Autochrome.SeePhotography.
Autochthones(a¨-tok'tho-nēz), the Greek name for the aboriginal inhabitants of a country. SeeAborigines.
Au´toclave(derived from the Gr.autos, self, and Lat.clavis, key) is a strong steam-tight vessel in which hydrolysis of liquids can be carried out, under pressure, at temperatures considerably higher than their normal boiling-points. The vessels may be of copper, iron, or other suitable material, are sometimes enamelled within, or may have renewable refractory linings when used for corrosive liquids. Some types have mechanical agitators. Used in the manufacture of candles, coal-tar colours, &c. May be heated by high-pressure steam or in baths of oil or molten lead. SeePapin.
Au´tocrat(Gr.autos, self,kratos, rule), an absolute or uncontrolled ruler; the head of a State who is not controlled by any constitutional limitations, such as the Tsars of Russia till 1917.
Auto-de-fe(Sp.);Auto-da-fe(Pg.), literally, 'act of faith'. SeeInquisition.
Au´tograph,a person's own handwriting; an original manuscript or signature, as opposed to a copy. The practice of collecting autographs or signatures originated in Germany and the Low Countries, chiefly among members of the universities, and dates at least from the sixteenth century. Among the earliest collections known are those of John Cotton and Hans Sloane in the British Museum, and of Philippe de Bethune, brother of Sully, and Loménie de Brienne at the Bibliothèque Nationale. The most celebrated collection formed in England in recent years is that of Alfred Morrison.
Automatic Writing.SeePsychical Research;Spiritualism.
Autom´atism,the confinement of activity in men or animals within a purely mechanical limit, resulting from injury to or partial removal of the brain.
Autom´aton(Gr.automatos, spontaneous), a self-moving machine performing actions like those of a living being, and often shaped like one. The walking statues of Dædalus, the flying dove of Archytas, the brazen head of Friar Bacon, the iron fly of Regiomontanus, the door-opening figure of Albertus Magnus, the parading knights of the clock presented to Charlemagne by Harun al Rashid, the toy carriage and attendants constructed by Camus for Louis XIV, the flute-player, tambour-player, and duck of Vaucanson, and the writing child of the brothers Droz are among the more noteworthy of traditional automata. SeeConjuring.
Automobile.SeeMotor Vehicles.
Auton´omy, the power of a State, institution, &c., to legislate for itself.
Autoph´agi(-jī), birds which feed themselves as soon as hatched.
Au´toplasty, the operation by which wounds and diseased parts are repaired with healthy tissues taken from other parts of the same person's body.
Autoplate.SeePrinting.
Autop´sy, literally, personal observation or inspection, commonly restricted to post-mortem examination. SeeCoroner.
Au´totype, a species of photographic print. A thin sheet of gelatine on paper is rendered sensitive to light by treatment with bichromate of potash, and then exposed under an ordinary photographic negative. The portions of gelatine affected by the light become insoluble, the remainder of the gelatine is then washed away, and the picture remains reproduced in the gelatine, there being slight elevations and depressions corresponding with the distribution of light and shade. This may be printed from, but it is more often made use of to obtain electrotypes or other reverses, from which impressions can more easily be taken.
Autumn, the season between summer and winter, in the northern hemisphere often regarded as embracing August, September, and October, or three months about that time. The beginning of the astronomical autumn is 22nd Sept., the autumnal equinox; and the end is 21st Dec., the shortest day. The autumn of the southern hemisphere takes place at the time of the northern spring.
Autun(ō-tu˙n; ancient,Bibracte, later,Augustodunum), a town, South-Eastern France, department of Saône-et-Loire. It has two Roman gates of exquisite workmanship, the ruins of an amphitheatre and of several temples, the cathedral of St. Lazare, a fine Gothic structure of the twelfth century with chapels added in the fifteenth; manufactures of carpets, woollens, cotton, velvet, hosiery, &c. Pop. 15,498.
Autunite, a hydrous phosphate of uranium and calcium, crystallizing in the rhombic system in yellow plates. Like other minerals of the uranium series it shows radio-activity.
Auvergne(ō-vār-nyė), a province, Central France, now merged into departments Cantal and Puy-de-Dôme, and an arrondissement of Haute-Loire. The Auvergne Mountains, separating the basins of the Allier, Cher, and Creuse from those of the Lot and Dordogne, contain the highest points of Central France: Mount Dor, 6188 feet; Cantal, 6093 feet, and Puy-de-Dôme, 4806 feet. The number of extinct volcanoes and general geologic formation make the district one of great scientific interest. The minerals include iron, copper, and lead, and there are warm and cold mineral springs. Auvergne contributes a large supply to the labour markets of Paris and Belgium, there being in Paris alone some 50,000 Auvergnats.
Auxerre(ō-sār), a town, France, department of Yonne, 110 miles S.E. of Paris. Principal edifices: a fine Gothic cathedral, unfinished; the abbey of St. Germain, with curious crypts; and an old episcopal palace, now the Hôtel de Prefecture; it manufactures woollens, hats, casks, leather, earthenware, violin strings, &c.; trade, chiefly in wood and wines, of which the best known is white Chablis. Pop. 21,930.
Auxom´eter, an instrument to measure the magnifying powers of an optical apparatus.
Auxonne(ō-son; ancient,Aussona), a town, France, department of Côte-d'Or (Burgundy), on the Saône; a fortified place, with some manufactures. Pop. 6300.
A´va, a town in Asia, formerly the capital of Burma, on the Irawadi, now almost wholly in ruins.
Ava-Ava,Arva,Kava, orYava(Macropiper methysticum), a plant of the nat. ord. Piperaceæ (pepper family), so called by the inhabitants of Polynesia, who make an intoxicating drink out of it. Its leaves are chewed with betel, in South-Eastern Asia.
Avad´avat.SeeAmadavat.
Av´alanches, large masses of snow or ice precipitated from the mountains, and distinguished aswindordust avalancheswhen they consist of fresh-fallen snow whirled like a dust-storm into the valleys; assliding avalancheswhen they consist of great masses of snow sliding down a slope by their own weight; and asglacierorsummer avalancheswhen ice-masses are detached by heat from the high glaciers.
Avâl Islands.Same asBahrein Islands.
Avallon(a˙-va˙-lōn), a town of Central France, department Yonne. Pop. 5900.
Av´alon, a sort of fairyland or elysium mentioned in connection with the legends of King Arthur, being his abode after disappearing from the haunts of men: called alsoAvilion. The name is also identified with Glastonbury; and has been given to a peninsula of Newfoundland.
Avan´turine, orAven´turine, a variety of quartz containing glittering spangles of mica through it; also a sort of artificial gem of similar appearance.
Av´ars, a nation, probably of Turanian origin, who at an early period may have migrated from the region east of the Tobol in Siberia to that about the Don, the Caspian Sea, and the Volga. A part advanced to the Danube inA.D.555, and settled in Dacia. They served in Justinian's army, aided the Lombards in destroying the kingdom of the Gepidæ, and in the sixth centuryconquered under their Khan Bajan the region of Pannonia. They then won Dalmatia, pressed into Thuringia and Italy against the Franks and Lombards, and subdued the Slavs dwelling on the Danube, as well as the Bulgarians on the Black Sea. But they were ultimately limited to Pannonia, where they were overcome by Charlemagne, and nearly extirpated by the Slavs of Moravia. After 827 they disappear from history. Traces of their fortified settlements are found, and known as Avarian rings. SeeLesghians.
Avatar´, more properlyAvatara, in Hindu mythology, an incarnation of the Deity. Of the innumerable avatars the chief are the ten incarnations of Vishnu, who appeared successively as a fish, a tortoise, a boar, a man-lion, a dwarf, &c.
Avatch´a, a volcano and bay in Kamchatka. The volcano, which is 9000 feet high, was last active in 1855. The town of Petropavlovsk lies in the bay.
Avebury(āv´be-ri), a village of England, in Wiltshire, occupying the site of a so-called Druidical temple, which originally consisted of a large outer circle of 100 stones, from 15 to 17 feet in height, and about 40 feet in circumference, surrounded by a broad ditch and lofty rampart, and enclosing two smaller circles. Few traces now remain of the structure. On the neighbouring downs are numerous barrows or tumuli, one of which, called Silbury Hill, rises to the height of 130 feet, with a circumference of 2027 feet at the base, covering fully 5 acres.
Avebury, John Lubbock, first Baron. SeeLubbock.
Aveiro(a˙-vā´i-ru¨), a coast town in Portugal, province of Douro, with a cathedral, an active fishery, and a thriving trade. Pop. 11,523.
Avellino(a˙-vel-lē´nō), a town in Southern Italy, capital of the province of Avellino, 29 miles east of Naples, the seat of a bishop. Avellino nuts were celebrated under the Romans. Pop. 24,620. Area of the province, 1165 sq. miles; pop. 411,813.
A´ve Mari´a('Hail, Mary'), the first two words of the angel Gabriel's salutation (Luke, i, 28), and the beginning of the very common Latin prayer to the Virgin in the Roman Catholic Church. Its lay use was sanctioned at the end of the twelfth century, and a papal edict of 1326 ordains the repetition of the prayer thrice each morning, noon, and evening, the hour being indicated by sound of bells called the Ave Maria or Angelus Domini. The prayers are counted upon the small beads of the rosary, as the pater-nosters are upon the large ones.
Ave´na.SeeOat.
Av´ens, the English name of two rosaceous plants of the genus Geum. Common avens, or herb-bennet,G. urbānum, possesses astringent properties, and was formerly used in medicine. The mountain avens,Dryas octopetala, belongs to the same nat. ord.
Av´entaile, the movable face-guard of the helmet, through which the wearer breathed.
Av´entine, one of the seven hills of Rome, east of the Tiber. It was included in the city by Servius Tullius.
Aven´turine.SeeAvanturine.
Av´erage, in maritime law, any charge or expense over and above the freight of goods, and payable by their owner.—General averageis the sum falling to be paid by the owners of ship, cargo, and freight, in proportion to their several interests, to make good any loss or expense intentionally incurred for the general safety of ship and cargo, e.g. throwing goods overboard, cutting away masts, port dues in cases of distress, &c.—Particular averageis the sum falling to be paid for unavoidable loss when the general safety is not in question, and therefore chargeable on the individual owner of the property lost. A policy of insurance generally covers both general and particular average, unless specially excepted.—Averaging, in Stock Exchange language, denotes the operation of a speculator in increasing transactions at a higher or lower price when the price is moving against him, so that the average price of the whole will be higher or lower than his original purchase or sale.
Aver´nus, a lake, now calledLago d'Averno, in Campania, Italy, between the ancient Cumæ and Puteoli, about 8 miles from Naples. It is the crater of an old volcano, and is in some places 180 feet deep. Formerly the gloom of its forest surroundings and its mephitic exhalations caused it to be regarded as the entrance to the infernal regions. It was the fabled abode of the Cimmerians, and especially dedicated to Proserpine.
Averroes(a-ver´o-es; corrupted fromIbn Roshd), the most renowned Arabian philosopher, born at Cordova, in Spain, 1126, died at Morocco 1198. His ability procured him the succession to his father's office of chief magistrate, and the King of Morocco appointed him at the same time cadi in the province of Mauretania. Accused of being an infidel, he was, however, deprived of his offices, and banished to Spain; but, being persecuted there also, he fled to Fez, where he was condemned to recant and undergo public penance. Upon this he went back to his own country, where the Caliph Almansur finally restored him to his dignities. Averroes regarded Aristotle as the greatest of all philosophers, and devoted himself so largely to the exposition of his works as to be called among the ArabiansThe Interpreter. He wrote a compendium of medicine, and treatises on theology, philosophy, jurisprudence, &c. His commentaries uponAristotle appeared before 1250 in a Latin translation attributed to Michael Scott, the reputed wizard (1194-1250), and others. Averroes was at once a philosopher, a theologian, and a theosophist.
Averrunca´tor, a garden implement for pruning trees without a ladder, consisting of two blades similar to stout shears, one fixed rigidly to a long handle, and the other moved by a lever to which a cord passing over a pulley is attached.
Aver´sa, a well-built town of Southern Italy, 7 milesN.of Naples, in a beautiful vine and orange district, the seat of a bishop, with a cathedral and various religious institutions, and a large lunatic asylum. Andreas of Hungary, husband of Queen Joanna I, was strangled in a convent here, 18th Sept., 1345. Pop. 23,203.
Avesnes(a˙-vān), a town of France, department Nord. Pop. 5829.
Avesta.SeeZendavesta.
Aveyron(a˙-vā-rōn˙), a department occupying the southern extremity of the central plateau of France, traversed by mountains belonging to the Cevennes and the Cantal ranges; principal rivers: Aveyron, Lot, and Tarn, the Lot alone being navigable. The climate is cold, and agriculture is in a backward state, but considerable attention is paid to sheep-breeding. It is noted for its 'Roquefort cheese'. It has coal, iron, and copper mines, besides other minerals. Area, 3385 sq. miles; capital, Rhodez. Pop. (1921), 332,940.
Avezzano(a˙-vet-zä'nō), a town of S. Italy, province Aquila. Pop. 11,279.
Av´iary, a building or enclosure for keeping, breeding, and rearing birds. Aviaries appear to have been used by the Persians, Greeks, and Romans, and are highly prized in China. In England they were in use at least as early as 1577, when William Harrison refers to "our costlie and curious aviaries". An aviary may be simply a kind of very large cage, or a series of enclosures.
Aviatik, a German type of biplane. It was originally built at Mulhausen in Alsace.
Aviation.SeeAeronautics.
Avicen´na, orEbn-Sina, an Arabian philosopher and physician, born at Kharmaithen, in the province of Bokhara,A.D.980. After practising as a physician he quitted Bokhara at the age of twenty-two, and for a number of years led a wandering life, settling at last at Hamadan, subsequently as vizier of the Emir. On the death of his patron he lived in retirement at Hamadan, but having secretly offered his services to the Sultan of Ispahan he was imprisoned by the new Emir. Escaping, he fled to Ispahan, was received with great honour by the Sultan, and passed there in quietness the last fourteen years of his life, writing upon medicine, logic, metaphysics, astronomy, and geometry. His philosophy was Aristotelianism mingled with neo-Platonism, and his influence is most marked in Dante and the Mystics. He died at Hamadan, in Northern Persia, 1037, leaving many writings, mostly commentaries on Aristotle. Of his 100 treatises the best known is theCanon Medicinæ, which was still in use as a textbook at Louvain and Montpellier in the middle of the seventeenth century. HisPhilosophia Orientalis, mentioned by Roger Bacon, is lost.
Avie´nus, Rufus Festus, a Latin descriptive poet, who flourished about the end of the fourth centuryA.D., and wroteDescriptio Orbis Terræ, a general description of the earth;Ora Maritima, an account of the Mediterranean coasts, &c.
Avifau´na, a collective term for the birds of any region.
Avigliano(a˙-vēl-yä´nō), a town of S. Italy, province Potenza. Pop. 17,413.
Avignon(a˙-vē-nyōn; ancient,Avenio), an old town of S.E. France, capital of department Vaucluse, on the left bank of the Rhone; enclosed by lofty battlemented and turreted walls, well built, but with rather narrow streets. It is an archbishop's see since 1475, and has a large and ancient cathedral on a rock overlooking the town, the immense palace in which the Popes resided (used as a barracks and prison for a long time), and other old buildings. The industries of the city are numerous and varied, the principal being connected with silk. The silk manufacture and the breeding of silk-worms are the principal employments in the district. Here Petrarch lived several years, and made the acquaintance of Laura, whose tomb is in the Franciscan church. From 1309 to 1377 seven Popes in succession, from Clement V to Gregory XI, resided in this city. After its purchase by Pope Clement VI, in 1348, Avignon and its district continued, with a few interruptions, under the rule of a vice-legate of the Pope's till 1791, when it was formally united to the French Republic. Pop. 49,304.
Avignon Berries.SeeFrench Berries.
Avila(ä'vē-la˙), a town of Spain, capital of province of Avila, a modern division of Old Castile. It is the see of the Bishop suffragan of Santiago, with fine cathedral. Once one of the richest towns of Spain. Principal employment in the town, spinning; in the province, breeding sheep and cattle. Pop., town, 12,060; province, 214,008.
Avila, Gil Gonzalez d', a Spanish antiquary and biographer, 1577-1658; made historiographer of Castile in 1612, and of the Indies in 1641. Most valuable works:Teatro de las Grandezas de Madrid, 1623, andTeatro Ecclesiastico, 1645-53.
Avila y Zuñiga(ä´vē-la˙ē thö-nyē´ga˙), Don Luis d', Spanish general, diplomatist, and historian; a favourite of Charles V; born about1490, died about 1560. His chief work, printed in 1548 and translated into five languages, was on the war of Charles V in Germany.
Aviles(a˙-vē'les), a town of Northern Spain, province Oviedo, with a good harbour. Pop. 13,660.
Aviz, an order of knighthood in Portugal, instituted by Sancho, its first king, and having as its original object the subjection of the Moors.
Avizan´dum, in Scots law, private consideration. To makeavizandumis to remove a cause from the public court to the private consideration of the judge.
Avlo´na(Ital.Valona), a seaport of Albania on the Adriatic, with a considerable trade. It was occupied and made a naval and military base by the Italians during the European War. Pop. 6500.
Avo´ca, orOvoca, a river and valley in Ireland, County Wicklow, celebrated as the scene and subject of one of Moore'sIrish Melodies. The river is formed by the union of the Avonbeg and Avonmore, and below the junction receives the Aughrim, the name in Celtic signifying 'the meeting of the waters'. After a course of about 9 miles it falls into the sea about a mile below Arklow. The scenery here is singularly beautiful, and attracts many visitors.
Avoca´do-pear. SeeAlligator-pear.
Avogad´ro's Law, in physics, asserts that equal volumes of different gases at the same pressure and temperature contain an equal number of molecules.
Avoirdupois(a-vėr'du¨-pois; from old French, literally, 'goods of weight'), a system of weights used for all goods except precious metals, gems, and medicines, and in which a pound contains 16 ounces, or 7000 grains, while a pound troy contains 12 ounces, or 5760 grains. A hundredweight contains 112 pounds avoirdupois; acentalof 100 pounds is common in America, and is a legal British weight. SeeWeights and Measures.
Av´ola, a seaport on the east of Sicily, with a trade in almonds, sugar, &c. Pop. 17,711.
A´von, the name of several rivers in England, of which the principal are: 1. The Upper Avon, rising in Leicestershire, and flowingS.W.into the Severn at Tewkesbury. Stratford-on-Avon lies on this river. 2. The Lower Avon, rising in Gloucestershire, and falling into the SevernN.W.of Bristol; navigable as far as Bath. 3. In Monmouthshire. 4. In Wiltshire and Hampshire, entering the English Channel at Christchurch Bay. There are also streams of this name in Wales and Scotland.
Avonmouth, a place at the mouth of the River Avon, 6 miles from Bristol, and connected with it by rail and river, with large docks belonging to the Bristol corporation, and forming part of the shipping accommodation of that city.
AvosetAvoset (Recurvirostra avosetta)
Av´oset, a bird about the size of a lapwing, of the genus Recurvirostra (R. avosetta), family Scolopacidæ (snipes), ord. Grallatores. The bill is long, slender, elastic, and bent upward toward the tip, the legs long, the feet webbed, and the plumage variegated with black and white. The bird feeds on worms and other small animals, which it scoops up from the mud of the marshes and fens that it frequents. It is found in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America; but the American species is slightly different from the others.
Avranches(a˙-vrän˙sh; ancient,Abrincæ), a town, France, department La Manche, about 3 miles from the Atlantic. It formerly had a fine cathedral, destroyed during the first French revolution. Manufactures: lace, thread, and candles. Pop. 7174.
Awe(a¨), a Scottish loch in Argyllshire, about 28 miles long and 2 broad, and communicating by the Awe with Loch Etive. Ben Cruachan stands at its northern extremity. It has many islands and beautiful scenery, and abounds in trout, salmon, &c.
Axe, orAx, a well-known tool for cutting or chipping wood, consisting of an iron head with an arched cutting edge of steel, which is in line with the wooden handle of the tool, and not at right angles to it as in the adze.
Axel. SeeAbsalon.
Axe-stone.SeeJade.
Axholme Isle(aks'ōm), a sort of island inEngland formed by the Rivers Trent, Idle, and Don, in the north-west angle of Lincolnshire, 17 miles long, 4½ broad.
AxilLeaf and stem of Horse-chestnut, showing axil
Axil, orAxilla, in botany, the angle between the upper side of a leaf and the stem or branch from which it springs. Buds usually appear in the axils, and flowers or flower-stalks growing in this way are calledaxillary.
Ax´im, a town of W. Africa, on the Gold Coast.
Ax´inite, a mineral, silicate of alumina, lime, &c., with boracic acid, deriving its name from the form of the crystals, the edges of which bear some resemblance to the edge of an axe.
Axin´omancy, an ancient method of divination by the movements of an axe (Gr.axinē) balanced on a stake, or of an agate placed on a red-hot axe. The names of suspected persons being uttered, the movements at a particular name indicated the criminal.
Ax´iom, a universal proposition, which the understanding must perceive to be true as soon as it perceives the meaning of the words, and therefore called aself-evident truth: e.g.AisA. In mathematics, axioms are those propositions which are assumed without proof, as being in themselves independent of proof, and which are made the basis of all the subsequent reasoning; as, 'The whole is greater than its part'; 'Things that are equal to the same thing are equal to one another'. SeeGeometry.
Axis, the straight line, real or imaginary, passing through a body or magnitude, on which it revolves, or may be supposed to revolve; especially a straight line with regard to which the different parts of a magnitude, or several magnitudes, are symmetrically arranged; e.g. theaxis of the world, the imaginary line drawn through its two poles.
Inbotanythe word is also used, the stem being termed theascending axis, the root thedescending axis.
Inanatomythe name is given to the second vertebra from the head, that on which theatlasmoves. SeeAtlas.
Axis(Cervus axis), a species of Indian deer, also known as the Spotted Hog-deer, of a rich fawn colour, nearly black along the back, with white spots, and under parts white. Breeds freely in many parks in Europe.
Ax´minster, a market town, England, county Devon, on the Axe, at one time celebrated for its woollen cloth and carpet manufactures, and giving name to an expensive variety of carpet having a thick soft pile, and also to a cheaper variety. Pop. (1921), 2049.
Ax´olotl(Amblystŏma maculātum), a curious Mexican amphibian, not unlike a newt, from 8 to 10 inches in length, with gills formed of three long ramified or branch-like processes floating on each side of the neck. It reproduces by laying eggs, and was for some time regarded as a perfect animal with permanent gills. It is said, however, that they frequently lose their gills like the other members of the genus, though some authorities maintain that the true axolotl never loses its gills, and that merely confusion withA. tigrīnumhas led to the belief, as this species sometimes retains its branchiæ, though usually it loses them. The axolotl is esteemed a luxury by the Mexicans. There are a number of species of Amblystoma in North America.
Ax´um, orAksum, a town in Tigré, a division of Abyssinia, once the capital of an important kingdom, and at one time the great depot of the ivory trade in the Red Sea. It is the seat of anabunaor Patriarch, and has a pop. of 5000. The site of the town still exhibits many remains of its former greatness.
Ayacucho(ä-ya˙-kö'chō), the name of a department of Peru, and of its capital. The department has an area of 18,185 sq. miles; a pop. of 302,469. The town (formerly Guamanga or Huamanga) has a cathedral and a university, and a pop. of 20,000.
Ayala(a˙-yä'la˙), Pedro Lopez de, Spanish historian and poet, Chancellor of Castile in the second half of the fourteenth century, and the author of a history of Castile from 1350 to 1396. He took an active part in the struggle between Henry II and Pedro the Cruel, and was taken prisoner by the English in 1367. During his English captivity he wrote part of his chief poetical work,A Book in Rhyme concerning Court Life. Died 1407.
Ayamonte(a˙-ya˙-mon'tā), a seaport town, Spain, province of Huelva, 2 miles from the mouth of the Guadiana. Pop. 6000.
Ayass´oluk. SeeEphesus.
Aye-ayeAye-aye (Cheirŏmys madagascariensis)
Aye-aye(ī-ī;Cheirŏmys madagascariensis), an animal of Madagascar, so called from its cry; now referred to the lemur family. It is about the size of a hare, has large flat ears and a bushy tail; large eyes; long sprawling fingers, the third so slender as to appear shrivelled; colour, musk-brown, mixed with black and grey ash; feeds on grubs, fruits, &c.; habits, nocturnal. SeePrimates,Lemurs.
Ayesha(a-yesh'a), daughter of Abu-Bekr and favourite wife of Mahomet, though she bore him no child, born in 610 or 611. After his death she opposed the succession of Ali, but wasdefeated and taken prisoner. She died at Medina in 677 or 678 (A.H.58).
Aylesbury(ālz´be-ri), county town of Buckinghamshire, England, with a fine old parish church; chief industries, silk-throwing, printing, making condensed milk, and poultry-rearing for the London market. The Aylesbury duck, also called 'white English', is famous. Previous to 1885 it and its hundred sent two members to Parliament, and it still gives its name to a parliamentary division. Pop. (1921), 12,114.
Ay´loffe,Sir Joseph, an English antiquary, born about 1708, died 1781; member of the first council of the Society of Antiquaries, a commissioner for the preservation of State papers, the author and editor of several works, of which the best known is hisCalendars of the Auntient Charters, &c.
Aymaras(ī´ma˙-ra˙z), an Indian race of Bolivia and Peru, speaking a language akin to the Quichua.
Ay´mon,the surname of four brothers, Alard, Richard, Guiscard, and Renaud, who hold a first place among the heroes of the Charlemagne cycle of romance. Their exploits were the subject of a romance,Les Quatre Fils d'Aymon, by Huon de Villeneuve, a trouvère of the thirteenth century, and Renaud is a leading figure in Ariosto'sOrlando.
Ayr(ār), a town of Scotland, a royal and parliamentary burgh, and capital of Ayrshire, at the mouth of the River Ayr, on the Firth of Clyde. It was the site of a Roman station. William the Lion built a castle there in 1197 and constituted it a royal burgh in 1202; and the Parliament which confirmed Robert Bruce's title to the crown sat in Ayr. It is picturesquely situated, and has excellent public and other buildings. Two bridges connect Ayr proper with the suburbs of Newton and Wallacetown, a third stands farther up the river. The 'New Brig' of Burns's 'Brigs of Ayr' (built in 1788) had to be replaced by a new structure in 1879, while the 'Auld Brig' (built in 1252) still stands, after being repaired. Carpets, lace goods, leather, iron goods, &c., are manufactured. The harbour accommodation is good, and in particular coals are largely exported. The house in which Burns was born stands within 1½ miles of the town, and near 'Alloway's auld haunted kirk', and a monument to him is near. Ayr unites with Ardrossan, Irvine, Prestwick, Saltcoats, and Troon in sending a member to Parliament. Pop. 32,986.—The county has an area of 724,523 acres. It is divided into the districts of Carrick in the south, Kyle in the middle, and Cunningham in the north. The surface is irregular, and a large portion of it hilly, but much of it is fertile. The principal streams are the Ayr, Stinchar, Girvan, Doon, Irvine, and Garnock. Coal and iron are abundant; and there are numerous collieries and ironworks. Limestone and freestone are also abundant. Agriculture is in a flourishing state, the principal crops being oats, turnips, and early potatoes, while dairy husbandry is extensively practised; the Ayrshire cows, referred to in the eighteenth century as the Cunningham, are celebrated as milkers, and Ayrshire cheese ('Dunlop' and 'Cheddar') has a high reputation. Woollen manufactures are extensive, particularly carpets and bonnets; lace goods are largely made; Kilmarnock is a centre of engineering and of dairying education. Goods made include explosives, boots and shoes, chemicals, and leather. Chief towns, Ayr, Kilmarnock, Irvine, Ardrossan, Saltcoats, Stevenston, Maybole. Ayr and Buteshire send three members to Parliament. Pop. 267,600 (1918).
Ayrer(ī´rer), Jacob, a German dramatist of the sixteenth century, who almost rivalled Hans Sachs in copiousness and importance. He was a citizen and legal official of Nuremberg, and died in 1605. His works, published at Nuremberg in 1618, under the titleOpus Theatricum, include thirty comedies and tragedies and thirty-six humorous pieces.
Ayrton,William Edward, English physicist and electrical engineer, born in 1847. From 1873 to 1879 he was professor of natural philosophy and telegraphy in the Imperial College of Engineering at Tokio. In 1879 he was appointed professor of applied physics in the City and Guilds of London Institute. He invented an ammeter, voltmeter, &c., in conjunction with Professor Perry. He died in 1908. He publishedPractical Electricity, and many papers on scientific subjects.
Aytoun(ā´tun), Sir Robert, poet, born in Fifeshire, Scotland, 1570, died 1638. After studying at St. Andrews he lived for some time in France, whence, in 1603, he addressed a panegyric in Latin verse to King James on his accession to the crown of England. By thegrateful monarch he was appointed one of the gentlemen of the bedchamber, and private secretary to the queen, receiving also the honour of knighthood. At a later period of his life he was secretary to Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. His poems are few in number, but are distinguished by elegance of diction. Several of his Latin poems are preserved in the work calledDelitiæ Poetarum Scotorum, published at Amsterdam in 1637 at the expense of Sir John Scot of Scotstarvet.
Aytoun, William Edmonstoune, poet and prose writer, born at Edinburgh in 1813, died at Blackhills, Elgin, 1865. He studied at the University of Edinburgh, became a writer to the signet in 1835, and passed as advocate in 1840. He issued a volume of poems in 1832, by 1836 was a contributor toBlackwood's Magazine, and in 1840 he published theLife and Times of Richard 1. In 1848 he published a collection of ballads entitledLays of the Scottish Cavaliers, which has proved the most popular of all his works. It was followed in 1854 byFirmilian, a Spasmodic Tragedy(intended to ridicule certain popular writers); theBon Gaultier Ballads(parodies and other humorous pieces, in conjunction with Theodore Martin), 1855; in 1856 the poemBothwell; and in subsequent years byNorman Sinclair,The Glenmutchkin Railway, and other stories. In 1858 he edited a critical and annotated collection of theBallads of Scotland. A translation of the poems and ballads of Goethe was executed by him in conjunction with Theodore Martin. In 1845 he became professor of rhetoric and English literature in the University of Edinburgh—a position which he held till his death. In 1852 he was appointed Sheriff of Orkney and Shetland.
Ayuntamiento(a˙-yu¨n-ta˙-mē-en´tō), the name given to the town and village councils in Spain and Spanish America.
Ayu´thia, the ancient capital of Siam, on the Menam, now a scene of splendid ruin.
Aza´lea, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Ericaceæ, or heaths, remarkable for the beauty and fragrance of their flowers, and distinguished from the rhododendrons chiefly by the flowers having five stamens instead of ten. Many beautiful rhododendrons with deciduous leaves are known under the name ofazaleain gardens. The azaleas are common in North America, and two species of these—A. viscōsaandA. nudiflōra—are well known in Britain. An Asiatic species,A. pontica, famous for the stupefying effect which its honey is said to have produced on Xenophon's army (cf.Anabasis, book iv, chap. 8), is also common in British gardens and shrubberies; and another,A. indica, is a brilliant greenhouse plant.
Azamgarh, orAzimgarh, a town of India, United Provinces, capital of district of same name. Pop. 18,835.—The district has an area of 2418 sq. miles; a pop. of 1,530,000.
Azeglio(a˙d-zel´yō), Massimo Taparelli, Marquis d', an Italian 'admirable Crichton', artist, novelist, publicist, statesman, and soldier, born at Turin in 1798, died 1866. After gaining some reputation in Rome as a painter, he married the daughter of Manzoni, and achieved success in literature by his novelsEttore Fieramosca(1833) andNiccolo dei Lapi(1841). These embodied much of the patriotic spirit, and in a short time he devoted himself exclusively to fostering the national sentiment by personal action and by his writings. Many of the reforms of Pius IX were due to him. He commanded a legion in the Italian struggle of 1848, and was severely wounded at Vincenza. Chosen a member of the Sardinian Chamber of Deputies, he was, after the battle of Novara, made president of the cabinet, and in 1859 appointed to the military post of general and commissioner-extraordinary for the Roman States.
Azerbaijan(a˙-zer-bī-jän´), a province of North-Western Persia; area, 40,000 sq. miles; pop. estimated at 2,000,000. It consists generally of lofty mountain ranges, some of which rise to a height of between 12,000 and 13,000 feet. Principal rivers: the Aras or Araxes, and the Kizil-Uzen, which enter the Caspian; smaller streams discharge themselves within the province into the great salt lake of Urumiyah. Agricultural products: wheat, barley, maize, fruit, cotton, tobacco, and grapes. Horses, cattle, sheep, and camels are reared in considerable numbers. Chief minerals: iron, lead, copper, salt, saltpetre, and marble. Tabriz is the capital; pop. 200,000.
Azerbaijan, a new republic proclaimed in 1918, after the Russian revolution. It consists of the former Russian province of Baku on the coast of the Caspian Sea. In 1920 the Bolshevist party overthrew the Government and broke off relations with the Entente. SeeRussia.
Az´imuthof a heavenly body, the arc of the horizon comprehended between the meridian of the observer and a vertical circle passing through the centre of the body. The azimuth and altitude give the exact position of the body with reference to the horizon.
Azincourt.SeeAgincourt.
Azo Compounds, a class of substances which belong to the benzene series and contain carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. All azo compounds are highly coloured, and in some cases they are direct cotton dyes. The simplest azo compound isazobenzene, the chemical formula of which is C6H5—N = N—C6H5. It is prepared from nitrobenzene by reducing it with stannous chloride and sodium hydroxide. Azobenzene isa highly-coloured crystalline substance, but it is not a dye; it forms, however, the basis of the dyes known asazodyes. The azodyes form one of the largest groups of dyes, and derive their name from the presence of the characteristic chemical group —N = N—, known as theazogroup. Azo compounds may become exceedingly complicated in structure. They are divided into mon-azo, di-azo, tri-azo compounds according to the number of azo groups present. The well-known dyes Congo Red and Bismarck Brown are azo compounds of complicated structure. Azo dyes were discovered by Griess in 1856, but as a class did not come on the market until about 1876.
Azof.SeeAzov.
Azo´ic.SeePre-Cambrian.
Azoimide, orHydrazoic Acid, N3H, is an acid liquid of disagreeable odour, producing headache if inhaled. The acid itself and its salts, with the exception of the alkali salts, are exceedingly explosive and dangerous to handle. Lead hydrazoate, PbN6, is one of the most stable of these salts. It is a more powerful explosive than mercury fulminate, and has been used instead, in the manufacture of detonators.
Azores(a-zōrz' or a-zō'res), orWestern Islands, a group belonging to and 900 miles west of Portugal, in the North Atlantic Ocean. They are nine in number, and form three distinct groups—aN.W., consisting of Flores and Corvo; a central, consisting of Terceira, São Jorge, Pico, Fayal, and Graciosa; and aS.E., consisting of São Miguel (or St. Michael) and Santa Maria. The total area is 922 sq. miles; São Miguel (containing the capital Ponta Delgada), Pico, and Terceira are the largest. The islands, which are volcanic and subject to earthquakes, are of comparatively recent origin, and are conical, lofty, precipitous, and picturesque. The most remarkable summit is the peak of Pico, about 7600 feet high. There are numerous hot springs. They are covered with luxuriant vegetation, and diversified with woods, corn-fields, vineyards, lemon and orange groves, and rich, open pastures. The mild and somewhat humid climate, combined with the natural fertility of the soil, brings all kinds of vegetable products rapidly to perfection, among the most important being grain, oranges, pine-apples, bananas, potatoes, yams, beans, coffee, and tobacco. The inhabitants are mainly of Portuguese descent, indolent and devoid of enterprise. Principal exports: wine and brandy, oranges, maize, beans, pineapples, cattle. The climate is recommended as suitable for consumptive patients. The Azores were discovered by Cabral about 1431, shortly after which date they were taken possession of and colonized by the Portuguese. When first visited they were uninhabited, and had scarcely any other animals except birds, particularly hawks, to which, called in Portugueseaçores, the islands owe their name. Pop. 242,613 (1911).
Az´ote, a name formerly given to nitrogen; hence substances containing nitrogen and forming part of the structure of plants and animals are known asazotizedbodies. Such are albumen, fibrine, caseine, gelatine, urea, kreatine, &c. SeeNitrogen.
A´zov, orAsov, a town in the Russian government of Ekaterinoslav, upon an island at the mouth of the Don, where it flows into the Sea of Azov; formerly a place of extensive trade, but its harbour has become almost sanded up. Pop. 31,111.
Azov, Sea of(ancient,Palus Moeōtis), an arm of the Black Sea, with which it is united by the Straits of Kertch or Kaffa; length about 170 miles, breadth about 80 miles; greatest depth not more than 8 fathoms. The W. part, called the Putrid Sea, is separated from the main expanse by a long sandy belt called Arabat, along which runs a military road. The sea teems with fish. The Don and other rivers enter it, and its waters are very fresh.
Azpeitia(a˙th-pā'i-ti-a˙), a town of N.E. Spain, province Guipuzcoa. Near it is the convent of Loyola, a large edifice, now a museum. Pop. 6692.
Az´rael.SeeAs'rael.
Az´tecs(fromAztatl(heron), andFlacatl(man), 'people of the heron'), a race of people who settled in Mexico early in the fourteenth century, ultimately extended their dominion over a large territory, and were still extending their supremacy at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards, by whom they were speedily subjugated. Their political organization, termed by the Spanish writers an absolute monarchy, consisted of a military chief exercising important, but not unlimited, power in civil affairs, in which the council of chiefs and periodic assemblies of the judges had also a voice. Their most celebrated ruler was Montezuma, who was reigning when the Spaniards arrived, about the middle of the fifteenth century. It is inferred that considerable numbers of them lived in large communal residences, and that land was held and cultivated upon the communal principle. Slavery and polygamy were both legitimate, but the children of slaves were regarded as free. Although ignorant of the horse, ox, &c., they had a considerable knowledge of agriculture, maize and the agave being the chief produce. Silver, lead, tin, and copper were obtained from mines, and gold from the surface and river beds, but iron was unknown to them, their tools being of bronze and obsidian. Metal coins were not in use. In metal-work, feather-work, weaving, and pottery they possessed a high degree of skill. To record events they used picture-writing, and their lunar calendars were of unusual accuracy. Twospecial deities claimed their reverence: Huitzilo-pochtli, the god of war, propitiated with human sacrifices; and Quetzalcoatl, the beneficent god of light and air, with whom at first the Aztecs were disposed to identify Cortez. Their temples, with large terraced pyramidal bases, were in the charge of an exceedingly large priesthood, to whom the education of the young was entrusted. As a civilization of apparently independent origin, yet closely resembling in many features the archaic Oriental civilizations, the Aztec civilization is of the first interest, but in most accounts of it a large speculative element has to be discounted.
Az´uline, orAz´urine, blue dyes belonging to the coal-tar class.
A´zure, the heraldic term for the colour blue, represented in engraving by horizontal lines.
Az´urine(Leuciscus cærulĕus), a fresh-water fish of the same genus as the roach, chub, and minnow, found in some parts of Europe, but rare in Britain; called alsoBlue Roach.
Az´urite, a blue mineral, a carbonate of copper, often occurring in crystals. Its formula is 2CuCO3.Cu(OH)2, and it is also calledBlue Malachite. Also a name of lazulite.
Azymite.SeeEucharist.
Bis the second letter and the first consonant in the English and most other alphabets. It is a mute and labial, pronounced solely by the lips, and is distinguished frompby being sonant, that is, produced by the utterance of voice as distinguished from breath.
B, inmusic, the seventh note of the model diatonic scale or scale of C. It is called the leading note, as there is always a feeling of suspense when it is sounded until the keynote is heard.
Baader, Franz Xaver von (fra˙nts-zä'fer fon bä'der), German philosopher and theologian, born in Munich, 1765, died 1841. He studied engineering, became superintendent of mines, and was ennobled for services. He was deeply interested in the religious speculations of Eckhart, St. Martin, and Böhme, and in 1826 was appointed professor of philosophy and speculative theology in the University of Munich. During the last three years of his life he was interdicted from lecturing for opposing the interference in civil matters of the Roman Catholic Church.
Ba´al, orBel, a Semitic word, which primarily signified lord or proprietor, and was afterwards applied to many different divinities, or, with qualifying epithets, to the same divinity regarded in different aspects, describing him as an occupier of some physical object or locality, or as a possessor of some attribute. Thus inHos.ii, 16 it is applied to Jehovah himself, whileBaal-berith(the Covenant-lord) was the god of the Shechemites, andBaal-zebub(the Fly-god) the idol of the Philistines at Ekron. Baal was the sacred title applied to the Sun as the principal male deity of the Phœnicians and their descendants, the Carthaginians, as well as of the ancient Canaanitish nations, and was worshipped as the supreme ruler and vivifier of nature. The word enters into the composition of many Hebrew, Phœnician, and Carthaginian names of persons and places; thus,Jerubaal,Hasdrubal(help of Baal),Hannibal(grace of Baal), andBaal-Hammon,Baal-Thamar, &c.
Baalbek´(ancient,Heliopŏlis, 'city of the sun'), a place in Syria, in a fertile valley at the foot of Antilibanus, 40 miles from Damascus, famous for its magnificent ruins. Of these the chief is the Temple of the Sun, built either by Antoninus Pius or by Septimius Severus. Some of the blocks used in its construction are 60 feet long by 12 thick; and its fifty-four columns, of which six are still standing, were 72 feet high and 22 in circumference. Near it is a temple of Jupiter, of smaller size though larger than the Parthenon at Athens, and there are other structures of an elaborately ornate type. Originally a centre of Sun-worship, it became a Roman colony under Julius Cæsar, was garrisoned by Augustus, and acquired increasing renown under Trajan as the seat of an oracle. Under Constantine its temples became churches, but after being sacked by the Arabs in 748, and more completely pillaged by Tamerlane in 1401, it sank into hopeless decay. The work of destruction was completed by an earthquake in 1759.
Baal-zebub.SeeBeelzebub.
Baba, a cape near the north-west point of Asia Minor.
Babadagh(ba˙-ba˙-däg'), a town of Roumania, capital of the Dobrudsha, carrying on a considerable Black Sea trade; it was bombarded by the Russians in 1854. Pop. 10,000.
Bab´bage, Charles, English mathematician and inventor of the calculating-machine, born 1792, died 1871. He graduated at Cambridge in 1814, and occupied the Lucasian chair of mathematics at Cambridge for eleven years, but delivered no lectures. As early as 1812 he conceived the idea of calculating numerical tables by machinery, and in 1823 he received a grant from Government for the construction of such a machine. After a series of experiments lasting eight years, and an expenditure of £17,000(£6000 of which was sunk by himself, the balance voted by Government), Babbage abandoned the undertaking in favour of a much more enlarged work, an analytical engine, worked with cards like the jacquard-loom; but the project was never completed. The incompleted machine is now in the South Kensington Museum. Among the many treatises he published on subjects connected with mathematics and mechanics few can be regarded as finished performances. Babbage was instrumental in founding the Astronomical and Statistical Societies (1820 and 1834).
Babbit-metal, a soft metal resulting from alloying together certain proportions of copper, tin, and zinc or antimony, used with the view of as far as possible obviating friction in the bearings of journals, cranks, axles, &c., invented by Isaac Babbit (1799-1862), a goldsmith of Taunton, Massachusetts.
Ba´bel.SeeBabylon.
Ba´bel, Tower of, according to the 11th chapter ofGenesis, a structure in the Plain of Shinar, Mesopotamia, commenced by the descendants of Noah subsequent to the deluge, but which was not allowed to proceed to completion. It has commonly been identified with the great temple of Belus, or Bel, that was one of the chief edifices in Babylon, and the huge mound called Birs Nimrud is generally regarded as its site, though another mound, which to this day bears the name of Babil, has been assigned by some as its site. Babel means literally 'gate of God'. The meaning 'confusion' assigned to it in the Bible really belongs to a word of similar form. SeeBabylon.
Bab-el-Mandeb('gate of tears', from being dangerous to small craft), a strait, 15 miles wide, between the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea, formed by projecting points of Arabia in Asia, and Abyssinia in Africa. The Island of Perim is here.
Ba´ber, first Grand Mogul, the founder of the Mogul dynasty in Hindustan, born in 1483, died 1530. He was a grandson of the great Tartar prince, Timur or Tamerlane, and was sovereign of Cabul. He invaded Hindustan, and in 1525 overthrew and killed Sultan Ibrahim, the last Hindu emperor of the Pathan or Afghan race. He made many improvements, social and political, in his empire, and left a valuable autobiography (English translation, 1826).
Babeuf(ba˙-beuf), François Noel, a French political agitator, born in 1764; started a democratic journal in Paris, calledLe Tribun du Peuple, par 'Gracchus' Babeuf, and wrote with great severity against the Jacobins. After the fall of Robespierre, to which he powerfully contributed, he openly attacked the terrorists, and advocated the most democratic principles. He was accused of a conspiracy against the directorial Government, condemned to death, and guillotined in 1797. He was one of the pioneers of Socialism in France.
Bab´ington, Anthony, a Catholic gentleman of Derbyshire, born 1561. He associated with others of his own persuasion to assassinate Queen Elizabeth, and deliver Mary, Queen of Scots. The plot being discovered, the conspirators were executed in 1586.
Babiroussa.SeeBabyroussa.
Bab´ism, the doctrines of a Mohammedan sect whose head-quarters is Persia, founded by Seyd Ali Mohammed in 1844. He took the name of Bab-ed-din, 'the gate of the faith', and afterwards that of Nokteh, 'the point', as not merely the recipient of a new divine revelation, but the focus in which all preceding dispensations would converge. One of his most successful disciples was a highly-gifted woman, Gurred-ul-Ayn, 'consolation of the eyes', who perished with many others during a persecution in 1852. The Bab himself had been executed about two years before this, and was succeeded by a noble youth, Mirza Yahya. The sect holds that all individual existence is an emanation from the supreme deity, by whom it will be ultimately reabsorbed. The morality of the sect is pure and cheerful, and it shows great advancement in the treatment of woman. Moses, Christ, and Mohammed are acknowledged as prophets, though only mere precursors of the Bab. A schism divided the followers of Babism into two sects, Bahais and Ezelis. The former have carried on an active propaganda in America.
Ba´boo, orBabu, a Hindu title of respect equivalent tosirormaster, usually given to wealthy and educated native gentlemen, especially when of the mercantile class.