Isometric projectionIsometric projection of a Brick 8¾ × 4¼ × 2¾
Orthographic projectionPlan and Elevation of a Square Slab pierced by a square hole obtained by orthographic projection
Three methods are commonly made use of in preparing drawings. (1) Orthographic, which represents the subject under consideration in one plane only, and from which dimensions may be scaled off, and which is the normal method of preparing an engineering drawing. (2) Perspective or radial projection is made use of by an architect for displaying the elevations of a building, and gives a truer appreciation of the actual appearance of the building than can be obtained by orthographic projection. (3) Isometric projection enables one to show the length, breadth, and thickness of an object drawn to scale on the one drawing. Such a drawing is really composed of three sets of parallel straight lines, and is not strictly a true representation of the object as it would appear to the eye. It has the great advantage, however, that measurements may be directly scaled from it, and lines which are parallel in the object are also parallel in the drawing.
Drayton, Michael, an English poet, born in 1563, is said to have studied at Oxford, and afterwards held a commission in the army. The poem by which his name is chiefly remembered is hisPolyolbion(1622, reprinted in 1890), a sort of topographical description of England. It is generally extremely accurate in its details, with, at the same time, many passages of true poetic fire and beauty. Other works are hisNymphidia, the Court of Fairy;The Barons' Wars;The Legend of Great Cromwell;The Battle of Agincourt; besides numerous legends, sonnets, and other pieces. He died in 1631, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.—Cf. O. Elton,Michael Drayton: a Critical Study.
Drayton, Market, orDrayton-in-Hales, a town, England, county Salop, 18 miles northeast of Shrewsbury. It has a church, supposed to have been erected, with exception of the steeple, in the reign of William I. There are paper and hair-cloth manufactories. Pop. 5167.
Dreams, trains of ideas which present themselves to the mind during sleep. The principal feature of the state of dreaming is the absence of conscious control over the current of thought, so that all kinds of fantastic notions, which in the waking state would at once be put aside, are woven into the texture of the dream. The usual content of dreams consists of aspirations or dreads, which the dreamer had recently entertained or experienced, mixed up with incidents which excited intense emotion at some earlier period of the individual's history, and especially in early childhood. The memory of unpleasant experiences, such, for example, as the horrors of trench warfare, which is repressed in the waking state, tends to force itself on the individual's attention when the conscious control is relaxed in sleep, and to give rise to disturbing dreams which may become so intense as to interfere with sleep and cause insomnia. The only rational remedy for this distressing trouble is to discover the painful incident and persuade the patient frankly to face it and not 'try to forget'. In recent years S. Freud has placed the study of dreams upon a scientific basis. He maintains that dreams represent the fulfilment of wishes. There is usually an utter want of coherency in the images that appear before the mental eye, but this excites no surprise in the dreamer. Occasionally, however, intellectual efforts are made during sleep which would be difficult to surpass in the waking state. It is said that Condillac often brought to a conclusion in his dreams reasonings on which he had been employed during the day; and that Franklin believed that he had been often instructed in his dreams concerning the issue of events which at that time occupied his mind. Coleridge composed from 200 to 300 lines during a dream: the beautiful fragment ofKubla Khan, which was all he was able to commit to paper when he awoke, remains a specimen of that dream-poem. Dreams are subjective phenomena dependent on natural causes. They are retrospective and resultant instead of being prospective or prophetic. The latter opinion has, however, prevailed in all ages and among all nations; and hence the common practice of divination or prophesying by dreams, that is, interpreting them as presages of coming events. Some authorities declare that all our dreams take place when we are in process of going to sleep or becoming awake, and that during deep sleep the mind is totally inactive. This is denied by the majority of philosophers,and with apparent reason.—Bibliography: Havelock Ellis,The World of Dreams; S. Freud,The Interpretation of Dreams; W. H. R. Rivers,Instinct and the Unconscious.
DredgerPlan and Elevation of an 800-ton DredgerA, Shoot.B, Hoist-gear.C, Hopper.D, Sand-pump and its engines.E, Engines.F, Overboard shoot.G, Suction-pipe.H, Bucket-well.J, Overboard discharge.
A, Shoot.B, Hoist-gear.C, Hopper.D, Sand-pump and its engines.E, Engines.F, Overboard shoot.G, Suction-pipe.H, Bucket-well.J, Overboard discharge.
Dredging, a term applied to the operation of removing mud, silt, and other deposits from the bottom of harbours, canals, rivers, docks, &c. The most simple dredging apparatus is the spoon apparatus, which consists of a strong iron ring or hoop, properly formed for making an impression upon the soft matter at the bottom, so as to scoop it into a large leather bag attached to the ring and perforated with a number of small holes. The means for working it is a long handle, a suspending rope, and a crane or sweep-pole planted in a boat. Much more effective is the steam dredging-machine now in common use. It has a succession of strong iron buckets on an endless chain, which travels on a frame whose lower end is vertically adjustable so as to regulate the depth at which it works. It is worked by steam, and the buckets tear up the matter at the bottom, raise it, and discharge it into punts or hoppers close to the dredging vessel. Various forms of steam-pump dredgers, in which suction-pipes are the chief features, are also used. The River Clyde, from being a shallow stream, has been converted, mainly by dredging, into a waterway carrying large vessels up to Glasgow. Dredging rivers for gold is now largely carried on; and the gold-dredge may even be floated in water artificially supplied. The operation of dragging the bottom of the sea for molluscs, plants, and other objects, usually for scientific observation, is also called dredging. The oyster-dredge is a light iron frame with a scraper like a narrow hoe on one side, and a bag attached to receive the oysters. The dredges used by naturalists are mostly modifications of or somewhat similar to the oyster-dredge. Scientific dredging has of late assumed great importance as making us acquainted with the life of deep-sea areas.
Dreisenssia, a genus of bivalve mollusc allied to the mussels. One species (D. polymorpha) is a native of the streams which flow into the Caspian, but has been accidentally introduced into most rivers and estuaries of Europe, including those of Britain, where it is now abundant.
Drelincourt(drė-lan˙-kör), Charles, a French Calvinistic minister, born at Sedan 1595, died at Paris 1669. He was the author of many controversial works, and ofConsolations againstthe fear of Death. To promote the sale of the English translation of this work, De Foe wrote hisApparition of Mrs. Veal.
Drenthe(dren´te), a province of Holland, bounded by Hanover, Overijssel, Friesland, and Groningen; area, 948 sq. miles. It is in general more elevated than the surrounding provinces, especially in the centre. The soil is generally poor, and the surface largely consists of heath and morass, but the province is famed for its horses and cattle. Drenthe is remarkable for the great number of so-called 'giants' graves' or barrows scattered over the country. Its capital is Assen. Pop. 200,951.
Dres´den, the capital of the Republic (former kingdom) of Saxony, is situated in a beautiful valley on both sides of the River Elbe, which is here spanned by four stone bridges and an iron railway bridge. It is first mentioned in history in 1206, and has been the residence of the sovereigns since 1485; was greatly extended and embellished by Augustus the Strong (1694-1736), and rapidly increased during the nineteenth century. Among the chief sights are the museum (joined on to an older range of buildings called the Zwinger), a beautiful building containing a famous picture-gallery and other treasures; the Japanese palace (Augusteum), containing the royal library (founded by the Elector Augustus in the sixteenth century) of 570,000 volumes, besides a rich collection of manuscripts; the Johanneum, containing the collection of porcelain and the historical museum, a valuable collection of arms, armour, and domestic utensils, belonging to the Middle Ages. The palace, built about 1530, restored and remodelled externally between 1890 and 1902, and until 1918 the residence of the kings of Saxony, has also a fine interior, and contains (in what is called the Green Vault) a valuable collection of curiosities, jewels, trinkets, and works of art. The theatre is one of the finest structures of the kind in the world. The city is distinguished for its excellent educational, literary, and artistic institutions, among which are the Technical High School, much on the plan and scale of a university; the Conservatory and School of Music; and the Academy of Fine Arts. The manufactures are not unimportant, and are various in character; the china, however, for which the city is famed, is made chiefly at Meissen, 14 miles distant. The commerce is considerable, and has greatly increased since the development of the railway system. The chief glory of Dresden is the gallery of pictures, one of the finest in the world, which first became of importance under Augustus II, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony, but owes its most valuable treasures to Augustus III, who purchased the greater portion of the gallery of the Duke of Modena for £180,000. The pictures number about 3000, and in particular comprise many fine specimens of the Italian, Dutch, and Flemish schools. Besides this fine collection the museum contains also engravings and drawings amounting to upwards of 350,000. There is also a sculpture-gallery, the Albertinum, where by casts and otherwise the progress of sculpture is exemplified from the earliest times, all the most important antiques being shown. Dresden, being thus rich in treasures of art and favoured by a beautiful natural situation, is the summer resort of many foreigners. It suffered severely in the Thirty Years' War, and also in 1813, when it was the head-quarters of Napoleon's army. It was occupied by the Prussians in 1866, but was evacuated in the following spring. Pop. 548,308.
Dresden, Battle of, a battle fought in 1813 (26-27th Aug.), between the French under Napoleon and the Allies under Schwarzenberg. Napoleon had come to the relief of the city, which was occupied by the French. The Allies assaulted and bombarded the city, and soon after a great pitched battle was fought (27th Aug.), the Allies being defeated.
Dresden ChinaDresden China. Candelabrum
Dresden China, a delicate, semi-transparent, highly finished china made at Meissen, 14 miles from Dresden. The manufacture resulted from an accidental discovery made by Böttger, a young chemist, in 1710, and the vases, statuettes, groups of figures, candelabra, and clocks, manufactured during the eighteenth century are highly prized.
Dreux(dreu;DurocassisorDrocæof theRomans), a French town, department of Eure-et-Loir, on the Blaise, near to where it joins the Eure, 20 milesN.N.W.of Chartres. It is built at the foot of a hill crowned by a dilapidated castle, which contains a chapel, founded in 1142; to which has been added the costly mausoleum of the Orleans family. A battle took place near the town in 1562 between the Royalists under Montmorency and the Huguenots under Condé, in which the latter were defeated. Pop. 10,692.
Dreyfus, Alfred, captain of artillery and general staff-officer in the French army, was born of a Jewish family in Mulhouse, Alsace, in 1859. In Oct., 1894, he was arrested on a charge of communicating military documents to a foreign Government, supposed to be Germany; and at a secret court-martial, which sat in December, he was condemned to public degradation and lifelong imprisonment. Early in 1895 he was sent to the Île du Diable (Devil's Island), near Cayenne, to undergo his sentence. About the middle of the same year Colonel Picquart became head of the Intelligence Department, and in the course of his official duties discovered various circumstances tending to throw doubt on the correctness of the court-martial's decision, and pointing to another officer, of the name of Esterhazy, as the real traitor. Picquart was superseded by a Colonel Henry in Nov., 1897, and in the following January Esterhazy, charged by a brother of the condemned man with having written thebordereau, or memorandum, which was the chief document relied on by the prosecutors of Dreyfus, was acquitted by a court-martial. Two days later M. Zola, the eminent novelist, in a letter headedJ'accusepublished in theAurore, made serious charges against the general staff and the Government in connection with the Esterhazy court-martial. He was prosecuted, and condemned to pay a heavy fine and undergo a term of imprisonment. In June, 1898, M. Brisson succeeded M. Méline as Prime Minister, and next month M. Cavaignac, his War Minister, read to the Chamber several documents which he regarded as conclusive proof of the guilt of Dreyfus. The chief of these was soon admitted by Colonel Henry to have been forged by him, and M. Cavaignac at once resigned. In June, 1899, the Cour de Cassation ordered a fresh court-martial. The court-martial, which sat at Rennes, found Dreyfus guilty with extenuating circumstances. He was sentenced to ten years' imprisonment, but was pardoned by President Loubet almost immediately. In 1906, when Clemenceau was Prime Minister, the sentence was annulled, and Dreyfus was reinstated in the army (as major). He was shot at by a reactionary journalist in 1908, but escaped without serious injury. In Sept., 1919, Lieutenant-Colonel Dreyfus was publicly presented with the insignia of an officer of the Legion of Honour. Several times during the progress of the case France seemed on the verge of revolution.—Cf. J. Reinach,Histoire de l'affaire Dreyfus.
Driffield, Great, a town, England, Yorkshire, at the head of a navigable canal communicating with the Humber at Hull. It lies in a fertile district, has an ancient parish church, and manufactures linseed-cake and manures. Pop. 5676.
Drift, in geology, a term applied to earth and rocks which have been conveyed by flood-action, glaciers, or floating ice and deposited over the surface of a country. It is sometimes used in a wider sense to denote all post-Pliocene sands, gravels, and clays, such as the superficial deposits shown on the 'drift' maps of the Geological Survey.
Drift, in mining, a horizontal tunnel or passage excavated underground that follows the course of a vein or stratum. Drift, in musketry, is the lateral deviation of the bullet after it has left the barrel of the rifle; it is due to the spin of the bullet and the resistance of the air.
Drift Sand, sand thrown up by the waves of the sea, and blown when dry some distance inland until arrested by obstacles, round which it gradually accumulates until the heaps attain considerable dimensions, often forming dunes or sand-hills. Coast-land sometimes requires artificial protection from encroachment by drift-sand.
Drill, a tool used for boring holes in wood, metal, stone, ivory, &c. It consists of a sharp spindle to which a circular motion is communicated by various contrivances. Drills are of various designs. For rock-boring the diamond rock-drill, an instrument with cutting edges made of bort or black diamond, is now generally adopted. SeeBoring.—Cf. Dana and Saunders,Rock Drilling.
Drillis the A B C of all military movements. In the Training Manuals of the British army the word is defined as "the training of the soldier to perform certain movements as a second nature". It follows, therefore, that drill is an essential part of the training of every soldier, more especially in the early days of his training, in that without it, and without the power of movement in obedience to the expressed will of a superior given by it, a body of soldiers would be merely a collection of armed men who, however willing individually, would be incapable of carrying out collectively an order given for the general good. In the early days of our history, when fighting was largely individual, and the whole duty of a soldier was 'to do unto the other fellow as he would do unto you—and do it first' (with a club), drill, as we know it, was unknown; each man armed himself as he thought fit, and, beyond getting into some formation for theactual purpose of the assault, a battle was largely a go-as-you-please affair. In Saxon days the normal formation for the battle was the wedge; that is two men at the point followed by three, and so on till the available number was used up. This, of course, formed a solid pointed mass with considerable weight, and was used both for attack and defence. But once this formation was broken it was next to impossible to reform it. An instance of this weakness occurred at the battle of Hastings. The English were in this one and only wedge formation, officers and the better armed men at the point, and the less skilful and more indifferently armed at the base. Doubtless the troops had been got into this formation after much exertion in the way of pushing and vituperation, and, once in it, had been told on no account to break it. At a certain stage in the battle the heavily armoured Normans pretended flight; this was too much for the English, who broke their ranks and gave chase, each after his own particular source of ransom. This ended the battle; the Normans turned, and, owing to the entire inability of the English to re-form their ranks, the wedge, and with it the English army, ceased to exist: the result of want of discipline and absence of drill.
Drill and discipline are complementary to each other. In one of the battles of the Peninsular War, the 28th (now the Gloucestershire Regiment) were being hotly attacked in front by a French column. The regiment was firing in two ranks—the front rank kneeling and the rear rank standing—when suddenly a fresh attack developed from the rear. It was a matter of seconds for the commanding officer of the 28th to order the rear rank to turn about; drill and discipline did the rest, and the rear rank turned round, knelt down, and beat off the new attack. Since then the 28th has worn its badges both front and rear of its head-dresses.
Drill is an aid to discipline in that it teaches men that there is a right and a wrong way of doing a thing. Drill and the spirit arising from it has a great steadying effect on the nerves, as when in the European War the Guards Division, after being almost decimated during a German 'push', was brought out of the line and kept to steady drill for a week. To those who did not understand this appeared harsh and futile; to those who did it appeared, as it was, the best means of steadying men tried beyond endurance, and of preparing them for further efforts. Our English drill has passed through many phases in its time; but from the days when large bodies of men performed complicated manœuvres at the executive command of one man, through the times when drill, perhaps, was considered to be the be-all and end-all of the soldier, to modern days when it is recognized as a means to an end, the guiding principle remains the same, viz. that one of the first essentials for a soldier is that he shall be so trained by drill that he shall know instinctively how to do the right thing at the right time and in the right way. Even now, when drill movements are no longer performed in face of an enemy, accuracy and attention to detail are insisted on in all parade-ground movements as part of the education of the soldier and as an aid to discipline. Drill for the soldier takes the place of the five-finger exercises for the musician. Neither of them, in itself, is of any particular value, but each adds to the efficiency of those who practise it.
Drill(Papio leucophæus), a large variety of baboon, smaller and less fierce than the mandrill, and like it a native of the coast of Guinea. The face and ears are bare and of a glossy black colour, the palms of the hands and soles of the feet are also naked and of a deep copper colour.
Drilling, the plan of sowing in parallel rows as distinguished from sowing broadcast. It was introduced into England by Jethro Tull, who invented the first implement for drilling, and published a work on the subject in 1731. The crops which are now generally drilled are turnips and flax. The first form of drill was of very simple construction, and was only adapted for potatoes, beans, peas, carrots, clover, cereals, sowing one row at a time, but now a great variety of improved implements is in use, some of which distribute artificial manure with the seed. Among the principal advantages of drilling over broadcast sowing we may mention that a considerable saving of seed is effected in the sowing of grain crops, but the great advantage is that in the case of green crops it enables the farmer more readily to clean the land both by the hand- and by the horse-hoe. To keep the soil stirred and pulverized, which can only be properly done when the crops have been drilled, favours the retention and absorption of the moisture.
DripstoneDripstone over window, decorated Gothic, mixed tracery. Two different forms of termination.
Dripstone, a projecting tablet or moulding over the head of a Gothic doorway, window, archway, or niche to throw off the rain. It is also called aweather moulding, andlabelwhen it is turned square. It is of various forms; sometimes a head is used as a termination or support, in others an ornament or simple moulding is adopted.
Driver, Rev. Samuel Rolles,D.D., professor of Hebrew and Biblical critic, born at Southampton 2nd Oct., 1846, died in 1914. He was educated at Winchester and at New College, Oxford, where he graduated with first-class honours in classics in 1869. In 1866 he gained the Pusey and Ellerton Hebrew Scholarship, and the Kennicott Scholarship (also for Hebrew) four years later, besides prizes for Septuagint Greek and Syriac. He was for some years a fellow and tutorof his college, and from 1876 to 1884 a member of the Old Testament Revision Committee. In 1883, on the death of Dr. Pusey, he became Regius professor of Hebrew at Oxford and (ipso facto) a Canon of Christ Church. Of his numerous works we may mention:A Treatise on the Use of the Tenses in Hebrew(1874);Isaiah: his Life and Times(1888);Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament(1891), a work suited for popular reading, which has passed through many editions;Sermons on Subjects connected with the Old Testament(1892);The Parallel Psalter(1904);Commentarieson various books of the Bible; and articles inBible Dictionariesand in periodicals. He was a joint editor of the newHebrew-English Lexicon of the Old Testamentpublished by the Clarendon Press.
Drogheda(droh´e-da), an ancient town and seaport, formerly a parliamentary borough, Ireland, in the county of Louth, on both sides of the Boyne, about 4 miles from the sea, 26 miles north of Dublin. The Boyne is here crossed by a railway viaduct of 18 arches and 95 feet high. Flax- and cotton-spinning are carried on; there are also salt-works, breweries, and tanneries; and the fisheries are increasing. There is a good export trade in cattle, sheep, grain, butter, and eggs. In 1412 a Parliament assembled here which enacted Poynings' Law. The town was for a long time strongly fortified, and was taken by Cromwell with great slaughter in 1649; it surrendered to William III immediately after the battle of the Boyne. Pop. 12,500.
Drohobycz(dro´ho-bich), a Polish town in Galicia, formerly belonging to Austria, 41 milesS.S.W.of Lemberg. Its Catholic church is one of the handsomest in the country. It has an important trade, particularly in salt, obtained from springs in the vicinity. Pop. 40,000.
Droit d'Aubaine(drwä-dō-bān), an old rule in some European countries, by which the property of a foreigner who died was claimed by the State, unless the person had a special exemption. In France, where it was not abolished till 1819, the Scots, Savoyards, Swiss, and Portuguese were exempted.
Droitwich(droit´ich), a town of England, in the county and 6 milesN.N.E.of Worcester, on the Salwarp. It is famous for its brine springs, from which salt has been manufactured for more than 1000 years. Pop. 4146.
Drôme, a south-east department of France, covered almost throughout by ramifications of the Alps, the average height of which, however, does not exceed 4000 feet; area, 2508 sq. miles, of which about one-fourth is waste, one-third under wood, and a great part of the remainder under tillage and pasture. A considerable extent of the area is occupied by vineyards, and several of the wines produced have a high reputation, especially Hermitage. Olives, chestnuts, and silks are staple productions. Valence is the capital. Pop. 263,509.
Dromedary.SeeCamel.
Dromore´, an episcopal city, Ireland, County Down, on the Lagan, here crossed by two bridges, 16 miles south-west of Belfast. Its cathedral contains the tomb of Jeremy Taylor. Pop. 2307.
Dropsy(Œdema) is a condition usually marked by enlargement and swelling of the affected parts, and due to an accumulation of serous fluid in the tissue spaces and cavities of the body. Different names are given to suchaccumulations in particular areas, thusanasarcarefers to accumulations in the limbs and body generally;ascitesto an accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity (abdomen);hydrothoraxto an accumulation in the pleural cavity (lungs);hydrocephalusto an accumulation in the brain. The commonest cause of dropsy is heart disease, where first the lower limbs, and then the trunk, are affected. It also appears in diseases of the kidneys and liver, and it may be produced in a limb by any obstruction of the veins of the part.
Water Drop-wortCommon Water Drop-wort (Œnanthe fistulōsa)a, Cluster of florets.b, Single floret.
a, Cluster of florets.b, Single floret.
Drop-wort(from the small tubers on the fibrous roots),Spiræa filipendŭla, nat. ord. Rosaceæ, a British plant of the same genus as queen-of-the-meadow, found in dry pastures. The hemlock drop-wort, or water drop-wort, isŒnanthe fistulōsa.
Drosera´ceæ, a nat. ord. of polypetalous Dicotyledons, consisting of insectivorous marsh herbs, whose leaves are usually covered with glands or glandular hairs. It contains six genera, including the sundew (Drosĕra), and Venus's fly-trap (Dionæa). (SeeSundewandDionæa.) They have no known qualities except that they are slightly bitter. The leaves are generally circinate in the bud, as in ferns.
DroshkyRussian Droshky
Droshky, a kind of light, four-wheeled carriage used by the Russians. It is not covered, and in some types there is in the middle a sort of bench placed lengthways on which the passengers ride as on a saddle; but the name is now applied to various kinds of vehicles, as to the common cabs plying in the streets of German cities.
Drouais(drö-ā), Jean Germain, French historical painter of considerable repute, born at Paris in 1763, died at Rome 1788. His chief pictures are:The Canaanitish Woman at the Feet of Jesus,Dying Gladiator, andMarius at Minturno.
Drouet(drö-ā), Jean Baptiste, Comte d'Erlon, French general, born 1765, died 1844. He served in the campaigns of the Moselle, Meuse, and Sambre (1793-6), in the Peninsula, and at Waterloo, where he commanded the firstcorps d'armée. In 1834-5 he was Governor-General of Algeria, and in 1843 was made a marshal.
Drouyn de Lhuys(drö-an˙dė lwēs), Édouard, French statesman and diplomatist, born 1805, died 1881. He entered the diplomatic service in 1831, and was chargé d'affaires at the Hague during the events which led to the separation of Belgium from Holland. In 1840 he was head of the commercial department under the Minister of Foreign Affairs. Opposition to Guizot caused his dismissal in 1845. He became Minister for Foreign Affairs in 1848, Ambassador to London in 1849; and again Foreign Minister in 1851, and in 1863. On the fall of the empire he fled to Jersey, but subsequently returned to France.
Drowningmeans death by the air being prevented from entering the lungs owing to the mouth and nostrils being immersed in a liquid, the liquid being commonly water. Death may, therefore, occur by drowning in a small quantity of water. Thus a child may fall head downwards into a tub and be drowned, though the tub is not half full of water, sufficient to cover the mouth and nostrils being all that is necessary, and a man overcome by a fit or by drunkenness may fall on a road with his head in a ditch or pool of water, and thus meet death. Death is thus due to suffocation, to the stoppage of breathing, and to the entrance of water into the lungs. When death has been caused by drowning, the skin presents the appearance called goose-skin (cutis anserīna), the face and surface of the body generally are usually pale, a frothy liquid is found in the lungs and air-passages, and about the lips and nostrils; water may be found in the stomach, and clenched fingers, holding substances grasped at, may serve to show that a struggle has taken place in the water, and that the body was alive at the time of immersion. Complete insensibility arises, it is probable, in from one or two minutes after submersion, recovery, however, being still possible, and death occurs in from two to five minutes. So long as the heart continues to beat, recovery is possible; after it has ceased it is impossible. Newly-born children and young puppies stand submersion longer than the more fully grown.
For the restoration of the apparently drowned several methods are suggested. Those of Dr. Silvester, recommended by the English Humane Society, and Dr. Benjamin Howard, of New York, will be described.
Whichever method is adopted, the following steps must first and immediately be taken: Pull the body up on to dry ground. Send immediately for medical assistance, warm blankets, dry clothing, brandy and hot water, if any oneis at hand to send. No delay must be permitted, however, in treating the drowned, so that if only one person is on the spot he must begin to treat the victiminstantly, without seeking assistance. Remove all clothing from the neck and chest. Fold the articles of dress removed so as to make a firm pillow, which is to be placed under the shoulders, so that the upper part of the body is slightly raised and the head slightly thrown back. Cleanse the mouth and nostrils, open the mouth and pull forward the tongue. If natural efforts to breathe are made, try to stimulate them by brisk rubbing of the sides of the chest and of the face. If no effort to breathe is made, proceed to produce the entrance and outflow of air from the lungs by Silvester's or Howard's method.
Silvester's method: Stand or kneel behind the person's head, grasp each arm at the elbow, draw both arms simultaneously upwards till they are extended in line with the body, as a man places them when he stretches himself. Let this movement occupy about two seconds. This enlarges the chest and causes the entrance of air to the lungs. Without a pause carry the arms down to the sides, making them overlap the chest a little, and firmly press them on the chest. This movement should occupy other two seconds. It expels air from the lungs. Repeat the movements, and maintain them steadily and patiently at the rate of fifteen times a minute, until breathing has been fully restored, or until medical aid arrives, or until death is certain. An hour is not too long a time to persist, and so long as there seems the least effort to breathe the movements must be persevered in.
Howard's Method for restoring the apparently DrownedHoward's Method for restoring the apparently Drowned
Howard's method: Place the body on its face, with the roll of clothing under the stomach; the head being supported on the hand as shown in fig. 1. Pull the body over the roll of clothing to expel water from the chest. Then turn the body on the back, the shoulders being supported as shown in fig. 2. Kneel over the body. Place both hands on the lower part of the chest, so that the thumbs hook in under the lowest ribs and the fingers are spread out on the chest. Steadily press forwards, raising the ribs, your own body being thus thrown leaning forward. This enlarges the cavity of the chest and causes air to enter. When the ribs have been raised to the utmost extent, with a slight effort push yourself back to the more erect position, allowing the ribs to recoil to their former position. This expels the air. Repeat the process fifteen times a minute. One person will find it more easy to maintain this method for a prolonged period than Silvester's, especially if the patient be big and heavy.
Meanwhile, if other persons are present they should be occupied rubbing the body and limbs (always upwards) with hands or warm flannel, applying hot flannels, bottles, &c., to the limbs, feet, arm-pits, &c. As soon as the person is sufficiently restored to be able to swallow, give small quantities of hot brandy and water, hot wine and water, hot coffee, &c., and use every effort to restore and maintain warmth.
Drowning was formerly a mode of capital punishment in Europe. The last person executed by drowning in Scotland suffered death in 1685. It survived in Switzerland until 1652, and in Austria until 1776. In Russia the punishment was abolished early in the eighteenth century.
Droylsden, a town of England, Lancashire, 3½ milesE.of Manchester, of which it is practically a suburb. Pop. 13,259.
Droz(drō), François Xavier Joseph, French moralist and historian, born at Besançon 1773, died 1850. In 1806 he published anEssai sur l'Art d'être Heureux, which was very popular; and in 1823De la Philosophie Morale, ou des Différents Systèmes sur la Science de la Vie, which procured his admission into the Academy. His reputation is, however, founded chiefly on hisHistoire du Règne de Louis XVI.
Drugget, a coarse kind of woollen felt or cloth, formerly used by the lower classes for purposes of clothing, but now chiefly used as a covering for carpets.
Druids, the priests of the Celts of Gaul andBritain. According to Julius Cæsar they possessed the greatest authority among the Celtic nations. They had some knowledge of geometry, natural philosophy, &c., superintended the affairs of religion and morality, and performed the office of judges. They were also well versed in the knowledge of the mysterious powers of plants and animals, and were adepts in the magic arts. They venerated the mistletoe when growing on the oak, a tree which they likewise esteemed sacred. They had a common superior, who was elected by a majority of votes from their own number, and who was appointed for life. They took unusual care to fence themselves round with mysteries, and it is probable that they cherished doctrines unknown to the common people; but that they had a great secret philosophy which was handed down by oral tradition is very unlikely. Of their religious doctrines little is known.—Bibliography: J. Rhys,Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by Celtic Heathenism; D'Arbois de Jubainville,Les Druides et les dieux celtiques à forme d'animaux.
Druids, Order of, a secret organization, founded in London in 1781, for the purpose of mutual aid and protection. Their rites somewhat resemble those of freemasons; their lodges are known as 'groves'.
Drum, a musical instrument of percussion, of Eastern origin, either cylindrical or hemispherical in shape, with the end or ends covered with tightened parchment, which is stretched or slackened at pleasure by means of cords with sliding knots or screws. Drums are of three kinds: (1) the long or bass drum played with stuffed-nob drumsticks, and used only in large orchestras or military bands; (2) the side-drum, having two heads, the upper one only being played upon by two sticks of wood; (3) the kettle-drum, a hemisphere of brass or copper, the end of which is covered with parchment, always used in pairs, one drum being tuned to the key-note, and the other to the fifth of the key, the compass of the two together being an octave. The use of drums was introduced into Europe either by the Moors or the Crusaders.
Drumclog´, a moorland tract in Lanarkshire, Scotland, 6 milesS.W.of Strathaven, the scene of a skirmish between Claverhouse and the Covenanters, in which the former was defeated (1679). A graphic description of the battle is given by Scott in hisOld Mortality.
Drum-fish, orDrum,Pogonias chromis, and other species of the same genus, fishes found on the Atlantic coast of N. America, and so named from the deep drumming sound they make, by means of the swim-bladder and its muscles, during the spawning season in April. It is the most powerful sound-producing apparatus known among fishes. They often weigh about 20 lb.
Drum-major, in the British army, a warrant or non-commissioned officer whose duty it is to teach and direct the drummers. He marches at the head of the band carrying the regimental baton.
Drum´mond, Professor Henry, was born at Stirling in 1851, died in 1897. Educated at the Universities of Edinburgh and Tübingen, he entered the ministry of the Free Church, and having devoted much attention to science, in 1877 was appointed lecturer on natural science in the Free Church College (or divinity hall), Glasgow, becoming professor in 1884. He travelled much, and wrote a popular book onTropical Africa(1888). His most remarkable work isNatural Law in the Spiritual World(1883), which has passed through many editions and been translated into various languages. He is author, also, ofTravel Sketches in Our New Protectorate,The Greatest Thing in the World, andThe Ascent of Man(1894).
Drummond, Rev. James, Unitarian theologian, was born at Dublin in 1835, died 13th June, 1918. After receiving his early education at a private school, he entered Trinity College, Dublin, where he graduated and obtained the first gold medal for classics in 1855. In 1859 he became colleague of the Rev. W. Gaskell in Cross Street Chapel, Manchester, and ten years later was appointed professor of theology at Manchester New College, London, of which institution (now known, since its removal to Oxford in 1889, simply as Manchester College) he was principal from 1885 to 1906, when he retired from his post. His works include:Spiritual Religion: Sermons on Christian Faith and Life(1870);The Jewish Messiah: a Critical History of the Messianic Idea among the Jews(1877);Introduction to the Study of Theology(1884);Philo-Judæus(2 vols., 1888);Via, Veritas, Vita(the Hibbert lectures for 1894);The Pauline Benediction(1897);The Epistles to the Thessalonians, &c.(International Handbooks, 1899);Some Thoughts on Christology(1902);The Character and Authorship of the Fourth Gospel(1904);Johannine Thoughts(1909);Paul: his Life and Teaching(1911).
Drummond, William, of Hawthornden, a Scottish poet distinguished for the elegance and tenderness of his verses, was born at Hawthornden House, 7 miles from Edinburgh, 1585, died 1649. He was educated at the University of Edinburgh; after which he spent four years in foreign travels, residing for a part of the time at Bourges, to study the civil law. On his return to Scotland he retired to Hawthornden and gave himself up to the cultivation of poetry and polite literature, and here he spent the most of hislife. He entertained Ben Jonson on the occasion of a visit which the English dramatist made to Scotland in the winter of 1618-9, and took notes of Jonson's conversation, first published in entirety in 1842 (Notes of Ben Jonson's Conversations with William Drummond). He was the first Scottish writer to abandon the native dialect for the language raised to supremacy by the Elizabethan writers. His chief productions are:The Cypress Grove, in prose, containing reflections upon death;Flowers of Zion, or Spiritual Poems;Tears on the Death of Mœliades(that is, Prince Henry);Poems, Amorous, Funeral, Divine, Pastoral, in Sonnets, Songs, Sextains, Madrigals;The River Forth Feasting(on King James's visit to Scotland in 1617);Polemo-Middinia, or the Battle of the Dunghill: a Macaronic Poem; andHistory of the Lives and Reigns of the Five Jameses, Kings of Scotland. As an historian he is chiefly remarkable for an ornate style, and a strong attachment to the High Church principles of the Jacobites.
Drumont, Édouard, French journalist and anti-Semitic agitator, born at Paris in 1844, died there in 1917. His workMon vieux Paris(1879) was crowned by the Académie Française. In 1886 he publishedLa France Juive devant l'opinion. He thus began a violent campaign against the Jews which he continued until his death, especially in his organLa Libre Parole, founded in 1892. In 1898 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, retaining his seat till 1902. His other works include:La fin d'un monde(1888),Testament d'un Anti-Sémite(1891),De l'or et de la boue du Sang(1896), andLes Juifs et l'affaire Dreyfus(1899).
Drunkards, Habitual.The Habitual Drunkards Act of 1879 provided for the licensing of retreats for receiving habitual drunkards, and for the regular inspection of such retreats. An habitual drunkard desiring admission to a retreat had to make a written application, accompanied by a declaration of two persons that the applicant was an habitual drunkard, and attested by two justices of the peace. No patient in a retreat was permitted to leave before the expiration of the term stated in the application, such term not to exceed one year. This Act was to expire in ten years; but another Act, passed in 1888, made it permanent, with some modifications. The Inebriates Act of 1898 introduced several important changes. It transferred the licensing power in counties from justices of the peace to County Councils and their committees, and in boroughs from magistrates to town councillors or police commissioners. The maximum period of detention was extended to two years, and the attestation of one justice was made sufficient for a valid application. It also gave power to the Secretary of State to establish State inebriate reformatories, or to grant certificates to reformatories suitable for such a purpose. If an habitual drunkard, when drunk, commit an offence punishable by imprisonment or penal servitude, the court may, in addition to, or in substitution for, the ordinary sentence, order him to be detained three years in a State or certified inebriate reformatory. The proof that the accused is an habitual drunkard may consist either in his own admission or in the jury's verdict after inquiry. The Inebriates' Act of 1899 was very short, and made no important change in the law. In Scotland habitual drunkenness is now a ground justifying judicial separation of spouses, while under the Matrimonial Causes Bill, 1920, it is proposed that in England, where one spouse has been granted a temporary separation order on the ground of the incurable habitual drunkenness of the other, and such order has been in force for at least three years, a divorce should be granted.
Drunkenness, the state of being drunk or overpowered by alcoholic liquor, or the habit of indulging in intoxication. A similar condition may be produced by numerous agents, but the term is always applied to the act or habit of drinking alcoholics to excess. By the law of Britain drunkenness is an offence against the public economy, and those found drunk are liable to fine or imprisonment. Drunkenness is no excuse for any crime, but it renders a contract invalid if either of the parties was in a state of complete drunkenness when the contract was signed.
Drunken Parliament, in Scottish history, a name given to the Privy Council who, under their powers as representing the estates between sessions, met at Glasgow and passed an Act (1st Oct., 1662) to remove the recusant ministers from their parishes within a month. All the members were said to have been drunk except Lockhart of Lee, who opposed the measure.