Winged FruitWinged Fruit1, Ash. 2, Sycamore. 3, Hornbeam.
1, Ash. 2, Sycamore. 3, Hornbeam.
Parachute FruitsParachute Fruits1, Ripe fruit of willow-herb, dehiscing. 2, Single fruit of clematis. 3, Single fruit of dandelion.
1, Ripe fruit of willow-herb, dehiscing. 2, Single fruit of clematis. 3, Single fruit of dandelion.
Hooked SeedsHooked Seeds1, Geum and single fruit. 2, Burdock.
1, Geum and single fruit. 2, Burdock.
Dispersal of Seeds and Fruitsserves (a) to scatter these reproductive structures and so reduce internecine competition; (b) to bring the seeds into new surroundings, which may be more favourable than those of the parent plant. The chief agents of dispersal are wind and animals. Very minute seeds, like those of orchids, are carried away by the gentlest air-currents. Larger wind-borne seeds arewinged, as in the pine, most Bignoniaceæ, &c.; or provided with a tuft of hairs acting as aparachute, as in willow, willow-herb, cotton, &c. Wingedfruitsare exemplified by ash, elm, sycamore, many docks, &c.; parachutefruitsby Compositæ, Clematis, cotton-grass, &c. In the case of animal dispersal, the whole fruit is usually involved, being eitheredible, with hard indigestible seeds which are cast up or voided with excreta (fleshy fruits), orhookedso as to adhere to fur or wool, as in bidens, cleavers, enchanters' nightshade, and other 'burs'. A small number of fruits and seeds, such as the coco-nut and the seeds of water-lilies, are adapted for water transport. In certain cases seeds are scattered for short distances by an 'explosive' mechanism, as in wood-sorrel, impatiens, sand-box tree, squirting cucumber, and other 'sling' fruits.
Explosive or Sling FruitsExplosive or Sling Fruits1,Ecbalium Elaterium, flowers and fruit, one fruit detached from its stalk and with its seeds squirting out. 2,Oxalis Acetosella, entire plant, with one unripe fruit on a hooked stalk, and one ripe fruit on an erect stalk ejecting its seeds. 3, Ripe fruit ofOxalis Acetosellaejecting the seeds (enlarged).
1,Ecbalium Elaterium, flowers and fruit, one fruit detached from its stalk and with its seeds squirting out. 2,Oxalis Acetosella, entire plant, with one unripe fruit on a hooked stalk, and one ripe fruit on an erect stalk ejecting its seeds. 3, Ripe fruit ofOxalis Acetosellaejecting the seeds (enlarged).
Dispersion, in optics, the angular separation of light rays of different colour, that is, of different wave-length. Dispersion may be caused either by refraction or by diffraction. When abeam of composite light passes obliquely from air into a second transparent medium, each constituent of the light is bent or refracted through a different angle from the original direction of the beam, with the result that the different colours are separated fanwise, or dispersed at the surface of the second medium. In the refraction spectrum of white light, when caused by passage through a glass prism, the red rays are least deviated and the violet rays most deviated, if we consider only the visible spectrum. The difference of the angles of deviation for two selected rays measures their dispersion, and if this angle is divided by the deviation of the mean ray, we obtain the dispersive power of the prism. Transparent media vary in their dispersive powers; for example, carbon disulphide has more than three times the dispersive power of crown glass. The true nature of dispersion was first demonstrated by Newton, who concluded that the colours of the spectrum were homogeneous and caused by simple vibrations of definite wave-length, the different colours being unequally refrangible. Newton was, however, led to the erroneous view that the dispersion was proportional to the refraction. This was later disproved by the construction of achromatic lenses, or lenses which caused deviation without dispersion, and of direct-vision spectroscopes, or instruments which caused dispersion with no deviation of the central part of the spectrum. The dispersive power is not the same for all parts of a refraction spectrum; besides, the same colours do not occupy the same positions in spectra formed by prisms of different material. This arises from the fact that there is no simple relation between the deviation of a ray and its wave-length; consequently, such spectra are called irrational, and the property is known as the irrationality of dispersion. In the diffraction spectrum, the order of the colours is reversed, red undergoing the greatest deviation; also, the deviation for a given colour is nearly proportional to the wave-length. The diffraction spectrum is therefore termed a normal spectrum.
All substances do not give the same order of colours in their spectra; certain exceptions are known in which the usual order of the colours is changed. Christiansen showed that an alcoholic solution of fuchsine gave a spectrum containing only violet, red, and yellow; the violet is least refracted, and the yellow most, and a dark band lies between the violet and the red. This has been called anomalous dispersion, and similar effects have been observed in iodine and sodium vapours, and in solutions of colours derived from aniline which exhibit surface colour.
The theory of dispersion now generally accepted is that of Sellmeier, which was published in 1871. Sellmeier assumed that when light waves pass through a material substance, they set the particles of the substance in vibration, and these resonant vibrations react in such a way as to modify the velocity with which the waves are transmitted. Applying the dynamical principles of wave motion to the case of an elastic solid in which heavy particles are embedded, Sellmeier obtained an equation which connected the refractive index of the substance with the wave-length of the incident light. Equations of similar form were subsequently derived by Ketteler and Helmholtz. The consideration of Sellmeier's equation leads to important conclusions. If the period of vibration of the incident waves is very short, as compared with those of the particles forming the solid, no refraction will take place, and the rays will travel through the solid without deviation and without change of velocity. This is verified in the case of X-rays, which consist of extremely short waves and which are not deviated on passing through light-opaque solids. Sellmeier's equation may also be modified to apply to the case of anomalous dispersion. The phenomenon is always associated with absorption of light of a particular wave-length or range of wave-lengths, and the conclusion is drawn that the medium will possess an abnormally high refractive index for waves slightly longer than those which it absorbs, and an abnormally low index for waves slightly shorter than those which it absorbs. This result has been verified by various investigators. Rubens has determined the values of the constants in Sellmeier's equation for rock-salt, sylvine, fluorspar, and quartz, and has shown that the equation gives correct values for the refractive indices of these substances over the entire range of wave-lengths to which they are transparent.—Bibliography: T. Preston,Theory of Light; E. Edser,Light for Students; P. Drude,Theory of Optics.
Displacement.The position of a point in space is fixed by means of its distancesx,y,z, from three mutually rectangular planes. If the point moves to another position, it is said to be displaced, and the rates of displacement parallel to these planes measure the velocitiesdx/dy,dy/dt,dz/dtparallel to these planes. If the acting forces be resolved in directions parallel to these planes, relations may be found between the forces, the accelerations parallel to the planes and the mass of the body. These relations are called the equations of motion. In hydrostatics a body immersed in a liquid displaces a certain volume of the liquid, and the upthrust of the liquid in the body is, by the principle of Archimedes, equal to the weight of liquid displaced. It followsthat, in the case of a floating ship, the weight of the ship is equal to the weight of water displaced. This weight is called the displacement of the ship, and is measured in tons.
Disposition, in Scots law, is, in its general acceptation, a deed by which a person provides for the general disposal of his property heritable and movable, after his death, equivalent to a will or testament; also a conveyance of property.
Disraeli, Benjamin. SeeBeaconsfield.
D'Israeli(diz-rā´e-li), Isaac, man of letters, and father of the well-known statesman, was born at Enfield, Middlesex, in 1766, died in 1848. His father, Benjamin D'Israeli, a descendant of a family of Spanish Jews which had settled at Venice in the fifteenth century to escape the Inquisition, came over to England in 1748 and made a large fortune. Isaac D'Israeli, however, showed a strong repugnance to commerce, and was finally permitted to follow his literary bent. An anonymous reply to Peter Pindar, entitledOn the Abuse of Satire, was followed during 1791 to 1793 by the appearance of hisCuriosities of Literature, the success of which determined much of his afterwork. HisEssay on the Literary Characterwas published in 1795, and some time afterwards a volume of romantic tales,The Loves of Mejnoun and Leila. Between 1812 and 1822 appeared hisCalamities of Authors,Quarrels of Authors, andInquiry into the Literary and Political Character of James I; the three being afterwards published collectively under the title ofMiscellanies of Literature. In 1828 appeared the commencement of hisLife and Reign of Charles I, a work completed in 1831. An affection of the eyes put an end to a projectedLife of Popeand aHistory of English Freethinkers, but in 1841 he published a selection from his MSS. under the title ofAmenities of Literature. The greater part of his life was passed in his library. For his son, seeBeaconsfield.
Disrup´tion, the name commonly applied in Scotland to the act by which, in 1843, 474 ministers and professors of the Established Church gave up their livings to vindicate principles which they held to be essential to the purity of the Church, and in harmony with its earlier history. SeeFree Church.
Diss, a town, England, Norfolk, on the slope of a hill 18 miles south by west of Norwich. It was formerly noted for the manufacture of 'Suffolk hempen cloth', worsted yarn, and knit hosiery. Pop. 3763.
Dissection, a word, derived from Latin, that is etymologically equivalent to the wordanatomy, derived from Greek. Its literal meaning is 'cutting up', and it is used to define the technical procedures for acquiring a practical knowledge of the anatomy or structure of the body. Dissection of the human body is an essential part of the education of a medical practitioner, for it is the only means whereby he can acquire a thorough and practical familiarity with the geography of the territories in which all his professional activities lie. Therefore the medical student is required thoroughly to explore every part of the human body, to examine all its constituent parts, to learn to recognize their properties, positions, and relationships, and to train his eyes and fingers to appreciate their distinctive qualities. This process of exploration usually occupies about eighteen months or more of the student's time; but it represents the foundation upon which all his professional knowledge and experience are built up. For this purpose it is of the utmost importance that he be provided with ample facilities for acquiring the training which is essential to the medical practitioner. But the supply of subjects for dissection is difficult to acquire. Until a century ago teachers in medical schools, being unable to get an adequate supply of bodies for dissection by legal means, were forced to deal with 'body snatchers' who plundered cemeteries. Eventually the terrible scandals associated with the names of Burke and Hare forced the Government to pass an Anatomy Act to make better provision for this necessary part of medical education. Within recent years the action of Boards of Guardians has so hampered the administration of the Act that teachers in medical schools are threatened with the same dilemma as their colleagues a century ago had to face. The Guardians of the Poor in some localities prefer to bury the unclaimed bodies of the dead at the ratepayers' expense rather than allow them to be used for the necessary instruction of surgeons and physicians. Offers are repeatedly made by men and women, often well-known and distinguished people like the late Miss Florence Nightingale, to place their bodies at the service of medical education; but in accordance with the law of the land such bequests are invalid, because once a person is dead the corpse is not his property but belongs to his relatives. Hence it is only the unclaimed bodies that are legally available for dissection.
Dissei´zin, orDisseisin, in law, is the dispossessing one of a freehold estate, or interrupting hisseisin. Of freeholds only can a seizin be had, or a disseizin done. Whether an entry upon lands is or is not a disseizin, will depend partly upon the circumstances of the entry, and partly upon the intention of the party as made known by his words or acts.
Dissent´ers, the common name by which in Britain all Christian denominations, excepting those of the Established Churches, are usually designated, though in Acts of Parliament it generally includes only Protestant dissenters,Roman Catholics being referred to under their specific name. The most important bodies of English dissenters are the different bodies of Methodists, the Congregationalists, and the Baptists; and of Scottish dissenters, the United Free Church and the Free Church. The Nonconformists were dissenters from the English Church, and the name is sometimes used as meaning simply dissenters, though it has properly a wider meaning.
Dissentis´, a Swiss town, canton of Grisons, 3800 feet above the sea, at the junction of the Middle and Vorder Rhine, with a Benedictine abbey established so long ago asA.D.614. Pop. 1420.
Dissociation.Certain substances tend to break down into simpler substances with change of temperature; thus ammonium chloride on heating gives a mixture of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and ammonia (NH3), and on cooling these substances recombine to give ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) again. Dissociation is therefore a particular case of decomposition, where the products of decomposition recombine on obtaining the original conditions.
Dis´sonance, in music, that effect which, results from the union of two sounds not in accord with each other. The ancients considered thirds and sixths as dissonances; and, in fact, every chord except the perfect concord is a dissonant chord. The old theories include an infinity of dissonances, but the present received system reduces them to a comparatively small number. The most common are those of the tonic against the second, the fifth against the sixth, or (the most frequent of all) the fourth against the fifth.
DistaffA, Distaff. It is shown held by the waist-belt of the spinner. The spindle is revolving and twisting the wool.
Dis´taff, the first instrument employed in spinning. It consisted of a staff, on one end of which the wool or flax was rolled. The spinner held it in the left hand, and drew out the fibres with the right, at the same time twisting them. A small piece of wood called a spindle was attached to the thread, the weight of which carried it down as it was formed. When the spindle reached the ground, the thread which had been spun was wound round it, and it was then again fastened near the beginning of the new thread. In ancient and modern art the Fates are usually represented with the distaff, engaged in spinning the thread of life.
Distemp´er, a disease of the dog commonly considered as of a catarrhal nature. In most cases a running from the nose and eyes is one of the first and chief symptoms, the defluxion becoming after some time mucous and purulent. The animal is subject to violent fits of coughing combined with vomiting, loses its appetite, its flesh begins to waste, and if the disease be virulent, symptoms of affection of the brain manifest themselves, accompanied by fits, paralysis, or convulsive twitchings. In the first stage of the disease laxatives, emetics, and occasional bleeding are the principal remedies; diarrhœa should be checked by astringents, and to reduce the violence of the fits warm bathing and antispasmodics should be resorted to. The distemper is generally contagious, and occurs but once in a lifetime.
Distemper(It.tempera), in painting, a preparation of colour mixed with size, yolk of egg or white of egg. Prepared with size, it is used chiefly in scene painting and household decorations, but in other forms it is much used for easel and mural paintings. Before the introduction of oil as a medium in the fifteenth century, fresco and distemper were the principal methods of painting. Distemper is usually but not necessarily applied to a dry ground, fresco always to a wet.
Distich(dis´tik), a couplet of verses, especially one consisting of a Latin or Greek hexameter and pentameter, making complete sense. Distichs have been frequently made use of by the modern German poets.
DistillationDistillation of AlcoholA, Emptying pipe.B, Wash inlet.C, Vacuum safety valve.D, Worm.E, Cooling water inlet.
A, Emptying pipe.B, Wash inlet.C, Vacuum safety valve.D, Worm.E, Cooling water inlet.
Distillation, the volatilization and subsequent condensation of a liquid in an apparatus known as astilland heated by a fire or flame. The operation is performed by heating the crude liquid or mixture in a retort or vessel known as thebody of the still. This is made of various shapes and materials, and is closed, with the exception of a slender neck which opens into the condenser, a long tube through which the hot vapour from the still is passed. The tube is kept at a sufficiently low temperature to cause the vapour to condense, the common method of securing this being to surround the tube with a constantly renewed stream of cold water. In some cases ice or a freezing mixture may be required to effect condensation. In a large-scale apparatus the condensing tube is coiled round and round in a tub or box, and is known as aworm. From the end of it the vapour condensed into a liquid drops into a receiver. The simplest case of distillation is that of water containing solid matter in solution, the solid matter remaining behind in the still or retort while the watertrickles pure into the receiver, through a worm made of block-tin, as most other metals are attacked by distilled water. When the mixture to be distilled consists of two or more liquids of different boiling-points, such as alcohol and water, the more volatile comes off first, accompanied by a certain proportion of the vapour of the other, so that it is hardly possible completely to separate bodies by one distillation. This is effected by repeated successive distillations of the liquid with or without the addition of substances to retain the impurities. When the production of one of the ingredients only is aimed at by this process, it is calledrectification, but when it is desired to separate and collect all the liquids present, or to divide a mixture into portions which volatilize within certain ranges of temperature, the process is calledfractional distillation. In the laboratory, distillation is employed for purifying water, for recovering alcohol and ether, and for the preparation, purification, and separation of a great number of bodies. Substances which decompose at their boiling-points can be distilled under reduced pressure. On the large scale distillation is employed in the preparation of potassium, sodium, zinc, mercury; of sulphuric acid, ether, chloroform, carbon bisulphide, essential oils and perfumes; in the purification of coal and wood tar, and the products obtained from them; and on an extensive scale in the manufacture of whisky, brandy, or other spirit. The distillation of whisky has long been familiar in Britain, especially in Scotland and Ireland, and, when performed by means of the oldpot-still, is a simple operation indeed, and one that even yet is practised surreptitiously in out-of-the-way localities. On the large scale a more elaborate apparatus is employed, and for alcohol of a cheap class Coffey's or other patent still is much used. Copper is the metal that suits best as the material for the stills used in distilling whisky. Sea-water is distilled in many cases for drinking or cooking purposes. This water is, of course, very pure, but its taste is far from agreeable.Destructive distillation, ordry distillation, differs from the preceding in this respect, that the original substance is not merely broken up into bodies by the mixture of which it is formed, but is so treated that it is further decomposed, and products are obtained which were not present uncombined in the original material. (SeeCoal-tar.) The term is restricted to the action of heat upon complex organic substances out of contact with the air. The products of destructive distillation are numerous and varied. On the manufacturing scale the process is conducted sometimes for the sake of one part of the products, sometimes for the sake of another. Coal, for example, may be distilled not solely for the gas, but also for ammoniacal water, benzene, anthracene, as well as for the sake of the fixed carbon or coke, the volatile portions being too often neglected and practically wasted. But much more economical methods of making coke are now practised than formerly. Wood is distilled partly for the sake of the pyroligneous acid and the tar, partly for the charcoal. Bones are distilled for the sake of the charcoal, though the oil is also collected. Shale is distilled both for the oil and for the paraffin wax, ammonia, &c., obtained.
Distinguished Conduct MedalDistinguished Conduct Medal
Distinguished Conduct Medal, a medal instituted in 1854 under the name of the Meritorious Service Medal as "a mark of the Sovereign's sense of the distinguished service and gallant conduct in the field of the army then serving in the Crimea". The regulations concerning this medal were revised in 1862, when it received its present name. It is given to warrant-officers, non-commissioned officers, and privates. As from the 1st Aug., 1918, the medal is awarded for services in action only. The medal is silver, 1.4 inches in diameter; on the obverse is the Sovereign's head, and on the reverse the inscription "For Distinguished Conduct in the Field". It is suspended from a ribbon 1¼ inches wide, crimson, blue, and crimson, the colours being of equal width. Bars may be awarded for additional deeds ofgallantry; in service uniform the possession of a bar is indicated by a silver rosette worn on the ribbon. The letters D.C.M. are placed after the name of the recipient, who receives either a gratuity of £20 on discharge, or an increase in pay of 6d.a day.
DFC and DFMOn Left, Distinguished Flying Cross (obverse) On Right, Distinguished Flying Medal (obverse)
Distinguished Flying Cross, a decoration instituted during the European War, and awarded to officers and warrant-officers of the Air Force for acts of gallantry when flying in active operations against the enemy. The ribbon is 1¼ inches wide, and has narrow purple and white alternate diagonal stripes. The letters D.F.C. are placed after the name of the recipient. A corresponding medal, the Distinguished Flying Medal, is awarded to non-commissioned officers and men.
Distinguished Service CrossDistinguished Service Cross (obverse)
Distinguished Service Cross, a naval decoration formerly known as the Conspicuous Service Cross, and instituted in 1901. It is awarded to naval officers below the rank of lieutenant-commander, and to warrant-officers, for services before the enemy. The ribbon is dark-blue, white, and dark-blue, in stripes of equal width. The letters D.S.C. are placed after the name of the recipient.
Distinguished Service OrderDistinguished Service Order (obverse)
Distinguished Service Order, The, was instituted by Royal Warrant on 6th Sept., 1886. All commissioned officers of the Navy, Army, or Air Force are eligible to be appointed Companions of this Order. It is conferred upon officers who have been specially mentioned in dispatches for meritorious or distinguished services. Towards the end of the European War (1st Aug., 1918) it was decided that this decoration was only to be given for services in action, i.e. (1) for service under fire, or (2) distinguished individual service in connection with air-raids, bombardments, or other enemy action. Bars may be awarded for additional deeds of gallantry; in undress uniform the possession of a bar is indicated by a silver rosette worn on the ribbon. The ribbon is red, edged with blue, and is 1 inch wide. It is the same as the ribbon of the Waterloo and Peninsular medals, only narrower. The badge of the order is a gold crosspatéeenamelled white, edged gold, having on one side thereof, in the centre, within a wreath of laurels enamelled green, the Imperial Crown in gold, upon a red enamelled ground, and on the reverse, within a similar wreath and on a similar red ground, the Imperial and Royal cipher (G.R.I.) The letters D.S.O. are placed after the name of the recipient, who ranks between Commanders of the Order of the British Empire and Members of the Royal Victorian Order (4th class).
Dis´tomum, a genus of trematode or suctorial parasitic worms or flukes, infesting various parts in different animals.D. hepaticum, the common liver fluke, when adult inhabits the gall-bladder or ducts of the liver in sheep, and is the cause of the disease known as the rot. It may also occur in ox and man. In form it is ovate, flattened, and presents two suckers (whence the name), of which the anterior is perforated by the aperture of the mouth. The digestive tube divides into two branching halves, the excretory organs consist of delicate branching tubes, and there is a complex set of hermaphrodite reproductive organs. The minute larvæ live in a small water-snail (Limnæa truncatula), from which they ultimately escape to encyst on grass, &c., by which sheep may become infested. The adults of other species of Distomum live within the bodies of various fishes, amphibia, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
Distress´(Lat.distringere, pull asunder), in law, is the taking of a personal chattel of a wrong-doer or a tenant, in order to obtain satisfaction for the wrong done, or for rent or service due. If the party whose goods are seized disputes the injury, service, duty, or rent, on account of which the distress is taken, he may replevy the things taken, giving bonds to return them or paydamage in case the party making the distress shows that the wrong has been done, or the service or rent is due. Wrongful distress is actionable. Another kind of distress is that ofattachment, to compel a party to appear before a court when summoned. The distresses most frequently made are on account of rent and taxes anddamage-feasance.—Cf. Blackstone,Commentaries on the Laws of England.
Distributionis that part of the subject-matter of economics which deals with the division, among the individuals composing a community, of the product of their labour and of land and capital at their command. It is the most contentious part of economics, as well as that which has most social interest and importance, for in it there is a sharper conflict than anywhere else between economic considerations and ideals of social justice, and the problem is to secure such a distribution as will satisfy social justice, without abandoning the incentive to effort provided by the possibility of a greater reward.
The present position is one of unresolved discord between the economic and the equalitarian schools. The economic analysis in based upon a division of the factors of production into three, viz. Labour, Capital, and Land. These are represented as competing among themselves for employment, which is given to each in accordance with the return which will be secured as a result of an addition to the amount already employed; the rewards of each fall roughly under the headings of Wages and Salaries, Interest and Rent, respectively. The demarcation cannot be exact, as much that in common life is regarded as interest on capital partakes really of the nature of wages, as being earnings of management or reward for risk-taking, while certain forms of capital, whose quantity is temporarily fixed, may receive a return which is more of the nature of rent.
The fundamental assumption of the economists is that competitive distribution is indispensable, both in order to secure a fruitful distribution of the resources and efforts of society between the three factors of production, and also owing to the need of an incentive to keep individuals working hard enough to ensure a supply of goods sufficient to maintain and improve the standard of life of the community. Economists do not assume that men would not work at all if they were guaranteed a living wage whether they did or not, but that men would not work enough, and would be guided in the direction of their efforts by personal idiosyncrasy rather than by the needs of the community. The only alternatives to a great falling off in national wealth are, in their view, either competitive distribution or enforcement of work by a rigid discipline, which would be as hard as the present system, while being less adaptable.
Against this analysis idealist thinkers rebel, on the ground that it fails to justify the great inequality in the distribution of wealth between different individuals and classes of society. Their protest dates from the harsh dogmatism of the economists who propounded the now discredited 'Iron Law of Wages' and 'Wages Fund Theory', which both consigned wage-earners to lives of unremitting toil for a reward inevitably limited to a very small amount. Against these views appeal is made to justice and equality, and the result is summed up in the phrase 'to each according to his needs, from each according to his ability', i.e. the community should be so organized that each member receives that which he needs, while giving in return work according to the best of his ability. An alternative and cruder theory is that which demands absolute equality in the distribution of wealth. The economic basis for these theories is the claim that all production is the result of labour, and that the workers are entitled to the 'whole produce of their labour', interest and rent being 'surpluses' appropriated by the capitalist owing to the exploited workers being kept at the level of subsistence. The economic statement of the case is generally associated with the name of Marx, who was, however, greatly influenced by English writers; but the driving force of the movement is moral and emotional.
District Courts, an important series of courts in the United States, each under a single judge, and having original jurisdiction in civil, criminal, and admiralty causes. Generally there is one for each state. By the Judiciary Code, enacted by Congress in 1911, the circuit courts, which had hitherto shared original jurisdiction with the district courts, became only appellate tribunals.
Distringas(Lat., that you distrain), a notice proceeding upon an affidavit filed in the High Court by a party not the registered holder of shares or stock but beneficially interested therein, and served upon the particular company or public body, whereby it is precluded from registering any transfer of the shares or stock or any mandate for payment of the dividends without previous intimation to such party. The latter has thus the opportunity, if desired, to apply for an interim injunction, and, should he not do so within eight days from the date upon which the transfer or mandate was lodged, the restraint flies off.
Dithyram´bus, orDith´yramb, in Greek literature, a poem sung in honour of the god Bacchus or Dionysus, at his festivals. The choral portion of Greek tragedy arose out of thedithyramb. It was composed in a lofty and often inflated style: hence the term is applied to any poem of an impetuous and irregular character.
Ditmarshes(Ger.Dithmarschen), a district of Holstein, in Germany, consisting of a monotonous flat stretching along the North Sea, between the mouths of the Elbe and the Eider, and so little raised above the sea as to require the protection of strong embankments. Ditmarshes was incorporated in Prussia in 1866. The area is 500 sq. miles, and the total pop. 96,373.
Dit´tany, the popular name of the plants of the genus Dictamnus, an herb of the rue family (Rutaceæ), found in the Mediterranean region. The leaves are pinnate, the large white or rose-coloured flowers are in terminal racemes. The whole plant is covered with oily glands, and the secreted oil is so volatile that in hot weather the air round the plant becomes inflammable.D. FraxinellaandD. albusare found in gardens.
Dittay, in Scots law, a technical term signifying the matter of charge or ground of indictment against a person accused of a crime; also, the charge itself.
Diuret´icsare agents used to increase the flow of urine. Many drugs are used for this purpose: caffeine and theobromine, digitalis and squills, potassium salts, carbonates, calomel and blue pill.
Divan´, a Persian word having several significations. It is used in Turkey for the highest Council of State, the Turkish ministry; and for a large hall for the reception of visitors. Low couches, covered with rich carpets and cushions, are ranged along the walls of the room. Hence in Western Europe the term is applied to a café, and to a kind of cushioned seat. In India the term is applied to the Prime Minister of a native State. Among several Oriental nations this name is given to certain collections of lyric poems by one author. Thedivansof Hafiz and Saadi, the Persian poets, are among the most important.
Divergent, in algebra, opposed to convergent, a term applied to an infinite series which cannot be said to have a sum because there is no definite limit towards which the sum of its terms tends as the number of terms is increased indefinitely.
Red-throated DiverRed-throated Diver (Colymbus septentrionalis)
Divers, birds remarkable for the habit of diving. The divers (Colymbidæ) are a family of swimming birds, characterized by a strong, straight, rather compressed pointed bill about as long as the head; a short and rounded tail; short wings; thin, compressed legs, placed very far back, and the toes completely webbed. They prey upon fish, which they pursue under water, making use partly of their wings, but chiefly of their legs and webbed feet in their subaqueous progression. The leading species are the great northern diver (Colymbus glaciālis), the red-throated diver (C. septentrionālis), and the black-throated diver (C. arcticus). These birds inhabit the Arctic seas of the New and Old Worlds; they are abundant in the Hebrides, Norway, Sweden, and Russia. The great northern diver, loon, or ember goose is about 2¾ feet long, and is of handsome plumage.
Div´idend, literally what is to be divided, a term used in arithmetic and in reference to stocks. In the latter sense it is the interest or profit of stocks divided among, and paid to, the proprietors. No dividend must be paid except out of profit (Companies Act of 1862). The term also signifies the payment made to creditors out of the estate of a bankrupt.
Dividing Engine, a machine for marking the divisions on the scales of scientific, mathematical, or other instruments. Some of these perform work of extraordinary fineness and accuracy. It may also be employed to measure lengths accurately, or to divide a given length into any number of equal or unequal parts. SeeGraduation.—Cf. Stewart and Gee,Practical Physics(vol. i).
Dividing Range, Great, an Australian chain of mountains, forming the watershed between the rivers flowing into the Pacific and those running westward. It is situated at an average distance of 30 miles from the sea, though in some places it recedes as much as 60 miles, and stretches from Cape York on the north to Wilson's Promontory on the south. The culminating point is Mount Townshend (7353 feet).
Divi-divi, the pods ofCæsalpinia coriaria, a tree which grows in tropical America, and a member of the family which yields sapan, brazil, and other red woods. The pods are about 1 inch broad and 3 inches long, but are generally bent or curled up; are excessively astringent, containing a large proportion of tannic and gallic acid, for which reason they are used by tanners and dyers.
Divination, the act of divining; a foretellingfuture events, or discovering things secret or obscure, by the aid of superior beings, or by other than human means. Cicero divided it into two kinds,naturalandartificial, orintuitiveandinductive.Naturaldivination was supposed to be effected by a kind of inspiration or divine afflatus; this method of divination is familiar as represented by oracles;artificialdivination was effected by certain rites, experiments, or observations, as by sacrifices, observation of entrails and flight of birds (ornithomancy), of the behaviour of fishes (ichthyomancy), lots, omens, and position of the stars. Among modes of divination were:axinomancy, by axes;belomancy, by arrows;bibliomancy, by the Bible;oneiromancy, by dreams;pyromancy, by fire;hydromancy, by water;coscinomancy, by observing the results of the turning of a sieve hung on a thread. Cf. Bouché-Leclercq,Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité.
Divine Right, the claim set up by some sovereigns or their supporters to the absolute obedience of subjects as ruling by appointment of God, insomuch that, although they may themselves submit to restrictions on their authority, yet subjects endeavouring to enforce those restrictions by resistance to their sovereign's acts are considered guilty of a sin. This doctrine, which came into general use in the seventeenth century, and is so celebrated in English constitutional history, especially in the time of the Stuarts, may now be considered to be exploded. Hobbes was one of the chief supporters of the theory of Divine Right, whilst Milton was a strong opponent. Cf. J. N. Figgis,Theory of the Divine Right of Kings.
Divine Service, Tenure by, a species of tenure, now obsolete, by which the tenant held the land on condition of performing some divine service, such as saying so many masses or distributing a certain amount in alms.
Diving, the art or act of descending into the water to considerable depths, and remaining there for a time. The uses of diving are important, particularly in searching for pearls, corals, sponges, examining foundations of bridges, salvage of wrecked ships, recovering valuables, clearing propellers, valves, and cleaning bottoms of ships when no dry docks are available. Without the aid of artificial appliances a skilful diver may remain under water for two, or even three minutes; accounts of longer periods are doubtful or absurd. Various methods have been proposed, and engines contrived, to render diving more safe and easy. The great object in all these is to furnish the diver with fresh air, without which he must either make but a short stay under water or perish.
Diving-bell, a contrivance for the purpose of enabling persons to descend and to remain below the surface of water for a length of time, for various purposes, such as laying foundations of bridges, blasting rocks, and recovering treasure from sunken ships. Diving-bells have been made of various forms, more especially in that of a bell or hollow truncated cone, with the smaller end closed, and the larger one, which is placed lowermost, open. The air contained within these vessels prevents them from being filled with water on submersion, so that the diver may descend in them and breathe freely for a long time, provided he can be furnished with a new supply of fresh air when the contained air becomes vitiated by respiration. The diving-bell is usually made of cast iron, and weighted, and has several strong convex lenses set in the sides or roof, to admit light to the persons inside. It is suspended by chains from a barge or lighter, and can be raised or lowered at pleasure upon signals being given by the persons within, who are supplied with fresh air pumped into a flexible pipe by means of force-pumps carried in the lighter, while the heated air escapes by a cock in the upper part of the bell. Modern diving-bells are usually rectangular in shape, and have a trunk or tube on top reaching to the surface of the water, and fitted with an air-lock to enable men to go into or out of the bell without moving it from the bottom; they are fitted with telephones and electric lights. A constant flow of fresh air is kept up, and all excess of air escapes from the lower part of the bell, the pressure of the air being kept slightly above that of the water outside. The diving-bell has long been found highly useful for carrying on work under water, a steam-crane being usually employed for the movements required. A form, called thenautilus, has been invented which enables the occupants, and not the attendants above, to raise or lower the bell, move it about at pleasure, or raise great weights with it and deposit them in any desired spot.
Diving DressDiving Dress1. Ordinary diving-dress with (2) helmet. 3. Front view and (4) back view of self-contained diving apparatus.Reproduced by courtesy of Messrs. Siebe, Gorman, & Co
1. Ordinary diving-dress with (2) helmet. 3. Front view and (4) back view of self-contained diving apparatus.
Reproduced by courtesy of Messrs. Siebe, Gorman, & Co
Diving-dress, a waterproof dress of india-rubber cloth used by professional divers, and covering the entire body except the head. The dress has a neck-piece or breastplate, fitted with a segmental screw bayonet joint, to which the head-piece or helmet, the neck of which has a corresponding screw, can be attached when wanted. The helmet has usually three eyeholes, covered with strong glass, and protected with guards. Air is supplied by means of a flexible air-pipe which screws on to a non-return valve on the helmet, and is connected with an air-pump on the surface. To allow of the escape of excess air a valve is fitted in the helmet, so constructed as to prevent water getting in, though it lets the air out. It can be adjusted by the diver to suit his convenience, no matter at what depth he may be. Leaden weights are attached to the diver,and his boots are weighted, so that he can descend a ladder and walk about on the bottom. Communication can be carried on with those above by signals on the breast-rope between the diver and his attendant, or he may converse with them through a speaking-tube or by telephone, which is usually fitted in the breast-rope. One form of diving-dress makes the diver independent of any connection with persons above water except by breast-rope. It is elastic and hermetically closed. A reservoir containing highly compressed air is fixed on the diver's back. This supplies him with air by a self-regulating apparatus at a pressure corresponding to his depth. When he wishes to ascend, he simply inflates his dress from the reservoir. Another form, known as the Fleuss dress, also makes the diver independent of exterior aid. The helmet contains a supply of compressed oxygen, and the exhaled breath is passed through a filter in the breast-piece which deprives it of its carbonic acid, while the nitrogen goes back into the helmet to be mixed with the oxygen, the supply of which is under the diver's own control, and to be breathed over again. A diver has remained for an hour and a half under 35 feet of water in this dress. The safe limit for diving is 200 to 300 feet, the deepest dive in this country being 210 feet; but great care must be exercised in bringing the diver to the surface. Diving for pearls, sponges, valuables, &c., is now to a great extent carried on by means of diving-dresses.—Bibliography: C. W. Domville-Fife,Submarine Engineering of To-day; G. W. M. Boycott,Compressed Air Work and Diving.
Divining Rod, a rod, usually of hazel, with two forked branches, used by persons who profess to discover minerals or water under ground. The rod, if carried slowly along by the forked ends, dips and points downwards, it is affirmed, when brought over the spot where the concealed mineral or water is to be found. Divination by means of rods is of great antiquity, and has been described by Cicero and Tacitus; their rods, however, were short bits of stick, and the forked hazel twig does not seem to have come into use before the early sixteenth century. Dr. H. Mayo gave a collection of discoveries made by it in his workOn the Truth contained in Popular Superstitions(1847-51). The use of the divining rod is still common in many parts.—Cf. P. L. L. de Vallemont,La Physique Occulte: ou Traité de la baguette divinatoire.
Divisibil´ity, that general property of bodies by which their parts or component particles are capable of separation. The study of radioactivity has shown that larger atoms may be broken up into smaller ones, and the old conception of the atom as an absolutely indivisible unit is no longer entertained by physicists. (SeeMatter.) Numerous examples of the division of matter to a degree almost exceeding belief may be easily instanced. Thus glass test-plates for microscopes have been ruled so fine as to have 225,000 spaces to the inch. Cotton yarn has been spun so fine that one pound of it extended upwards of 1000 miles, and a Manchester spinner is said to have attained such a marvellous fineness that one pound would extend 4770 miles. One grain of gold has been beaten out to a surface of 52 sq. inches, and leaves have been made 367,500 of which would go to the inch of thickness. Iron has been reduced to wonderfully thin sheets. Fine tissue paper is about the 1200th part of an inch in thickness, but sheets of iron have been rolled much thinner than this, and as fine as the 4800th part of an inch in thickness. Wires of platinum have been drawn out so fine as to be only the 30,000th part of an inch in diameter. Human hair varies in thickness from the 250th to the 600th part of an inch. The fibre of the coarsest wool is about the 500th part of an inch in diameter, and that of the finest only the 1500thpart. The silk line, as spun by the worm, is about the 5000th part of an inch thick; but a spider's line is only the 30,000th part of an inch in diameter; insomuch that a single pound of this attenuated substance might be sufficient to encompass our globe. The trituration and levigation of powders, and the perennial abrasion and waste of the surface of solid bodies, occasion a disintegration of particles almost exceeding the powers of computation. The solutions of certain saline bodies, and of other coloured substances, also exhibit a prodigious subdivision of matter. A single grain of sulphate of copper, or blue vitriol, will communicate a fine azure tint to five gallons of water. In this case the sulphate must be attenuated at least 10,000,000 times. Odours are capable of a much wider diffusion. A single grain of musk has been known to perfume a large room for the space of twenty years. At the lowest computation the musk had been subdivided into 320 quadrillions of particles, each of them capable of affecting the olfactory organs.
Division, in arithmetic, the dividing of a number or quantity into any parts assigned; one of the four fundamental rules, the object of which is to find how often one number is contained in another. The number to be divided is thedividend, the number which divides is thedivisor, and the result of the division is thequotient. Division is the converse of multiplication.
Division, in the army, the smallest formation of troops which is a mixed force. A division, besides three brigades of infantry, includes artillery, engineers, and administrative troops. It is commanded by a major-general, and if at full strength consists of about 20,000 men.
Division, in Parliament, the mode of determining a question at the end of a debate. In the House of Commons the Speaker puts the question, and declares whether in his opinion the 'Ayes' or the 'Noes' have it. Should his opinion not be acquiesced in by the minority, the House is cleared, and the 'Ayes' directed to go into the right lobby and the 'Noes' into the left, where they are counted by two tellers appointed for each party. In the House of Lords the two sides in a division are called 'Contents' and 'Not-contents'.
Division of Labour, a method employed in productive undertakings for the simplifying of the work to be done by each of the workmen engaged therein. The separation of the process of production into a series of simple operations means that less ability on the part of the workman is required in order that he may acquire the necessary skill in performing any particular operation, and saves much time, partly because practice leads to each operation being more quickly performed, and partly by avoiding the waste which takes place in workmen moving from one operation to another. Owing to both of these causes, the cost of producing complicated articles may be immensely reduced. By standardizing operations division of labour tends to the invention of machinery; increases the skill and dexterity of the individual workman in the particular operation in which he is engaged; enables semi-skilled or unskilled labour to replace skilled; makes a more continuous and economical use of capital possible; and conduces to the more economical distribution of labour by classing work-people according to their capacity. It has, however, a deteriorating effect on the labourer's usefulness as an all-round workman, and is liable to kill his interest in his work, thereby reducing the incentive to industry. What is called division of labour in English economics has been sometimes termedco-operationby foreign economists.
Divorce(Lat.divortium, fromdivertere, to turn apart, separate), a separation, by law, of husband and wife, which is either a divorcea vinculo matrimonii, that is, a complete dissolution of the marriage bonds, or a divorcea mensâ et thoro(from bed and board), whereby the parties are legally separated, but not unmarried. The causes admitted by different codes of laws as grounds for the modification or entire dissolution of the marriage contract, as well as the description of tribunal which has jurisdiction of the proceedings, and the form of the proceedings, are various. Divorce was permitted by the law of Moses, but forbidden in the New Testament, except for adultery. The early laws of Rome permitted the husband to divorce his wife for adultery and many other alleged offences. The facility of divorce continued, without restriction, under the Roman emperors, but as the modern nations of Europe emerged from the ruins of the Roman Empire, they adopted the doctrine of the New Testament. Marriage, under the Roman Church, instead of a civil contract, came to be considered a sacrament of the Church, which it was unlawful to dissolve. The ecclesiastical courts could indeed annul a marriage, but only for a cause that existed at the time the marriage was contracted, such as prior contracts or impotency. For any cause arising after marriage they could only pronounce a divorcea mensâ et thoro, which did not leave either party free to marry again, except by Papal dispensation. A divorcea vinculo matrimonii, for any cause arising subsequent to marriage, could formerly be obtained in England only by an Act of Parliament, and the ecclesiastical courts must have previously pronounced a divorcea mensâ et thoro. The Act passed in 1857, however, established a new court for trying divorce causes, called the Court for Divorce and MatrimonialCauses, since absorbed into the Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty Division of the High Court of Justice. According to present practice the husband may obtain a divorce for simple adultery; but if the wife is the petitioner, she must show that her husband has been guilty of certain kinds of adultery, or of adultery coupled with desertion or gross cruelty. Either party may marry again after divorce. A divorce cannot be obtained if it appear that the petitioner has been guilty of the same offence, or has been accessory to or has connived at the offence, or if there has been collusion between the parties to obtain a divorce, or if they have condoned the offence by living together as man and wife after discovery. The husband may claim damages from the adulterer, and the court may also order the adulterer to pay the costs of the proceedings, in whole or in part. The Act also abolished divorcesa mensâ et thoro, substituting, however, judicial separations. (SeeJudicial Separation.) A decree for a divorce is always in the first instance adecree nisi(q.v.). A Matrimonial Causes Bill, introduced in the House of Lords in 1920, proposes to abolish the legal disabilities of a wife in this matter, and to grant divorce to husband or wife on any of the following grounds: (a) adultery; (b) desertion for at least three years; (c) cruelty; (d) incurable insanity coupled with at least five years' confinement under the lunacy laws; (e) incurable habitual drunkenness coupled with three years' separation under a temporary separation order granted on the ground of habitual drunkenness; and (f) imprisonment under a commuted death sentence. In Scotland, from the time of the Reformation, divorce might be obtained by either party on the ground of adultery, marriage being held to be only a civil contract, and as such under the jurisdiction of the civil courts. Condonation, or connivance, or collusion is sufficient to prevent a divorce from being obtained on the ground of adultery, but not recrimination, that is, a counter charge of adultery. Wilful desertion for at least four years is also held a valid reason for divorce. The action is carried on before the Court of Session. In other countries, including British colonies, the law relating to divorce varies greatly. In the United States of America, marriage, though it may be celebrated before clergymen as well as civil magistrates, is considered to be a civil contract, and the laws as to divorce, and the facility or difficulty of obtaining it, differ greatly in the several states. In France divorce was legalized in 1884, with conditions, after having been prohibited for many years.—Bibliography: Lehr,Le mariage, le divorce et la séparation de corps dans les principaux peuples civilisés; Stephen,Commentaries on the Laws of England; Bryce,Marriage and Divorce.
Dixmude, a town of Belgium, in Flanders. It was the scene of severe fighting during the European War. Captured by the Germans, it was retaken by the Belgians on 29th Sept., 1918. Pop. 4040 (1911); 450 (1919).
Dixon, William Hepworth, miscellaneous writer, born at Manchester, 1821, died in London, 1879. In 1849 he published a memoir of Howard the philanthropist, which was followed by theLife of William Penn(1851), and by a work on Admiral Blake (1852). In 1853, after having been a contributor, he became chief editor ofThe Athenæum, a post which he retained till 1869. During this period he published several very popular works, including thePersonal History of Lord Bacon, The Holy Land, andNew America, the last being followed bySpiritual Wives. After his retirement fromThe Athenæum, and in the last ten years of his life, he gave to the world about twenty-five volumes of history, travel, and fiction, among others,Free Russia; Her Majesty's Tower; The Switzers; History of Two Queens, Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn; Diana Lady Lyle, andRuby Grey(both novels); and his last work,Royal Windsor.
Dizful, a town of Persia, near the western boundary, on the River Dizful; a place of great trade and manufactures. Pop. about 25,000.
Djavid Bey, Hussein, a Turkish Jew, one of the leaders of the Committee of Union and Progress, and Minister of Finance from 1914 to 1918. His advice that Turkey should adhere to strict neutrality during the European War was, unfortunately for his country, not followed by his colleagues, who decided to join Germany.
Djemal Pasha, Turkish soldier and politician, and one of the leaders of the Committee of Union and Progress. Minister of Marine in 1914, he commanded the Turkish forces in Palestine from 1915 to 1917, and became notorious on account of his oppression of and cruelties against the inhabitants of Syria and Palestine, and by his hatred of Zionism. Accused in 1918 of various crimes, such as misappropriation of funds, and compelled to flee from Constantinople, he was condemned to death in his absence in 1919. He was nevertheless one of the Turkish delegates who signed the Peace Treaty on 11th May, 1920.
Djokdjokarta, a Dutch residency in the Island of Java, on the south coast, with a capital of the same name. Its forests abound in teak. Its natural fertility is great, and rice, coffee, and tobacco are extensively cultivated. It is ruled by a sultan who is dependent on the Dutch. Pop. 441,800. The town is large and regular, and contains the sultan's water-palace, and the seat of the Dutch Resident, which is a fort commanding both the palace and the town. Pop. 97,058.
Dnieper(nē´pėr; Russ.Dnjepr, dnyepr;ancientlyBorysthĕnēs, orDanapris), a great river of Russia which rises in the government of Smolensk, flows first south-west, then south-east, and again south-west to the Black Sea. It begins to be navigable a little above Smolensk, and has a total length, including windings, of 1230 miles. Among its tributaries are the Beresina, the Pripet, the Desna, and the Psiol. In its lower course there are important fisheries. The region watered by the river in its lower course is famous for its great fertility, and is known as theblack-soil. Between Kiev and Alexandrovsk it forms a series of cataracts. Since 1838 there have been steamboats on the river, and the trade carried by it is considerable. Through the Beresina Canal the Dnieper communicates with the Baltic Sea.
Dniester(nēs´tėr; Russ.Dnjestr; ancientTyras), a large river of Europe (Poland, Roumania, and Ukraine), which has its source in the Carpathian Mountains, in Austrian Galicia, enters Russia at Chotin, and empties itself into the Black Sea, after a course of about 750 miles. Its navigation is difficult on account of frequent shallows and rapids.
Doab´(that is,Two Waters), a name in Hindustan applied indiscriminately to any tract of country between two rivers, like the GreekMesopotamia. The tract between the Ganges and the Jumna is usually calledtheDoab; other similar tracts have their distinctive names, the Punjab being divided into five districts of this kind.
Dobell´, Sydney, English poet and man of letters, born in 1824, died 22nd Aug., 1874. His first poem,The Roman, appeared in 1850, and was favourably received by the critics. Among his other works are:Balder,Sonnets on the War, andEngland in Time of War.
Döbeln(deu´beln), a town of Saxony, about 40 miles south-east of Leipzig, with a great trade in grain, and manufactures of cloth, yarn, leather, and lacquered wares. Pop. 17,920.
Döbereiner's Lamp, a contrivance for producing an instantaneous light, invented by Professor Döbereiner, of Jena, in 1824. The light is produced by throwing a jet of hydrogen or a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gases upon recently prepared spongy platinum, when the metal instantly becomes red-hot, and then sets fire to the gas. The action depends upon the readiness with which spongy platinum absorbs both oxygen and hydrogen. The intimate contact of the two gases leads to chemical combination with evolution of heat. Coal-gas may be employed instead of hydrogen, and this has led to the application of the principle to self-lighting devices for igniting gas flames.
Dobritch, orBazarjik, a town in Roumania, was, till the end of the second Balkan War, the chief town in Bulgarian Dobrudja. It is situated on a small tributary of the Danube, and is on the Cernavoda-Constanza railway. At one time it was famous for its panair or great annual fair, but it is now no longer an important centre. Pop. 10,000.
Dobrudja, orDobrud´scha, The(ancientlyScythia Minor), a territory forming part of the kingdom of Roumania, included between the Danube, which forms its boundary on the west and north, the Black Sea on the east, and Bulgaria (to which it belonged before 1878) on the south. Its area, formerly 6000 sq. miles, was increased by the Treaty of Bucharest of 10th Aug., 1913, and is now 8969 sq. miles. During the European War the Dobrudja was invaded in 1916 by an army of Germans, Bulgarians, and Turks, under General von Mackensen. In 1918 Roumania was compelled by the Treaty of Bucharest to cede the Dobrudja to Bulgaria, but it was restored to her in 1919. There are some fertile spots, but on the whole it is marshy and unhealthy. The population is of various nationalities, Roumanians, Bulgars, Greeks, Turks, and Jews. The inhabitants engage in tillage and stock-rearing. The principal towns are Kustendje and Tultcha. SeeRoumania. Pop. 381,306.