English Architecture, Art, Church, Language, Literature, &c. SeeEngland.
English Channel(Fr.La Manche, the sleeve), the arm of the sea which separates England from France, extending, on the English side, from Dover to Land's End; and on the French, from Calais to the Island of Ushant. On the east it communicates with the North Sea by the Straits of Dover, 21 miles wide; and on the west it opens into the Atlantic by an entrance about 100 miles wide. At its greatest breadth it is about 150 miles. The pilchard and mackerel fisheries are very important. The advantages of a railway tunnel under the Channel at or near its narrowest part have been frequently urged; and an English company, formed in 1887 for constructing a tunnel from Dover, to meet a similar tunnel starting from near Calais, has pushed an excavation under the sea for over 2000 yards. The plan, opposed by the British Government for military reasons in 1907, has now been approved of. Plans have also been put forward for a railway bridge across the Straits of Dover.
Engraving, the art of drawing or writing on metal, wood, precious stones, &c., by means of incisions made with instruments variously adapted to the substances operated upon and the description of work intended. The term is also applied to the work so performed, and to impressions taken on paper or similar material from the engraved work. Impressions from metal plates are called engravings, prints, or plates; those printed from wood being termed indifferently wood engravings or wood-cuts. While, however, these impressions are not altogether dissimilar in appearance, the processes are distinct. As a rule, in prints from metal the lines intended to print are incised, and in order to take an impression the plate is daubed over with a thick ink which fills all the lines. The surface is then wiped perfectly clean, leaving only the incised lines filled with ink. A piece of damp paper is then laid on the face of the plate, and both are passed through the press, which causes the ink to pass from the plate to the paper. This operation needs to be repeated for every impression. In the wood block, on the contrary, the spaces between the lines of the drawing are cut out, leaving the lines standing up like type, the printing being from the inked surface of the raised lines, and effected much more rapidly than plate printing. This process has also been used to a certain extent with metal.
Engraving on wood, intended for printing or impressing from, long preceded engraving on metals. The art is of Eastern origin, and at least as early as the tenth century engraving andprinting from wood blocks was common in China. We first hear of wood engraving being cultivated in Europe by the Italians and Germans for impressing patterns on textiles, but no paper impressions earlier than the fourteenth century are known. For a hundred years there is small indication of the practice of the art, which was at first confined to the production of block-books, playing-cards, and religious prints. According to Vasari, the art of printing from engraved plates was discovered in Florence by Maso Finiguerra about 1460, but engravings of earlier date are known to exist. Engraving had long been used as a means of decorating armour, metal vessels, &c., the engravers generally securing duplicates of their works before laying in the niello (a species of metallic enamel) by taking casts of them in sulphur, and rubbing the lines with black. The discovery of the practicability of taking impressions upon paper helped the development of engraving upon copper plates for the purpose of printing from. The date of the earliest known niello proof upon paper is 1452. The work of the Florentine engravers, however, was almost at once surpassed in Venice and elsewhere in North Italy by Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506), Girolamo Mocetto, Jacopo de' Barbari, and others. In Marc Antonio Raimondi (1475-1534), who wrought under the guidance of Raphael, and reproduced many of his works, the art reached its highest point of the earlier period, and Rome became the centre of a new school, which included Marco da Ravenna (died 1527), Giulio Bonasone (1531-72), and Agostino de Musis (flourished 1536). In the meantime, in Germany the progress of the art had been not less rapid. Of the oldest school the most important engraver is Martin Schongauer (1420-88). He was, however, surpassed a generation later by Albert Dürer (1471-1528), who excelled both in copper and wood engraving, especially in the latter, and also etched a few plates. Among his most famous contemporaries and successors were Burgkmair and Lucas Cranach. The Dutch and Flemish schools, of which Dürer's contemporary Lucas van Leyden was the head, did much to enlarge the scope of the art, either by paying increased attention to the rendering of light and shade, and the expression of tone and surface quality, as in the case of Cornelius Cort and Bloemart; or by developing freedom and expression of line, as in the case of Goltzius and his pupils. Rubens (1577-1640) influenced engraving through the two Bolswerts, Vorstermann, Pontius, and P. de Jode, who engraved many of his works on a large size. Towards the end of the seventeenth century etching, which had before been rarely used, became more common, and was practised with supreme mastery by Rembrandt (1607-69) and other painters of that period. In France, Noel Garnier founded a school of engraving about the middle of the sixteenth century; but it produced no work of any high distinction until the reign of Louis XIV, when Robert Nanteuil, his follower Gerard Edelinck, and Antoine Masson produced many fine portraits, and Gerard Audran engraved works by Nicolas Poussin and Le Brun. Jacques Callot also produced some admirable etchings. These were followed about the middle of the eighteenth century by Wille (1717-1807), a German resident in Paris, who gave new vitality to a waning art, and by the school of French illustrators. Before the middle of the seventeenth century England produced little noteworthy work, availing herself principally of the work of foreign engravers such as Wenzel Hollar, of whom many took up temporary and even permanent residence. The first English engraver of marked importance was William Hogarth (1697-1764), whose works are distinguished for a power of vivid characterization. Vivares (1712-82), a Frenchman by birth, laid the foundation of the English school of landscape engraving, which was still further developed by William Woollet (1735-85), who was also an excellent engraver of the human figure. In historical engraving a not less remarkable advance was made by Sir Robert Strange (1721-92); and Richard Earlom (1743-1822), Valentine Green, and J. R. Smith produced some admirable works in mezzotint. In succession to these came William Sharp (1746-1824), James Bazire (1730-1802), Bartolozzi (1727-1815), who practised stipple engraving, James Heath, Bromley, Raimbach, and others. The substitution of steel for copper plates (1820-30) gave the power of producing a much larger number of fine impressions, and opened new possibilities for highly finished work. During the closing years of the eighteenth century, line engraving attained a depth of colour and fullness of tone in which earlier works are often deficient, and during the following century it reached a perfectness of finish which it had not previously attained. A picture, whether figure or landscape, came to be translated by line engraving with all its depth of colour, delicacy of tone, and effect of light and shade; the various textures, whether of naked flesh, silk, satin, woollen, or velvet, were all successfully rendered by ingenious modes of laying the lines and combinations of lines of varying strength, width, and depth. At the same time, original work by engravers declined in quality. Among engravers who have produced historical works of large size and in the line manner the names of Raphael Morghen (1758-1833), Longhi (1766-1831), Anderloni (1784-1849), Garavaglia (1790-1835), and Toschi, in Italy; of Forster (1790-1872),Henriquel-Dupont (born 1797), Bridoux (born 1812), and Blanchard (born 1819), in France; of John Burnet (1784-1868), J. H. Robinson (1796-1871), Geo. T. Doo (1800-86), J. H. Watt (1799-1867), and Lumb Stocks (1812-92), in England, stand pre-eminent. Among historical and portrait engravers in the stipple or dotted manner the names of H. T. Ryall, Henry Robinson, William Holl (1807-71), and Francis Holl may be mentioned. In the period 1820-60 landscape engraving attained a perfection in Great Britain which it had not attained in any other country, or at any other time. In fact, most of the work was done by etching, details being sharpened by the graver. Among landscape engravers the names of Geo. Cooke (1781-1834), William Miller (1796-1882), E. Goodall (1795-1870), J. Cousen (1804-80), R. Brandard (1805-62), and Wm. Forrest (born 1805) hold the foremost places. Most of these were associated with the reproduction of Turner's pictures, and owed much to his control and direction. In mezzotint engraving Samuel Cousins (1801-87) and David Lucas, who was associated with John Constable in the 'English Landscape' series, achieved considerable success. In the period 1830-45 various publications called Annuals, composed of light literature in prose and verse, and illustrated by highly finished engravings in steel, were very popular. The engravings were necessarily of small size, and are generally of great excellence. A number of them, both figure and landscape, are executed with such finish and completeness as to be esteemed perfect works. The illustrations of Rogers'sPoemsand Rogers'sItalyafter Turner and Stothard belong to this period. Many of the originals of the engravings in the Annuals were finished pictures of large size. A great part of the difficulty in engraving on a small scale from a large picture consists in determining what details can be left out, and still preserve the full effect and character of the original. The most noted engravers for work of this kind are Charles Heath, Charles Rolls, W. Finden, E. Finden, E. Portbury, J. Goodyear, F. Engleheart, Henry le Keux, E. Goodall, and W. Miller. Since 1870 many reproductions of paintings have been produced by means of etching, a comparatively cheap and rapid process. Such works have been fashionable and very popular with collectors. But while some of them have been excellent of their kind, the process is of limited resource, and the best works in this manner do not compare with the masterpieces of line engraving. In original work, however, etching and dry-point (q.v.) have produced some excellent work, notably in the hands of Charles Meryon, J. M. Whistler, Sir Seymour Haden, and Anders Zorn. A revival of mezzotint owes much to Sir Frank Short. Through lack of encouragement, change of fashion, and the adoption of other methods of reproduction, line engraving on metal has become almost a lost art in Great Britain, though a revival in wood engraving has taken place of recent years.
Line Engraving, as implied by the term, is executed entirely in lines. The tools are few and simple. They consist of the graver orburin, the scraper, to remove the burr left by the graver, and the burnisher; an oil-stone or hone, dividers, a parallel square, a magnifying lens; a bridge on which to rest the hand; a blind or shade of tissue paper, to make the light fall equally on the plate, callipers for levelling important erasures, a small steel anvil, a small pointed hammer, and punches. In etching, the following articles are required: a resinous mixture called etching-ground, capable, when spread very thinly over the plate, of resisting the action of the acids used; a dabber for laying the ground equally; an etching needle; a hand-vice; some brushes of different sizes; and bordering wax, made of burgundy-pitch, bees'-wax, and a little oil.
Inetching, the plate, which is highly polished and must be free from all scratches, is first prepared by spreading over it a thin layer ofground. The surface is then smoked, and the outline of the picture transferred to it by pressure from the paper on which it has been drawn in fine outlines by a black-lead pencil. The picture is then drawn on the ground with the etching-needle, which removes the ground in every form produced by it, and leaves the bright metal exposed. Sometimes, however, the drawing is made direct, without the use of tracing. A bank of wax is then put round the plate and diluted acid poured on it, which eats out the metal from the lines from which the ground has been removed, but leaves the rest of the plate untouched. (See alsoDry-point.) In landscape engraving, as practised in England in the early nineteenth century, the plate is then gone over with the graver, the etched lines clearly defined, broken lines connected, new lines added, &c. Sometimes the plate isrebittenmore than once, those parts which are sufficiently bitten in the first treatment beingstoppedwith varnish, and only the selected parts exposed to after-biting. Finally the burnisher is brought into play alternately with the graver and point to give perfectness and finish. In engraving proper, the lines are first drawn on the metal with a fine point and then cut in by the graver, first making a fine line, and afterwards entering and re-entering till the desired width and depth of lines is attained. Much of the excellence of such engravings depends on the mode in which the lines are laid, their relative thickness, and the manner in which they cross each other. In thismethod of engraving etching is but little used, if at all, and then only for accessories and the less important parts.
Soft-ground Etching.—The ground, made by mixing lard with common etching-ground, is laid on the plate and smoked as before, but its extreme softness renders it very liable to injury. The outline of the subject is drawn on a piece of paper larger than the plate. The paper is then damped, and laid gently over the ground, face upwards, and the margins folded over and pasted down on the back of the plate. When the paper is dry and tightly stretched, a bridge is laid across, and with a hardish pencil and firm pressure the drawing is completed in the usual manner. The pressure makes the ground adhere to the back of the paper at all parts touched by the pencil, and on the paper being lifted carefully off, these parts of the ground are lifted with it, and the corresponding parts of the plate thus left bare are exposed to the subsequent action of the acid. The granulated surface of the paper, causing similar granulations in the touches on the ground, gives the character of a chalk drawing. The biting-in is effected in the same manner as already described, and the subject may be finished by rebiting and dotting with the graver. SeeEtching.
Stipple, orChalk Engraving, in its pure state, is exclusively composed of dots, made with a special form of graver, varying in size and form as the nature of the subject demands, but few stipple plates are now produced without a large admixture of line in all parts, flesh excepted. Etching is often used to put in the more important lines and tone masses.
The processes ofAquatintandMezzotintwill be found under their respective heads, the latter differing from all other styles of engraving in that the lights and gradations are scraped or burnished out of a plate prepared so that it would print quite dark all over, instead of the forms being corroded or cut into a plain surface.
TheMixed Styleis based on mezzotint, which, still forming the great mass of shading, is in this method combined with etching in the darker, and stipple in the more delicate parts. By this combination a plate will produce a larger number of good impressions than it would if it were done entirely in mezzotint.
Engraving on Wood.—The wood best adapted for engraving is box. It is cut across the grain in thickness equal to the height of type, these slices being subjected to a lengthened process of seasoning, and then smoothed for use. Every wood engraving is the representative of a finished drawing previously made on the block, the unshaded parts being cut away, and the lines giving form, shading, texture, &c., left standing in relief by excavations of varied size and character, made between them by gravers of different forms. Drawings on wood are made either with black-lead pencil alone or with pencil and indian ink, the latter being employed for the broader and darker masses. It is now much the practice to photograph drawings made in black and white upon the wood instead of making the drawing on the wood block. When the drawing is put on the wood by washes or by photography, instead of being entirely done by pencil lines, the engraver has to devise the width and style of lines to be employed instead of cutting in facsimile, as is the case when the drawing is made entirely in lines. The tools required for wood engraving are similar but more numerous than those of the engraver on copper or steel. See alsoDie-sinking; Gems.—Bibliography: W. Y. Ottley,Early History of Engraving; G. Duplessis,History of Engraving in France; P. G. Hamerton,Graphic Arts; F. Wedmore,Fine Prints; A. M. Hind,A Short History of Engraving and Etching; J. H. Slater,Engravings and their Value; H. C. Levis,Engraving and Collecting of Prints: Bibliography.
Engrossing,Forestalling, andRegrating, terms formerly in use for the purchase of corn or other commodities in order to sell again at a higher price, or in order to raise the market price of the same. The modern equivalent is 'making a corner'. These practices were once regarded as criminal, and positive statutes against them were passed in England in 1266-7, in 1350-2, in 1552, in 1562, and in 1570. The offence ofengrossingwas described by the statute of Edward III as the "getting into one's possession, or buying up, large quantities of corn, or other dead victuals, with intent to sell them again";forestalling, as the "buying or contracting for any cattle, merchandise, or victual, coming in the way to the market, or dissuading persons from bringing their goods or provisions there, or persuading them to enhance the price when there"; andregrating, "the buying of corn or other dead victual in any market and selling it again in the same market, or within 4 miles of the place". By the statute of Edward VI the engrossing of corn, which included the buying of it in one market to sell it in another, was made punishable by imprisonment and pillory; and no one could carry corn from one part of the kingdom to another without a licence. All the positive statutes against these offences were repealed in 1772, but they were still found to be punishable by common law, and it was not till 1844 that they entirely ceased to rank among offences.
Enharmon´ic, in music, is an epithet applied to intervals smaller than the regular divisions of the scale, i.e. less than semitones. Enharmonic intervals can be produced on stringedinstruments, or on specially constructed fixed-tone instruments having more than twelve divisions in the octave.
Enkhuizen(engk´hoi-zn), a seaport of Holland, on a projection in the Zuider Zee, 29 miles north-east of Amsterdam. It had formerly a pop. of 40,000, but the silting up of the harbour has caused its decay, and its inhabitants number now about 7110.
Enlist´ment, the act of engaging oneself or another to perform any service. In general, the use of the word is confined to engagements for the public service, and more especially in the armed forces of the Crown. In earlier days enlistment of soldiers was either for an indefinite period, as, for instance, for a particular war or campaign, or for life. Up to the middle of the seventeenth century enlistments were made to serve the officer raising the force under a contract from the Crown; after this period all enlistments were to serve the king. In both cases they were for a particular regiment only. For the next hundred years troops continued to be raised both in peace and war on the contract system, which by now implied that the officer accepting the contract, in addition to having a considerable say in the matter of allotting commissions to his friends, received a lump sum to cover all expenses of recruiting, pay, and clothing, out of which he and his officers made what they could. The objections to such a system are palpable, and it was abolished in 1783, after which year all duties with regard to the enlistment of troops were placed in the hands of a Director of Recruiting and Organization. The contract system was last used in war as late as the fifties of the last century during the Crimean War. For some eighty years prior to 1847 the term of enlistment was ordinarily for life, but from that year onward to 1870 various systems of limited enlistment were in force. In 1870, with the idea of forming a reserve, the principle of short service was introduced by the Army Enlistment Act, and this principle has been continued by all succeeding legislation. The existing law as to enlistment is to be found in Part II of the Army Act, Sections 78 to 101; more detailed instructions are in the Recruiting Regulations. The Army Act, brought into force annually by the Army (Annual) Act, specifies the term of original enlistment to be twelve years, which may be either entirely in army (colour) service, or partly in colour service and partly in the reserve. In practice the normal terms are seven years' colour service and five years' reserve service for the infantry, with certain modifications in the case of other arms. Enlistment may be made for general service or for a particular corps, and in the latter case the recruit will be posted to that corps only, and will ordinarily spend his whole service in it. A man desiring to enlist should present himself at a recruiting office, where he will be given a notice setting forth the terms of service. If, after reading the conditions, he still desires to enlist, he will be directed to appear before a justice of the peace (a recruiting officer is ex officio a justice of the peace for this purpose) for attestation. Attestation consists in giving signed answers to certain questions contained in the Form of Attestation, and in taking the oath of allegiance. The completed form is then signed by the justice, and the man becomes a properly enlisted and attested soldier. The former practice of giving a shilling to every prospective recruit, and thereafter considering him for some purposes a soldier, is no longer recognized, and, at any time before signing the attestation paper, the man may decline to complete his bargain without rendering himself liable to any penalty. Should he, however, make a false answer to certain of the questions contained in his attestation paper, he is liable to punishment on conviction by court-martial.
Ennis, a town (formerly a parliamentary borough) in Ireland, County Clare, on the Fergus, 19 miles north-west of Limerick. It is irregularly built, the streets being narrow and crooked. There are remains of a Franciscan abbey founded in 1240. Some linen and flannel are manufactured, and there is a trade in agricultural produce. Pop. 5472.
Enniscor´thy, a town in Ireland, County Wexford, on the River Slaney, 77 miles south of Dublin. An old castle erected by one of the early Norman conquerors is in the centre of the town. Vinegar Hill in the immediate vicinity was the scene of a skirmish in 1798, when the town was stormed and burned by the rebels. Pop. 5495.
Enniskil´len, a town (formerly a parliamentary borough), Ireland, County Fermanagh, 34 miles north-east of Sligo, on an island in the river which connects the upper and lower sections of Lough Erne, with suburbs on both sides of the adjoining mainland, with which it communicates by two bridges; a well-built, clean, thriving town. Pop. 4847.
En´nius, Quintus, the father of Latin poetry, was born at Rudiæ, in Calabria, in 239B.C., and died in 170B.C.Like our own early poet Gower, he was trilingual, speaking Greek, Oscan, and Latin. He was of good family, and claimed descent from the legendary kings of Calabria. Little is known of his life; he served in the Second Punic War, and held the rank of centurion in 204B.C.; at a later date he went to Rome, supported himself by teaching, and was friendly with the greatest of his contemporaries. He died of gout in his seventieth year. Ennius was a man of great versatility. He held perhapsthe foremost place among writers of tragedies at Rome. He wrote good comedies. He wrote satires, and prepared the way for Lucilius. He wrote didactic poetry, and prepared the way for Lucretius. Most important of all, he wrote epic poetry—theAnnales—and prepared the way for Virgil. He was the first to transplant the hexameter into Italy. His predecessors wrote in a rough kind of verse scanned by accent rather than quantity, and known as 'Saturnian verse'. Ennius contemptuously called this "the verse of fauns and soothsayers", and introduced the strong-winged music of Homer into his verse. He also brought in the elegiac couplet, which was to attain perfection at the hands of Propertius and Ovid. He left a permanent impress on the language. He made a systematic study of orthography, and invented a system of shorthand. He was fond of philosophical speculations, and made the Romans acquainted with the rationalism of Euripides and Euhemerus. He was, therefore, a remarkably versatile and prolific writer. His translations from the Greek tragedians were of the greatest importance in the history of Roman drama. His chief fame, however, rests upon hisAnnales, a great epic in eighteen books. Like all of the works of Ennius, it only survives in fragments quoted by later writers. It was a great national epic, recording the history of the Roman state from the landing of Æneas down to the poet's own time. The city itself—urbs quam dicunt Romam—may be said to have been the central figure of his poem, a nobler figure than the pious Æneas. The verse of Ennius is sometimes crude and harsh, but it contains many fine lines and grand passages. Some of these lines are world-famous, like those on Fabius Maximus beginning with
Unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem,
Unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem,
Unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem,
or the great line
Moribus antiquis res stat Romana virisque,
Moribus antiquis res stat Romana virisque,
Moribus antiquis res stat Romana virisque,
which sums up some of the qualities which placed Rome at the head of the civilized world. In a famous simile Quintilian (Inst. Or.x, 1, 88) compares Ennius to a sacred grove of ancient oaks, whose massive immemorial trunks are awe-inspiring rather than beautiful. In his own epitaph Ennius boasted that he still lived as he passed to and fro through the mouths of men (volito vivu' per ora virum). Though his works are lost, this is still true, for he inspired Virgil and influenced all Latin literature.—Bibliography: W. Y. Sellar,Roman Poets of the Republic; L. Müller,Quintus Ennius; J. W. Duff,A Literary History of Rome.
Enns, a river in Austria, which rises in the Alps of Salzburg, flowsN., thenE.N.E., thenN.N.W., entering Upper Austria (Ober der Enns), which for 15 miles it separates from Lower Austria (Unter der Enns), and finally enters the Danube a little below the town of Enns (4438 inhabitants). Total course about 150 miles.
Enoch(ē´nok), (1) the eldest son of Cain, who called the city which he built after his name (Gen.iv, 17). (2) One of the patriarchs, the father of Methuselah. He "walked with God; and he was not; for God took him" (Gen.v, 24) at the age of 365 years. The words quoted are generally understood to mean that Enoch did not die a natural death, but was removed as Elijah was.
Enoch, Book of, an apocryphal book of an assumedly prophetical character, to which considerable importance has been attached, particularly on account of St. Jude quoting it in the 14th and 15th verses of hisEpistle. It is referred to by many of the early Fathers; is of unknown authorship, but was probably written by a Palestinian Jew in Hebrew or Aramaic, was translated into Greek, and from the Greek the existing Ethiopic version was made in the first or second centuryB.C.Till the end of the eighteenth century it was known in Europe only by the references of early writers. On his return, Bruce, the African traveller, brought with him from Abyssinia two manuscripts containing the Ethiopic translation of it. In 1821 Archbishop Laurence published a translation of the work, and in 1838 the Ethiopic text followed.The Book of Enochhas since been repeatedly published, translated, and criticized.
E´nos, a seaport in Thrace, 38 milesN.W.of Gallipoli, on the Ægean Sea, in the Gulf of Enos. Pop. 6940.—The Gulf of Enos is 14 miles in length by about 5 miles in breadth.
Enschede(ens´he-dā), a town of Holland, province of Overijssel, near the Prussian frontier, the chief seat of cotton manufacture in Holland. It has increased rapidly in recent years. Pop. 41,600.
Ensena´da(in Sp., a creek or natural harbour), a seaport of the Argentine Republic, province of Buenos Ayres, the port of the town of La Plata, with which it is connected by rail and tramway, with recently constructed harbour works.—Another place of the same name is a rising port of Mexico, in the northern part of the peninsula of California on the Pacific, in the Bay of Todos los Santos, with gold- and copper-mines adjacent.
En´sign, formerly, in the British army, the officer who carried the flag or colours of an infantry regiment; for this title, second lieutenant has been substituted since 1871. In naval language the ensign is the flag over the poop or stern which distinguishes the ships of different nations. In the Royal Navy of Britain it is a flagwith a white field divided into quarters by the red cross of St. George, and having the union (or Union Jack, as it is commonly called) in the upper corner next the staff. A similar ensign with a red field is flown by the merchant service.
En´silage, in agriculture, a mode of storing green fodder or vegetables in receptacles called 'silos'. These are usually pits of quadrangular form, lined with wood, brick, concrete, or stone. The fodder is cut and mixed, placed in the silo, pressed down, and kept compressed by heavy weights placed on a movable wooden covering. It undergoes a slight fermentation, and attains a slightly acid taste and smell, which is particularly grateful to cattle. The modern system of ensilage dates from about 1875, but the practice was known to the ancient Romans, and the system has been common in Mexico for centuries. Such advantages are claimed for it, as that in a wet season grass can be made into ensilage instead of hay, and that there is little loss of nutritive elements, while it has great feeding powers. Successful experiments have shown that green fodder may be converted into ensilage without a pit by simply piling up and consolidating by pressure.
Entab´lature(Lat.in, andtabula, a tablet), in architecture, the horizontal, continuous work which rests upon a row of columns, and belongs especially to classical architecture. It consists of three principal divisions—thearchitraveimmediately above the abacus of the column, next thefrieze, and then thecornice. In large buildings projections similar to and known also as entablatures are often carried round the whole edifice, or along one front of it.
EntablatureEntablature of Tuscan Column
Enta´da, a genus of leguminous plants, subord. Mimoseæ, containing about a dozen species of climbing tropical shrubs, remarkable for the great size of their pods.E. scandenshas pods which measure from 6 to 8 feet in length. They are sometimes carried from America to the coasts of Europe by the Gulf Stream. The seeds have a hard, woody, and beautifully polished shell, and are often made into snuff-boxes, scent-bottles, and other small articles.
Entail´, in law, the settlement of an estate by which a freehold is limited to a person and the heirs of his body, with such particular restrictions as the donor may specify. Entailed estates are divided intogeneralandspecial, the former when the estate is given to the donee and the heirs of his body without exception, the latter when the estate is limited to certain heirs to the exclusion of others. By a Bill introduced into Parliament in 1920 it is proposed that a tenant in tail should have power of disposal by will.
En´tasis, in architecture, the delicate and almost imperceptible swelling of the lower part of the shaft of a column, to be found in almost all the Grecian examples, adopted to give a more pleasing effect to the eye.
Entel´lus, an East Indian species of monkey, of the genus Semnopithēcus (S. entellus). It has yellowish fur, with a face of a violet tinge, and a long and powerful tail, which, however, is not prehensile. It receives divine honours from the natives of India, by whom it is termedHanuman. Costly temples are dedicated to these animals; hospitals are built for their reception, and large fortunes are bequeathed for their support. The entellus abounds in India; enters the houses and gardens of the natives, plunders them of fruit and eatables, and the visit is even considered an honour.
Entente Cordiale, a term applied in international politics to friendly relations existing between different countries and statesmen. It is not a formal alliance, but denotes the existing community of interests and friendly sentiments between two countries. The term has been especially applied to the friendly relations which existed between France and England ever since the reign of Edward VII down to the formal alliance concluded at the outbreak of the European War.
Enteric Fever, orTyphoid Fever, is an acute infectious fever, characterized by much general disturbance, and giving rise to ulceration in the small intestine. The distinction between this fever and typhus fever was only established in the middle of last century. It is due to a bacillus, difficult to detect, but during an attack found in many of the internal organs as well as in the stools, urine, and blood of the affected person. Enteric fever occurs in all parts of the world, and in most countries it is endemic, with occasional outbursts of epidemic prevalence. In Great Britain it is most common in the autumn, but epidemics may appear at any season. The great majority of cases occur between ten and twenty-five years of age; less common in middle life, it is rare after sixty. The most common source of infection is from the fæces and urine of infected persons, hence the channels of infection are contaminated water, milk, and food-stuffs. Much public interest has been roused by the infection, through contaminated sewage-water, of watercress, celery, oysters, and other shell-fish, and various outbreaks have arisen through these agents. A further danger is the 'enteric carrier', a person who has once had enteric fever, and whois harbouring the bacillus for many years in his gall-bladder or elsewhere, and whose stools and urine may be infectious for an indefinite period.
The incubation period is very variable, ranging from one to three weeks, while the onset of the disease itself is usually insidious. The patient complains of feeling out of sorts and of headache, soon followed by the signs of chill, due to the rising temperature, and associated with sleeplessness, occasionally severe head symptoms, and much digestive disturbance.
Attacks vary much in intensity, but during the first three weeks so-called mild cases may suddenly develop more severe symptoms. Convalescence is slow and protracted, as in severe cases emaciation and debility are marked. The chief complications during the acute stage of the illness are perforation of an ulcer through the bowel, demanding immediate surgical interference, and intestinal bleeding resulting from hæmorrhage from an ulcer. During convalescence relapses are frequent, brought on by indiscretions of diet, chill, and undue exposure, or some unknown cause. The most commonsequelæarising from the disease are thrombosis of a vein, usually in the thigh; bronchitis; one-sided parotitis; outbreaks of boils and superficial abscesses; and more occasionally heart weakness and disease of bone.
In its early stages enteric fever is difficult to diagnose, and confusion may arise between it and lobar- and broncho-pneumonia, influenza, diarrhœa associated with septic infection, typhus fever, appendicitis, or septicæmia.
In treatment, good nursing is of first importance. The patient must have suitable nourishment and stimulation, and requires to have the greatest care, whatever special form of treatment is being carried out, while constant watch must be kept for the appearance of any complication. Great differences in the treatment are observed in different countries and by different schools of medicine.
Enteri´tis(Gr.enteron, intestine) is inflammation of the intestines. It varies from a mild intestinal catarrh, causing slight symptoms, and yielding to treatment in a few days, to cases of severe vomiting and diarrhœa with extreme prostration. These severe forms are most frequently seen in infants and young children during the summer months, and frequently prove fatal. Removal of the cause of irritation and complete rest to the intestines are to be aimed at, as far as possible, in the treatment of the condition.
Enteromorpha, a genus of Green Algæ, similar to Ulva, but with a tubular thallus.E. intestinalisis common in fresh and brackish waters.
Entertainments Tax, first imposed by the Finance (New Duties) Act, 1916, is anad valoremduty on payments for admission of persons as spectators or members of an audience to any entertainment. Entertainment is defined as including any exhibition, performance, amusement, game, or sport to which persons are admitted for payment. The tax is collected by means of stamped tickets of admission, or (in respect of places of regular entertainment, and in other cases on special cause shown) on the basis of returns furnished to the Board of Customs and Excise by arrangement previously made with the Board. Admission by complimentary ticket is not taxable if no indirect payment is a condition of such admission.
Exemption from the tax may be claimed in respect of any entertainment (1) where the gross receipts are entirely devoted to philanthropic or charitable purposes; or (2) where the purpose is the amusement of children, and the charge for admission does not exceed one penny per head; or (3) which is provided by or on behalf of a school or other educational institution for the furtherance of an object connected therewith, and at which the performers are children under sixteen years of age who have been or are in attendance thereat; or (4) which is wholly educational, or, being partly educational and partly scientific, is conducted by an association not established or carried on for profit, or, having for its aim the revival of national pastimes, is provided by such an association founded for that purpose.
Repayment of the tax may be claimed when the net proceeds of an entertainment are devoted to philanthropic or charitable purposes, and the total expenses met from the receipts do not exceed one-fifth of the receipts.
When admission to an entertainment is dependent upon payment of a contribution or subscription to a club, society, or association, tax is payable thereon, and where such payment carries with it the right of admission, the tax is due whether the right is exercised or not. If, however, the payment confers the right to other privileges besides admission to an entertainment, e.g. to the use of library, reading-room, &c., only such proportion thereof as the Board determines to represent the right of admission is taxable.
The amount yielded by the tax for the fiscal year 1916-7 was over £3,000,000, for 1917-8 nearly £5,000,000, while for 1919-20 it was approximately £10,485,000.
Parts of InsectsDiagram showing the Parts of Insectsa, Head.b, Thorax.c, Abdomen.dd, Front wings.ee, Hind wings.ff, Antennæ.
a, Head.b, Thorax.c, Abdomen.dd, Front wings.ee, Hind wings.ff, Antennæ.
Biting Mouth Parts of an InsectBiting Mouth Parts of an InsectA, Upper lip.B, Mandibles.C, Maxillæ:c1, palp;c2, galea;c3, lacinia;c4, stipes.D, Lower lip:d1, submentum;d2, mentum;d3, labial palp;d4, glossa;d5, paraglossa.
A, Upper lip.B, Mandibles.C, Maxillæ:c1, palp;c2, galea;c3, lacinia;c4, stipes.D, Lower lip:d1, submentum;d2, mentum;d3, labial palp;d4, glossa;d5, paraglossa.
Entomol´ogy, the branch of zoology which treats of insects, the name being from Gr.entŏma, animals 'cut in', the transverse division or segmentation of the body being their most conspicuous feature. The true insects are those animals of the phylum Arthropoda distinguished from the other classes of the phylum by the fact that the three divisions of the body—the head, thorax, and abdomen—are always distinct fromone another. There are never more than three pairs of legs in the perfect insect, and these are all borne upon the thorax. Each leg consists of from six to nine joints. The first of these is called the 'coxa', and is succeeded by a short joint called the 'trochanter'. This is followed by a joint, often of large size, called the 'femur', succeeded by the 'tibia', and this has articulated to it the 'tarsus', which may be composed of from one to five joints. Normally two pairs of wings are present, but one or other, or both, may be wanting. The wings are expansions of the sides of the second and third sections of the thorax, and are strengthened by narrow thickenings called 'nervures'. In the beetles the anterior pair of wings becomes hardened so as to form protective cases for the posterior membranous wings, and are called in this condition 'elytra' or 'wing-cases'. The fore-wings are similarly transformed in the Orthoptera, while in many of the Hemiptera they are horny except at the tip. Respiration is effected by means of air-tubes or tracheæ, which open on the surface of the body by lateral apertures called 'stigmata' or 'spiracles', and ramify through every part of the body. The head is composed of several segments amalgamated together, and carries a pair of feelers or 'antennæ', a pair of eyes, usually compound (and often simple eyes in addition), and the appendages of the mouth.Sucking mouth of a ButterflyA, Sucking mouth of a Butterfly:p, proboscis;l, labium;l1, labial palps;m, mandibles.B, Piercing mouth of a Mosquito:a, labial palps;b, labium epi-pharynx;c, labium;dande, maxillæ;f, labrum;g, antennæ;handi, ocelli:hy, hypopharynx;j, labial palp.These last include an upper lip (labrum), and three pairs of jaws (mandibles, first maxillæ, second maxillæ), the third pair being more or less fused into a lower lip (labium). The thorax is composed of three segments, also amalgamated but generally pretty easily recognized. The abdominal segments are usually more or less freely movable upon one another, and never carry locomotive limbs; but the extremity is frequently furnished with appendages connected with generation, which in some cases serve as offensive and defensive weapons (stings). The organs of the mouth take collectively two typical forms, the masticatory and the suctorial, the former exemplified by the beetles, the latter by the butterflies, in which the mouth is purely for suction. The alimentary canal consists of the œsophagus or gullet, a crop, a gizzard, a stomach, and an intestine, terminating in a cloaca. Thereis no regular system of blood-vessels; the most important organ of the circulation is a contractile vessel situated dorsally and called the 'dorsal vessel'. The nervous system consists of a pair of cerebral ganglia (brain) in the head, these being the thickened upper part of a nerve-ring which encircles the gullet and passes below into a double ventral nerve-cord dilated into ganglia at intervals. The sexes are in different individuals, and most insects are oviparous. Reproduction is generally sexual, but non-sexual reproduction also occurs. (SeeParthenogenesis.) Generally the young are very different from the full-grown insect, and pass through a 'metamorphosis' before attaining the mature stage. When this metamorphosis is complete, it exhibits three stages—that of the larva, caterpillar, or grub, that of the pupa or chrysalis, and that of the imago or perfect winged insect. Insects have been divided into three sections—Ametabŏla, Hemimetabŏla, and Holometabŏla, according as they undergo no metamorphosis, an incomplete one, or a complete one. The young of the Ametabŏla differ from the adult only in size. They are all destitute of wings; the eyes are simple and sometimes wanting. The Hemimetabŏla undergo an incomplete metamorphosis, the larva differing from the imago chiefly in the absence of wings and in size. The pupa, here termed a nymph, is usually active, or, if quiescent, capable of movement. In the Holometabŏla the metamorphosis is complete, the larva, pupa, and imago differing greatly from one another in external appearance and habits. The larva is worm-like and the pupa quiescent. The section Ametabŏla includes the order Aptĕra (tassel-tails and spring-tails). The section Hemimetabŏla comprises the orders Hemiptĕra (cicadas, bugs, plant-lice, &c.), Orthoptĕra (cockroaches, crickets, grasshoppers, locusts, earwigs, &c.), and Neuroptĕra (dragon-flies, may-flies, white-ants, &c.). The Holometabŏla comprises the orders Diptĕra (gnats, bot-flies, gad-flies, mosquitoes, house-flies, fleas, &c.), Lepidoptĕra (butterflies and moths), Hymenoptĕra (bees, wasps, and ants), and Coleoptĕra (lady-birds, glow-worms, cockchafers, weevils, and all of the beetle tribe). A division is sometimes made into Mandibulate and Haustellate groups, the oral apparatus of the former being adapted for mastication, the latter for imbibition of liquid food. Both types are, however, sometimes modified, and occasionally combined.