhere surrounded by the Firth of Clyde and its connections and the sea; area, 3255 sq. miles (or over 2,000,000 acres), of which the islands comprise about 1000 sq. miles. It is greatly indented by arms of the sea, which penetrate far inland, the most important of these being Loch Sunart, Loch Linnhe (the extremities of which are Loch Eil and Loch Leven), Loch Etive, Loch Fyne, Loch Tarbert, Loch Riddon, Loch Striven, and Loch Long. The mainland is divided into six districts of Northern Argyle, Lorn, Argyle, Cowal, Knapdale, and Kintyre; the two first being subdivided into the sub-districts of Lochiel, Ardgour, Sunart, Ardnamurchan, Morven, and Appin. The county is exceedingly mountainous, the chief summits being Bidean-nam-Bian (3766 feet), Ben Laoigh (3708 feet), Ben Cruachan (3611 feet), Benmore, in Mull (3185 feet), the Paps of Jura (2565 feet), and Ben Arthur or the Cobbler (2891 feet). There are several lakes, the principal of which is Loch Awe. Cattle and sheep are reared in numbers, and fishing is largely carried on, as is also the making of whisky. There is but little arable land. The chief minerals are slate, marble, limestone, and granite. County town, Inveraray; others, Campbeltown, Oban, and Dunoon. Pop. (1921), 76,856.
Argyll, Campbells of, a historic Scottish family, raised to the peerage in the person of Sir Duncan Campbell of Lochow, in 1445. The more eminent members are: Archibald, 2nd Earl, killed at the battle of Flodden, 1513.—Archibald, 5th Earl, attached himself to the party of Mary of Guise, and was the means of averting a collision between the Reformers and the French troops in 1559; was commissioner of regency after Mary's abdication, but afterwards commanded her troops at the battle of Langside; died 1575.—Archibald, 8th Earl and 1st Marquess, born 1598: a zealous partisan of the Covenanters; created a marquess by Charles I. It was by his persuasion that Charles II visited Scotland, and was crowned at Scone in 1651. At the Restoration he was committed to the Tower, and afterwards sent to Scotland, where he was tried for high treason, and beheaded in 1661.—Archibald, 9th Earl, son of the preceding, served the king with great bravery at the battle of Dunbar, and was excluded from the general pardon by Cromwell in 1654. On the passing of the Test Act in 1681 he refused to take the required oath except with a reservation. For this he was tried and sentenced to death. He managed to escape to Holland, from whence he returned with a view of aiding the Duke of Monmouth. His plan, however, failed, and he was taken and conveyed to Edinburgh, where he was beheaded in 1685.—Archibald, 10th Earl and 1st Duke, son of the preceding, died 1703; took an active part in the Revolution of 1688-9, which placed William and Mary on the throne, and was rewarded by several important appointments and the title of duke.—John, 2nd Duke and Duke of Greenwich, son of the above, born 1678, died 1743; served under Marlborough at the battles of Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, and assisted at the sieges of Lisle and Ghent. He incurred considerable odium in his own country for his efforts in promoting the union. In 1712 he had the military command in Scotland, and in 1715 he fought an indecisive battle with the Earl of Mar's army at Sheriffmuir, near Dunblane, and forced the Pretender to quit the kingdom. He was long a supporter of Walpole, but his political career was full of intrigue. He is the Duke of Argyll in Scott'sHeart of Midlothian.—George Douglas Campbell,K.G.,K.T., &c., 8th Duke (of United Kingdom, 1892), was born in 1823. He early took a part in politics, especially in discussions regarding the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. In 1852 he became Lord Privy Seal under Lord Aberdeen, and again under Lord Palmerston in 1859; Postmaster-General in 1860; Secretary for India from 1868 to 1874; again Lord Privy Seal in 1880, but retired, being unable to agree with his colleagues on their Irish policy. He died in 1900. He wroteThe Reign of Law,Scotland as it Was and as it Is, &c.—John Douglas Sutherland Campbell, 9th Duke of, son of the 8th Duke and a daughter of the 2nd Duke of Sutherland, was born in 1845, and succeeded his father in 1900. He completed his education at Trinity College, Cambridge, sat in Parliament as member for Argyllshire, 1868-78, was Governor-General of Canada from 1878 to 1883, and again sat in Parliament as member for South Manchester from 1895 to 1900, as a Liberal-Unionist. He married the Princess Louise of Great Britain, fourth daughter of Queen Victoria, in 1871.He died in 1914. His works include:The United States after the War,Imperial Federation,Canadian Pictures,Memories of Canada and Scotland,Life of Lord Palmerston,Tales and Poems,The Psalms in English Verse,Life and Times of Queen Victoria,Yesterday and To-day in Canada, &c.
Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders(Princess Louise's), raised by the 5th Duke of Argyll (1794), received their present title in 1872. The regiment served under Sir David Baird in Cape Colony, and at Balaklava made itself immortal as Sir Colin Campbell's 'thin red line'. It was further distinguished in the European War at Gheluvelt, Le Cateau, and the second battle of Ypres.
Argyro-Castro(a˙r´gi-rō-), a town in Albania, 40 miles north-west of Janina; built on three ridges intersected by deep ravines, across which are several bridges. It was occupied by the Greeks in 1916. Pop. about 10,000.
Argyropu´los, Johannes, one of the principal revivers of Greek learning in the fifteenth century. Born in Constantinople 1415, died at Rome 1486.
Aria, in music. SeeAir.
Ariadne(a-ri-ad´ne), in Greek mythology, a daughter of Minos, King of Crete. She gave Theseus a clue of thread to conduct him out of the labyrinth after his defeat of the Minotaur. Theseus abandoned her on the Isle of Naxos, where she was found by Dionysus, who married her.
Aria´na, the ancient name of a large district in Asia, forming a portion of the Persian Empire; bounded on the north by the provinces of Bactriana, Margiana, and Hyrcania; east by the Indus; south by the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf; west by Media.
Ariano(ä-rē-ä´nō), a town in South Italy, province of Avellino, 44 miles north-east of Naples, the seat of a bishop, with a handsome cathedral. Pop. 17,650.
Ar´ians, the adherents of the Alexandrian presbyter Arius, who, aboutA.D.318, promulgated the doctrine that Christ was a created being inferior to God the Father in nature and dignity, though the first and noblest of all created beings; and also that the Holy Spirit is not God, but created by the power of the Son. Arianism has been defined as an attempt to determine the relations of the Persons of the Trinity on a basis of distinction and subordination. It does not seem to have sprung from any strong ethical impulse; its philosophy was pagan, and the object of the leaders political rather than religious. The doctrines were condemned by the Council of Nicæa in 325. Arius died in 336, and after his death his party gained considerable accessions, including several emperors, and for a time held a strong position. Since the middle of the seventh century, however, the Arians have nowhere constituted a distinct sect, although similar opinions have been advanced by various theologians in modern times. The Arian controversy was revived in England during the eighteenth century by William Whiston and Dr. Samuel Clarke.—Bibliography: H. M. Gwatkin,Studies of Arianism; J. H. Newman,Arians of the Fourth Century; J. H. Colligan,Arian Movement in England.
Arica(a˙-rē´ka˙), a seaport of Chile, 30 miles S. of Tacna; previous to 1880 it belonged to Peru. It has suffered frequently from earthquakes, being in 1868 almost entirely destroyed, part of it being also submerged by an earthquake wave. Pop. about 4000. It has a wireless station.
Arica. SeeTacna-Arica Dispute.
Arichat(-shat´), a seaport town and fishing station of Nova Scotia, on a small bay, south coast of Madame Island. Pop. about 2500.
Ariège(a˙-rē-āzh), a mountainous department of France, on the northern slopes of the Pyrenees, comprising the ancient countship of Foix and parts of Languedoc and Gascony. The principal rivers are the Ariège, Arize, and Salat, tributaries of the Garonne. Sheep and cattle are reared; the arable land is small in quantity. Chief town, Foix. Area, 1892 sq. miles. Pop. (1921), 172,851.
A´riel, a symbolic name for Jerusalem in the Old Testament; in the demonology of the later Jews a spirit of the waters. In Shakespeare'sTempest, Ariel was the "tricksy spirit" whom Prospero had in his service.
Aries(ā´ri-ēz; Lat.), the Ram, a northern constellation. It is the first of the twelve signs of the zodiac, which the sun enters at the vernal equinox, about the 21st of March. The "First Point in Aries" is where the equator cuts the ecliptic in the ascending node, from which point the right ascensions of heavenly bodies are reckoned on the equator, and their longitudes upon the ecliptic. Owing to the precession of the equinoxes the sign Aries no longer corresponds with the constellation Aries, which it did 2000 years ago.