ErminesErmines (Putorius ermineus)
Er´mine, the stoat (Putorius ermineus), a mammal of the weasel family widely distributed through the northern parts of both hemispheres, with a considerable range to the south. It is not generally known that the ermine and stoat are the same. In winter, in cold countries or severe seasons, the fur changes from a reddish-brown to a yellowish-white, or almost pure white, under which shade the animal is recognised as the ermine. In both states the tip of the tail is black. Its fur is short, soft, and silky, the best skins being brought from Russia, Sweden, and Norway. It is in great request, and was formerly one of the insignia of royalty, and is still used by judges. When used as linings of cloaks the black tuft from the tail is sewed to the skin at irregular distances. Stoats are among the enemies of the poultry-keeper, but by keeping down small rodents they benefit agriculture to a considerable extent.—Inheraldry, ermine is one of the furs, represented with its peculiar spots black on a white ground.
ErmineErmine
Erne(ėrn), the name often given to all the eagles of the genus Haliaëtus, but more specifically to the white-tailed sea-eagle.
Erne, Lough, a lake, Ireland, County Fermanagh, consisting of a north or lower, and a south or upper lake (with the town of Enniskillen between), connected by a narrow winding channel, and properly forming only expansions of the River Erne. Its entire length is about 40 miles; average breadth, 6 miles. It contains numerous small islands, and is well stocked with fish.—The River Erne rises in Lough Gowna, in the county of Longford, flows through Loughs Oughter and Erne, and falls into Donegal Bay below Ballyshannon. Length, 72 miles.
Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover and Duke of Cumberland, the fifth son of George III, born 1771, died 1851. In 1799 he was created Duke of Cumberland, in England, and became a field-marshal in the British army. On the death of William IV in 1837 he ascended the throne ofHanover, in consequence of the succession to the sovereignty of that country being limited to heirs male. He was succeeded by his son, George V, the last of the Hanoverian kings.
Eros, an asteroid discovered in Aug., 1898. It completes its orbit in 642 days, and has a mean distance from the sun of 135½ million miles, or 6 million less than that of Mars, and was the first to be discovered of the class of minor planets which come within the orbit of Mars. It can approach at times to 13½ million miles from the earth. It is supposed to have a diameter of 20 miles or less.
Erosion Theory, in geology, the theory, now held by all geologists, that valleys are, in the great majority of cases, due to the wearing influences of subaerial agents, such as rivers and glaciers, as opposed to the theory which regards them as the result of fissures in the earth's crusts produced by strains during its upheaval.
Erot´ic(from the Gr.erōs, love), relating to love.—Erotic poetry, amatory poetry.—The name oferoticwriters has been applied, in Greek literature, particularly to a class of romance writers, and to the writers of theMilesian Tales.
Errat´ics,or Erratic Blocks, in geology, boulders or large masses of angular rock which have been transported to a distance from their original positions by the action of ice during a glacial period. Thus on the slopes of the Jura Mountains immense blocks of granite are found which have travelled 60 miles from their original situation. Similarly, masses of Scottish and Lake-district granites and of Welsh rocks (some of which weigh several tons) occur not uncommonly in the surface soil of the Midland counties of England.
Erroman´go,or Erroman´ga, one of the more important of the New Hebrides Islands, with an area of about 400 sq. miles, hilly and not very fertile, but with spots well cultivated. Several missionaries have been murdered by the natives—including the missionary John Williams—but perhaps half of the 2500 natives are now Christians.
Errors of Observation.In scientific measurements, objects and instruments alike are so constituted that numerical results can only be approximate. We have to find the value of some quantity, not exactly, but to so many significant figures. Even so, when a number of measurements are made of the same quantity, it regularly happens that different values are obtained, the difference between a value as obtained and the true value being called anerror of observation. It remains to combine the various measurements in such a way as to obtain the best result which they are capable of yielding.
The usual method is to take the arithmetic mean of the values obtained as the correct value. It is also customary in careful work to state the average deviation of the observed values from the mean. For example, various experimenters found the following numbers for the charge on an electron: 4.67, 4.77, 4.65, 4.79, 4.69. Here themeanis 4.71, and the averagedeviationfrom the mean, taken without regard to algebraic sign, is .05. The final result is stated as 4.71 ± .05. The ambiguous term ± .05 is sometimes called the probable error. The smaller the probable error, the more reliable is the mean result.
A case of much practical importance occurs when the results obtained by two distinct methods differ by greater amounts than can be accounted for by the uncertainty of either result. In this case there must be aconstant errorpresent in at least one of the sets of measurements. Recognition of a constant error has occasionally led to an important discovery; for instance, the hint which led to the detection of argon in the atmosphere came from the observed discrepancy in the densities of atmospheric nitrogen and nitrogen from ammonia.
In many measurements what is sought is not the value of a single quantity, but the relation between the values of two variable quantities. In such cases graphical methods are of great service. Corresponding values of the two variables are found and plotted; and a smooth curve, or it may be a straight line, is drawn to lie as evenly as possible among the plotted points. Where great accuracy is wanted, analytical methods are also available. SeeSquares, Method of Least; Probability.
Ersch(ersh), John Samuel, German bibliographer, born 1766, died 1828. He was principal librarian and professor of geography and statistics at Halle. Among his publications are: aDictionary of French Writers; aManual of German Literature; and, in connection with Gruber, theUniversal Encyclopædia of Arts and Sciences.
Ers´kine, Ebenezer, the founder of the Secession Church in Scotland, born 1680, died 1754. He studied at Edinburgh, and was ordained minister of Portmoak, in Fife, in 1703, in which situation he continued for twenty-eight years, when he removed to Stirling. His attitude towards patronage and other abuses in the Church led to his being deposed, when, in conjunction with his brother and others, he founded the Secession Church. Erskine was the leader of the Burghers (q.v.). He is the author of several volumes of sermons.
Erskine, The Hon. Henry, Scottish barrister, was the third son of Henry David, tenth Earl of Buchan: born at Edinburgh 1746, died 1817. After studying at the Universities of St. Andrews,Edinburgh, and Glasgow, he adopted the legal profession, and in 1768 was called to the Bar. He twice held the office of Lord-Advocate, was for long the leader of the Scottish Bar, and held a high reputation as a wit.
Erskine, John, of Carnock, afterwards of Cardross, Scottish jurist, born 1695, died 1768. He was called to the Scottish Bar in 1719, and was author ofPrinciples of the Law of Scotland, and theInstitutes of the Law of Scotland, both works of authority.
Erskine, Ralph, brother of Ebenezer Erskine, born 1685, died 1752. He was ordained to the parish of Dunfermline in 1711, and in 1737 joined his brother, who had seceded from the Established Church. HisGospel Sonnetsand other religious works were once very popular.
Erskine, Thomas, Lord Erskine, Scottish lawyer, the youngest son of the tenth Earl of Buchan, was born in 1750, and died in 1823. He was educated partly at the High School of Edinburgh, and partly at the University of St. Andrews. After serving four years in the navy and seven in the army, he commenced the study of law, and in 1778 both took his degree at Cambridge and was called to the Bar. His success was immediate. In May, 1783, he took silk, and the same year was elected member of Parliament for Portsmouth, a seat he held (except from 1784-90, when he had no seat) till 1806, when he was raised to the peerage. The rights of juries he firmly maintained on all occasions, but particularly in the celebrated trial of the Dean of St. Asaph for libel. In 1789 he defended Stockdale, a bookseller, for publishing what was charged as a libellous pamphlet in favour of Warren Hastings. In 1792, being employed to defend Thomas Paine, when prosecuted for the second part of his workThe Rights of Man, he declared that, waiving all personal convictions, he deemed it right, as an English advocate, to obey the call: by the maintenance of which principle he lost his office of Attorney-General to the Prince of Wales. In the trials of Hardy, Tooke, and others for high treason in 1794, which lasted for several weeks, the ability displayed by Erskine was acknowledged by all parties. He was a warm partisan of Fox, and a strenuous opposer of the war with France. In 1802 the Prince of Wales not only restored him to his office of Attorney-General, but made him Keeper of Seals for the Duchy of Cornwall. On the death of Pitt, in 1806, Erskine was created a peer, and raised to the dignity of Lord Chancellor. During his short tenure of office the Bill for the abolition of slavery was passed. After he retired with the usual pension, he took little part in politics.
Eruptive Rocks, in geology, those which, as lavas, have broken through other rocks while in a molten state, and become eruptive at the surface.
Ervum.SeeLentil.
Eryngium, a genus of plants belonging to the nat. ord. Umbelliferæ. There are upwards of 100 species found in temperate and sub-tropical climates, but chiefly in South America.E. maritĭmum, also called sea-holly, is the only truly native British species. It frequents sandy shores, and is distinguished by its rigid, spiny, glaucous, veined leaves, and its dense heads of blue flowers. The roots are sometimes candied, and are reputed to be stimulating and restorative, as well as to have aphrodisiac properties. It is mentioned by Shakespeare,Merry Wives, v. 5, 23, as an aphrodisiac.
Erysip´elas, Rose, orSt. Anthony's Fire, is a contagious disease of the skin due to infection by a germ, the Streptococcus, and accompanied by severe general disturbance. Cold, damp weather favours its appearance. It rarely affects those under fifteen years, and is commoner in women than men. The disease is characterized by sudden onset, with shivering, headache, vomiting, and occasionally sore throat, followed by the appearance of the typical erysipelatous flush on the skin of the affected part, most usually the face. This part becomes deep red, and is much swollen, with a glossy, tender surface. It is definitely raised, and has a spreading edge merging into the normal parts around. In extreme cases there is marked disfigurement. Local treatment to allay pain and prevent spreading is by the application of lotions and ointments, and general treatment in the form of stimulating foods is given to maintain strength. Serum treatment has been used, but so far there have been very conflicting results. The disease is not so common nor so fatal as previously.
Erysipha´les, an important family of ascomycetous Fungi, distinguished by the presence of typical sexual organs and closed ascus-fruits (cleistocarps) which bear characteristic appendages concerned with dispersal; also by the fact that each segment of the septate mycelium contains a single nucleus. They are all parasites, appearing on leaves, stems, or fruits as white patches of mycelium ('mildew'). During summer innumerable conidia are produced, which spread the disease rapidly; in autumn the black ascus-fruits develop and carry the fungus through the winter. Erysiphales are responsible for many important plant-diseases, e.g. the mildew of hops (Sphærotheca Castagnei), vine (Uncinula spiralis), wheat (Erysiphe communis), and the American gooseberry mildew (Sphærotheca Mors-uvæ), a 'notifiable' disease in Britain.
Erythe´mais redness of the skin, and in this sense is applied to a number of general conditions which bring about redness of the skin, e.g.abscess, œdema, scarlet fever, &c. Of late, in medicine, its use has been more restricted, and refers only to an inflammation of part of the skin. This disease is characterized by redness and tenderness, and may become sufficiently severe to lead to the production of bullæ in the centre of the affected part. Dermatologists recognize various types of erythema.
Erythræ´an Sea, in ancient geography, a name given to what is now called the Indian Ocean, but including the Persian and Arabian Gulfs. The name was eventually restricted to the Arabian Gulf.
Erythri´na.SeeCoral Tree.
Erythro´nium.SeeDog's Tooth Violet.
Erythrophlœ´um, a genus of tropical trees, nat. ord. Leguminosæ, containing three species, two found in Africa and the third in Australia. TheE. guineenseof Guinea has a poisonous juice, which is used by the natives as a test of innocence and guilt, hence the name 'ordeal tree'.
Eryx, an ancient city and a mountain in the west of Sicily, about 2 miles from the sea-coast. The mountain, now Monte San Giuliano, rises direct from the plain to a height of 2184 feet. On the summit anciently stood a celebrated temple of Venus. All traces of the ancient town of Eryx have now disappeared, and its site is occupied by the modern town of San Giuliano.
Erzberger, Matthias, German politician, born at Buttenhausen in 1875. Educated at Freiburg, where he studied political economy, he took an interest in 1897 in the Christian Socialist movement, and entered the Reichstag as a member of the Centre or Catholic party. He became prominent in 1917, when he accused the German Government of misrepresenting the military situation, and urged for a statement of Germany's peace aims. Secretary of State in 1918, he became Minister of Finance in 1919 in Bauer's Cabinet, but was compelled to resign in 1920. He was murdered on 26th Aug., 1921, by two young men of the militarist party.
Erzerum,Erzeroum, orErzeroom(er´ze-röm), a city of Armenia, formerly the capital of a Turkish vilayet with an area of 27,000 sq. miles, and a pop. of 582,745. The town is about 6000 feet above sea-level, and forms an important strategical centre. It is irregularly built, its narrow dirty streets, flanked by mean houses, being crowded together in the small space enclosed by its lofty walls. The Moslem element prevails largely over the Christian, although it is the metropolis of the Armenian Church in union with Rome. In addition to important manufactures, especially in copper and iron, it carries on an extensive trade, and is a chief halting-place for Persian pilgrims on their way to Mecca. The town was captured by the Russians in Feb., 1916, and recaptured by the Turks in March, 1918. Pop. (before the European War), about 80,000.
Erzgebirge(erts´ge-bir-ge; 'Ore Mountains'), a chain of European mountains forming a natural boundary between Saxony and Bohemia, nearly 120 miles in length and 25 miles broad. The highest summits, which are on the side of Saxony, rise to 3800 or 3900 feet. The mountains are rich in silver, iron, copper, lead, cobalt, and arsenic.
Esarhad´don(Assyr.Asur-akhi-iddina, Asur has given a brother), the son of Sennacherib, and one of the most powerful of all the Assyrian monarchs. He extended the empire on all sides, and is the only Assyrian monarch who actually reigned at Babylon. He died about 667B.C.
E´sau, the eldest son of Isaac, and twin-brother of Jacob. His name (which signifies rough, hairy) was due to his singular appearance at birth, being "red, and all over like an hairy garment". The story of his losing the paternal blessing through the craft of Rebekah and Jacob, with other facts, is told inGenesis, xxvii. He was the progenitor of the Edomites.
Esbjerg, a Danish seaport in South-West Jutland, opposite the Island of Fanö. Pop. 18,000.
Escallonia, a genus of saxifragaceous shrubs and trees, natives chiefly of the Andes.E. rubrais a handsome evergreen shrub, with shiny, resinous, aromatic leaves, and fine pink flowers; it is hardy in many parts of Britain, and makes an excellent hedge, especially near the sea, where it bears the salt-laden winds without damage.
Escapements1, Dead-beat or repose escapement. The pallets are concentric with the axisa, and thus while a tooth is against the pallet the wheel is stationary.2, Recoil escapement. The pallets are not concentric to the axisa, and therefore a slight recoil of the wheel takes place after the escape of a tooth (whence the name escapement). When the pallets leave a tooth, the teeth slide along their surfaces, giving an impulse to the pendulum. Lettering for 1 and 2: The anchorH L Kis made to oscillate on the axisaby the pendulum. The teeth of the escapement-wheel A come alternately against the outer surface of the palletKand the inner surface of the palletH.3, Chronometer escapement. As the balance rotates in the direction of the arrow, the toothVpresses the spring against the lever, thus pressing aside the lever and removing the detent from the tooth of the wheel. As the balance returns,Vpresses aside and passes the spring without moving the lever, which then rests against the stopE.
1, Dead-beat or repose escapement. The pallets are concentric with the axisa, and thus while a tooth is against the pallet the wheel is stationary.
2, Recoil escapement. The pallets are not concentric to the axisa, and therefore a slight recoil of the wheel takes place after the escape of a tooth (whence the name escapement). When the pallets leave a tooth, the teeth slide along their surfaces, giving an impulse to the pendulum. Lettering for 1 and 2: The anchorH L Kis made to oscillate on the axisaby the pendulum. The teeth of the escapement-wheel A come alternately against the outer surface of the palletKand the inner surface of the palletH.
3, Chronometer escapement. As the balance rotates in the direction of the arrow, the toothVpresses the spring against the lever, thus pressing aside the lever and removing the detent from the tooth of the wheel. As the balance returns,Vpresses aside and passes the spring without moving the lever, which then rests against the stopE.
Escape´ment, the general contrivance in a timepiece by which the pressure of the wheels (which move always in one direction) and the vibratory motion of the pendulum orbalance-wheel are accommodated the one to the other. By this contrivance the wheelwork is made to communicate an impulse to the regulating power (which in a clock is the pendulum and in a watch the balance-wheel), so as to restore to it the small portion of force which it loses in every vibration, in consequence of friction and the resistance of the air. The leading requisite of a good escapement is that the impulse communicated to the pendulum or balance-wheel shall be invariable, notwithstanding any irregularity or foulness in the train of wheels. Various kinds of escapements have been contrived, some of which are shown in the accompanying figure. SeeClock;Watch.
Es´car, orEsker, a geological formation in the superficial drift, generally consisting of a long linear ridge of sand and gravel, sometimes including blocks of considerable size. The materials are derived from the waste of till or boulder-clay, and their arrangement took place probably in water flowing in channels beneath ice-sheets, the escar becoming exposed as the ice finally melted away. In Sweden escars have been formed, season by season, at the mouths of glacier-tunnels as the ice shrank back, the ice-front opening on a lake. SeeKames.
Eschar(es´ka˙r), a slough or portion of dead or disorganized tissue. The name is commonly applied to the crust or scab occasioned on the skin by burns or caustic applications.
Eschatol´ogy(es-ka-; Gr.eschatos, last, andlogia, account), in theology, the 'doctrine respecting the last things', which treats of the millennium, the second advent of Christ, the resurrection, judgment, conflagration of the world, and the final state of the dead.
Escheat(es-chēt´), in law, a species of reversion arising from default of heirs. Lands, if freehold, escheat to the king or other lord of the manor; if copyhold, to the lord of the manor. By modern legislation there can be no escheat on failure of the whole blood wherever there are persons of the half-blood capable of inheriting.
Eschenbach(esh´en-ba˙h), Wolfram von, German mediæval poet or minnesinger, flourished in the first half of the thirteenth century. The most esteemed of his numerous works are:The Parzival(printed 1477);The Titurel, orThe Guardian of the Graal(printed 1477); andThe Willehalm, a poem on the deeds of William of Orange, a contemporary of Charlemagne.
Eschscholtzia(esh-sholt´si-a), a small genus of glabrous whitish plants, of the poppy order, natives of California and the neighbouring regions. They have divided leaves, and yellow peduncled flowers. The sepals cohere and fall off as the flower opens in the form of a cap. They are now common in the gardens of Great Britain.
Eschwege(esh´vā-ge), a town of Prussia, province of Hesse-Nassau, on the Werra, 26 milesE.S.E.of Cassel. Pop. 12,540.
Eschweiler(esh´vī-lėr), a town of Prussia, in the province of Rheinland, 9 milesE.N.E.of Aix-la-Chapelle, on the Inde. It is the seat of large and varied manufacturing industries, especially in iron, copper, and zinc, and has coal-mines. Pop. 24,718.
Escobar y Mendoza(es-ko-bär´ ē men-do´-tha˙), Antonio, a Spanish casuist and Jesuit, born 1589, died 1669. His principal works are:Summula Casuum Conscientiæ, and several scriptural commentaries. His casuistry was severely criticized by Pascal in hisLettres Provinciales, and the extreme laxity of his moral principles was ridiculed by Boileau, Molière, and La Fontaine.
Escrow´, a legal writing delivered to a third person to be delivered by him to the person whom it purports to benefit, when some condition is performed. Upon the performance of this condition it becomes an absolute deed, but if the condition be not performed, it remains anescrowor scroll.
Escu´rial(Sp.el Escorial), a remarkable building in Spain, comprising at once a palace, a convent, a church, and a mausoleum. It is distant from Madrid about 24 miles in a north-westerly direction, and situated on the acclivity of the Sierra Guadarrama, the range of mountains which divides New from Old Castile. It was built by Philip II, and dedicated to St. Lawrence, in commemoration of the victory of St. Quentin, fought on the festival of the saint in 1557. It is popularly considered to be built on the plan of a gridiron, from the fact that St. Lawrence is said to have been broiled alive on a sort of large gridiron. The building is a rectangular parallelogram measuring 744 feet in length by 580 feet in breadth. The interior is divided into courts, formerly inhabited by monks and ecclesiastics, while a projection 460 feet in length (the handle of the gridiron) contains the royal palace. It was begun in 1563 and finished in 1584. It is of moderate height, and its innumerable windows (said to be 11,000) give it (apart from the church) somewhat the aspect of a large mill or barracks. The church is the finest portion of the whole building. The dome is 60 feet in diameter, and its height at the centre is about 320 feet. Under it is the Pantheon or family vault of the Spanish sovereigns. The library contains a valuable collection, including a rich store of Arabic MSS. The Escurial was partly burned in 1671, when many MSS. were destroyed, and was pillaged by the French in 1808 and 1813. It was restored by Ferdinand VII, but the monks, with their revenues which supported it, have long since disappeared. In 1872 it was fired by lightning, and suffered serious damage.—Cf. A. F. Calvert,The Escorial.
Esdraë´lon, Plain of, a fertile plain in Northern Palestine, between the Mediterranean and the Jordan, drained by the River Kishon, and now traversed by the railway from Haifa to Damascus. This plain is celebrated for four battles having been fought there. Sisera was defeated there; Gideon and his three hundred won a battle there; Saul and Jonathan fought there; and it was there that Josiah was killed, In the centre of the plain is Megiddo (q.v.), identified with Armageddon (Rev.xvi, 16). Allenby won a great victory here in Sept., 1918.
Esdras, Books of, two apocryphal books, which, in theVulgateand other editions, are incorporated with the canonical books of Scripture. In theVulgatethe canonical books ofEzraandNehemiahare called the first and second, and the apocryphal books the third and fourth books ofEsdras. TheGeneva Bible(1560) first adopted the present nomenclature, calling the two apocryphal books first and secondEsdras. The subject of the first book of Esdras is the same as that ofEzraandNehemiah, and in general it appears to be copied from the canonical Scriptures. The second book ofEsdrasis supposed to have been either of much later date or to have been interpolated by Christian writers.
E´serin, orPhysostigmin, a drug obtained from Calabar-bean, the active principle of this plant, used as a remedy in cases of tetanus (lockjaw). A solution of eserin dropped in the eye causes contraction of the pupil, and hence its use in some eye ailments, as, for instance, glaucoma.
Esher, a village and parish of England, north-west Surrey. Here is Claremont, built by Sir John Vanbrugh, in 1816 settled upon Princess Charlotte and her husband, afterwards the residence of the Orleans family when expelled from France. The so-called 'Wolsey's Tower' is the gatehouse of a palace built by William Waynflete, Bishop of Winchester. Pop. 2609.
Esk(Celtic for water), the name of two small rivers in England—one in Cumberland and the other in Yorkshire; and of several in Scotland, the chief being the Esk in Dumfriesshire, the North Esk and South Esk in Forfarshire, and the North Esk and South Esk in Edinburghshire.
Eski-jumna, a town of Bulgaria, on the northern slope of the Binar-Dagh. Pop. 10,000.
Eskilstu´na, a town of Sweden, on a river of the same name connecting Lake Maelar with Lake Hjelmar, with ironworks and manufactures of steel goods and weapons. It is named after St. Eskil, the English apostle of Christianity in Södermanland. Pop. 28,500.
Es´kimos. SeeEsquimaux.
Eski-Sagra, orStara-Zagora, a town of Bulgaria, on the south slope of the Balkans, 50 milesN.E.of Philippopolis. In its vicinity are extensive rose-gardens, orchards, and mineral springs. Pop. 28,480.
Eski-Shehr, a town of Asia Minor, 90 milesS.E.of the Sea of Marmora, with warm baths and manufactures of meerschaum pipes. Fighting took place near the town in 1921, between the Greeks and Turks. Pop. 20,000.
Esmarch(es´märh), Johannes Friedrich August von, German surgeon, born in 1823, died in 1908. He held high official positions during the Schleswig-Holstein and Franco-German Wars, and was a great authority on gunshot wounds. He also originated valuable improvements in barrack-hospitals and ambulances, introduced the antiseptic treatment into Germany, and was the author of several surgical works.
Es´neh, a town of Upper Egypt, on the left bank of the Nile, 28 milesS.S.W.of Thebes, on the site of the ancient Latopolis, now easily reached by railway and river. Among the ruins there is a beautiful portico of twenty-four lofty and massive columns, belonging to a temple of Kneph (the only portion of the temple cleared out), and erected in the Ptolemaic and Roman period, with a zodiac on the ceiling. Esneh has a caravan trade, manufactures cottons and pottery, and is very healthy. There is an irrigation barrage here. Pop. 15,800.
Esoc´idæ, the family of fishes to which the true pike (Esox lucius) belongs, as also the much larger maskinongy (E. nobilior) of America.
Espal´ier, in gardening, a sort of trelliswork on which the branches of fruit trees or bushes are extended horizontally, with the object of securing for the plant a freer circulation of air as well as a full exposure to the sun. Trees thus trained are not subjected to such marked nor so rapid variations of temperature as wall trees.
Espartero(es-pa˙r-tā´rō), Baldomero, Duke of Vittoria, a Spanish statesman, born 1792, died 1879. The son of a wheelwright, he was educated for the priesthood, but joined the army as a volunteer in 1808. He took a leading part in the conflict with the Carlists, and was one of the most prominent men in Spain during several decades of the nineteenth century. He was regent of the kingdom from 1841 to 1843, and again head of the Government from 1854 to 1856. He was exiled to England for several years (1843-7). In 1870 his name was vaguely put forward in the Cortes as a candidate for the throne, but the proposal was not supported with any enthusiasm, and the closing years of his life were spent in retirement.
EspartoEsparto or Alfa.
Espar´to, orAlfa, a plant growing in Spain and North Africa, long applied to the manufacture of cordage and matting, and also extensively used for paper-making. This plant, called bybotanistsStipaorMacrochlōa tenacissima, is a species of grass 2 to 4 feet high, covering large tracts in its native regions, and also cultivated, especially in Spain.
Esperanto, an artificial language for international use invented by Dr. Zamenhof of Warsaw, who first published an account of it in 1887. The language was afterwards taken up for practical purposes in many countries, its use being promoted by special societies and periodicals. Its structure is so simple that the whole grammar can be completely mastered in an hour. There are no exceptions to the rules, perfect regularity being a leading feature of the language. The essential roots number only some 900, including grammatical inflexions, prefixes, and suffixes, and these are chosen from the principal European languages in such a way as to make their mastery easy to any person of ordinary education. The alphabet consists of twenty-eight letters, each with an invariable sound. There are no silent letters. The accent is always on the penultimate syllable. All nouns end in-oin the singular, and all adjectives in-a. The plural of these is formed by adding-j(pronouncedy). All derived adverbs end in-e. The only case inflexion is-nfor the objective. The verbal endings are:-ifor the infinitive;-as,-is,-osfor the present, past, and future tenses respectively;-usfor the conditional;-ufor the imperative;-anta,-inta,-ontafor the present, past, and future participles active respectively;-ata,-ita,-otafor the present, past, and future participles passive respectively. The definite article islain all cases and numbers, and there is no indefinite article. An ingenious system of prefixes and suffixes enables all shades of meaning to be expressed. Thus:bona, good,malbona, evil;patro, father,patrino, mother;gepatroj, parents;kudri, to sew,kudrilo, needle;arbo, tree,arbaro, forest;bela, beautiful,beleco, beauty;morti, to die,mortigi, to kill. The following is the Lord's Prayer in Esperanto: Patro Nia, kiu estas en la cielo, sankta estu Via nomo. Venu regeco Via. Estu farata volo Via, kiel en la cielo, tiel ankaŭ sur la tero. Panon nian ciutagan donu al ni hodiaŭ, kaj pardonu al ni ŝuldojn niajn, kiel ni ankaŭ pardonas al niaj ŝuldantoj. Ne konduku nin en tenton; sed liberigu nin de la malbono: car Via estas la regado, la forto, kaj la gloro eterne. Amen! The British Esperanto Association was founded in the autumn of 1904; its official organ isThe British Esperantist. International Esperanto congresses have been held since 1905, the last in 1920 at the Hague.—Bibliography: J. C. O'Connor,Esperanto: the Student's Complete Text-Book(revised by Dr. Zamenhof); Underhill,Esperanto and its Availability for Scientific Writings.
Espionage(from the French wordespion, a spy) is the acquirement of information by secret methods and by special agents, as opposed to its acquirement openly by combatants in the ordinary course of military operations. Espionage is recognized by international law under the Hague Convention, Article 24 of the Annexe to which reads as follows: "Ruses of war and theemployment of measures necessary for obtaining informationabout the enemy and the country are considered permissible". The right given by this rule does not, however, extend to the employment of force to extract information from enemy subjects as to their own armies, so that it follows that methods of espionage must be of a persuasive, and, so to speak, peaceful nature.
Espionage is carried on both in peace and war, but the conditions under which secret service agents work differ to a very marked extent according to the state of affairs between the two countries. In peace-time, though many countries maintain secret service agents in other states, yet these same agents can expect no assistance from their Governments in the event of their being detected. In this case it is a diplomatic fiction that nothing is known of them or of the reasons for their activities. The agent, therefore, in consideration of a sufficient allowance, takes the risk of a lengthy term of imprisonment if he is so unfortunate as to be found out.
In time of war the condition of non-interference naturally exists as a matter of course, and the secret service agent or spy is liable to the death penalty if discovered, and the fact that he has or has not obtained and transmitted information does not affect the case. In time ofpeace every nation of any importance maintains representatives in other states. Among the recognized duties of these representatives is the obtaining and transmitting of information about naval and military matters which may be of interest to their Governments. This is not regarded as espionage provided the information is obtained by the representative in his official capacity; it becomes so when resort is had to disguise or dissimulation, and, in fact, dissimulation is the essence of the offence. It follows, therefore, that a spy—one who practises espionage—must act in a clandestine manner in order to bring himself within the technical definition of the offence (by international law).
The characteristics of the act of spying are laid down in Article 29 of the Hague Convention, and the definition there given is as follows: "A person can only be considered a spy when, acting clandestinely or on false pretences, he obtains or endeavours to obtain information in the zone of operations of a belligerent, with the intention of communicating it to the hostile party...".
From this definition it appears that action in the 'zone of operations' is a necessary concomitant of the offence, and that, therefore, persons operating outside that zone cannot technically be charged with espionage; and to a certain extent this is so. A person may be domiciled in a belligerent country, and may, while pursuing his ordinary vocation, collect and transmit openly information of value to his own country; in the absence of dissimulation, such a person could not be charged with espionage, though he could be with war-treason. As, by international law, war-treason is punishable by death, the result is the same as if all the characteristics of spying had been present.
Espionage has been brought to a fine art in many countries, and complex organizations for its practice exist. Information may conceivably be collected with comparative ease by trained agents, but it is when it comes to disposing of that information that the troubles of the secret service agent begin. A poison requires an antidote, and the system of counter-espionage to a great extent provides this antidote. In accordance with this system, steps are taken to mark down and know all secret-service agents engaged in espionage work in the country concerned; their operations are then followed and, to a certain extent, controlled till such time as the psychological moment arrives when all, including the master-brain, are drawn into the net and disposed of.
In a military sense a spy means a man, whether soldier or civilian, who penetrates in disguise behind the enemy lines and brings back information about his dispositions. By the customs of war the penalty inflicted on a spy caught in the act is death after trial; but should a man known to have acted as a spy on some former occasion be subsequently captured in the course of military operations, he cannot be punished for his former act, and must be treated as a prisoner of war.
The following examples may serve to show what can be considered spying and what cannot. 'A', a soldier, in presence of the enemy, volunteers to obtain exact information as to the strength of a certain hostile post. To this end he, wearing his uniform and carrying a weapon of some kind, approaches the post by stealth, and secretes himself in a convenient place for seeing and hearing. If he is discovered, and attempts to escape, he may be shot in the process; but if he is captured, he must be treated as a prisoner of war and not as a spy. 'B', another soldier, speaking the enemy language, disguises himself as an officer of the enemy forces, and in this disguise penetrates behind the lines and mixes with the enemy troops. On discovery and capture he may be tried as a spy and shot.
In the first case 'A' was acting as a combatant in the ordinary course of military operations, and no disguise was present; in the second case 'B' was acting clandestinely and under false pretences, i.e. was masquerading as an officer of the enemy forces, and the necessary dissimulation was present.
Espir´ito-Santo('Holy Spirit'), one of the maritime states of Brazil, bounded north by Bahia, south by Rio-de-Janeiro; length, about 260 miles; breadth, about 120 miles; area, 17,310 sq. miles. Pop. 434,500.
Espir´itu-Santo, an island of the Pacific, the largest of the New Hebrides, with some 20,000 inhabitants.
Esprits Forts(Fr., bold spirits), a term applied to the French school of freethinkers, which included Voltaire, Diderot, Helvetius, D'Alembert, and others. The Esprits Forts, are, however, distinguished from the English free-thinkers. Whilst the latter were only aiming at freedom of religious thought, the Esprits Forts were more radical and revolutionary, seeking to bring about the abolition of the existing order and the substitution of a system based upon pure reason and the supremacy of intellect.
Esquimault(es-kwī´ma˙lt), a harbour and naval station on the south-east coast of Vancouver Island, about 3 miles from Victoria, the capital of British Columbia. The harbour is almost landlocked, and, with the 'Royal Roads' outside, is capable of giving safe anchorage to a fleet of vessels of the largest size. It is the station of H.M. ships on the Pacific coast, is a fortified naval arsenal, and since 1906 has been garrisoned by Canadian troops.
Esquimaux(es´ki-mōz), orEskimos, a race inhabiting the Arctic coasts of North America, from Greenland to Behring's Strait, and extending into Asia. They call themselvesInnuit, 'the people', 'men'; their other name is from an Algonquin word signifying eaters of raw flesh, and seems to have been given them first by the Jesuit Father Biard in 1611. They consist of three principal stocks—the Greenlanders; the Esquimaux proper, in Labrador; and the Western Esquimaux, found along Hudson's Bay, the west side of Baffin's Bay, the polar shores as far as the mouths of the Coppermine and Mackenzie Rivers, and both on the American and Asiatic sides of Behring's Strait. The entire Eskimo population is estimated at 27,000, of which 15,600 live in North America and 11,000 in Greenland. Their leading physical peculiarities are a stunted stature, flattened nose, projecting cheek-bones, eyes often oblique, and yellow and brownish skin. Seal-skins, reindeer and other furs are used as materials for dress, according to the season, as well as skins of otters, foxes, and martens. In summer they live in tents, covered with skins; in winter they may be said to burrow beneath the snow. In Greenland houses built of stone and cemented with turf are used as permanent habitations. Vegetation being extremely stunted within the limits of their territories, their food consists of the flesh of whales, seals, and walruses, often eaten raw; and they show remarkable skill in fishing and hunting. Their weapons are bows and arrows, spears or lances, generally pointed with bone, but sometimes with metal. Their only domestic animal is the Esquimaux dog. In intellect they are by no means deficient; in manners they are kind and hospitable. Their religious ideas appear scanty, but success has attended the labours of the Danish missionaries in teaching them the Christian religion.—Bibliography: H. Rink,Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo; V. Stefansson,My Life with the Eskimo.
Esquimaux Dog, orEskimo Dog, a breed of dogs extensively spread over the northern regions of America and of Eastern Asia. It is rather larger than the English pointer, but appears smaller on account of the shortness of its legs. It has oblique eyes, an elongated muzzle, and a bushy tail, which give it a wolfish appearance. The colour is generally a deep dun, obscurely barred and patched with darker colour. It is the only beast of burden in these latitudes, and with a team of such dogs attached to his sledge the Eskimo will cover 60 miles a day for several successive days.
Es´quire(O.Fr.escuyer, from Lat.scutum, a shield); originally, a shield-bearer or armour-bearer; an attendant on a knight; hence in modern times a title of dignity next in degree below a knight. In England this title is properly given to the younger sons of noblemen, to officers of the king's courts and of the household, to counsellors at law, justices of the peace while in commission, sheriffs, gentlemen who have held commissions in the army and navy, &c. It is usually given to all professional and literary men, and nowadays, in the addresses of letters,esquiremay be put as a complimentary adjunct to almost any person's name. In heraldry the helmet of an esquire is represented sideways, with the vizor closed.
Esquiros(es-kē-ros), Henri Alphonse, French poet, romancist, and miscellaneous writer, born at Paris 1812, died at Versailles 1876. His first work, a volume of poetry,Les Hirondelles, appeared in 1834. This was followed by numerous romances, and a commentary on the life of Christ (L'Évangile du Peuple), for which he was prosecuted and imprisoned. He then publishedLes Chants d'un Prisonnier, poems written in prison;Les Vierges Folles;Les Vierges Sages;L'Histoire des Montagnards. Having to leave France in 1851, he resided for years in England, and wrote a series of essays for theRevue des Deux Mondeson English life and character, which were translated under the title ofThe English at Home, and were very popular. He also wrote a similar work on the Dutch. Other works are:Religious Life in England, andCharlotte Corday.
Essad Toptani, Pasha, Albanian soldier and national leader, born at Tirana in 1856. He was a descendant of the Toptani family who had ruled in Albania in the fifteenth century. Trained for the army, he served in Macedonia and Anatolia, and in 1897 was rewarded with the title of Pasha for his services in the war against Greece. Abdul Hamid, however, who feared the power of the Toptani family, had the brother of Essad Pasha murdered, and the latter became the mortal enemy of the Sultan. He nevertheless accepted the rank of brigadier-general, and commanded the local troops at Janina. In 1908 he joined the Young Turks, and was one of the deputation which brought the news of his deposition to the Sultan. He was in command of the troops at Scutari, when the powers declared in favour of the autonomy of Albania in 1912. Essad Pasha had hoped to be chosen ruler of the new state of Albania created by the Treaty of London, but as the Prince of Wied had been appointedmbret, he accepted the office of Minister of War and of the Interior. Suspected by thembret, he was compelled to flee from Durazzo. After the departure of the Prince of Wied, at the outbreak of the European War, he returned to Durazzo, and was appointed by the Senate (on 5th Oct., 1914) President of the Provisional Government. In spite of Austrianadvances he declared war on the Central Powers, and escaped when the Austrians entered Albania. He rendered valuable services to the Allies at Salonica, but the Italians, who saw in the Pasha an enemy to their own views upon Albania, refused to grant him permission to return to his country. Essad Pasha, therefore, remained in Paris, where he was assassinated by an Albanian student named Averic Rustem on 13th June, 1920. The assassin was acquitted by a French jury in December of the same year, prominent Albanians having pleaded in favour of the murderer, and maintained that the Pasha was an ambitious adventurer and a traitor to his country.
Es´say, a composition in which something is attempted to be proved or illustrated, usually shorter and less methodical and finished than a systematic or formal treatise; so that it may be a short disquisition on a subject of taste, philosophy, or common life. The essay was the invention of Montaigne in the sixteenth century, and Francis Bacon was another illustrious author who employed the literary form of the essay. Caution or modesty has induced many writers of note to give the title of essay to their most elaborate productions: thus we have Locke'sEssay on the Human Understanding. There is a class of English writers to whom the descriptive termessayistis applied, the most illustrious being Addison, Steele, Charles Lamb, Hazlitt, De Quincey, Macaulay, Carlyle, Froude, Matthew Arnold, R. L. Stevenson, and Austin Dobson.
Essen, a town of Rhenish Prussia, situated between the Ruhr and the Emscher, 18 miles north-east of Düsseldorf, founded in the ninth century, and adorned with a fine church dating from 873. It increased with great rapidity, and became celebrated for the steel and ironworks of Krupp, the most extensive in Europe, employing till the end of the European War over 27,000 workmen. This great establishment was started in 1827 with only two workmen. In March and April, 1920, heavy fighting took place at Essen between the Government and the Communist troops. Pop. (1910), 294,629.
Essenes(es-sēnz´), orEssæans, a sect among the Jews, the origin of which is unknown, as well as the etymology of their name. The word may be a derivation from the Syr.hasya, the pious ones, orāsyā, physician. The Essenes appear to have sprung up in the course of the century preceding the Christian era, and disappeared on the dispersion of the Jews after the siege of Jerusalem. The sect appears to have been an outcome of Jewish mysticism and asceticism, which gradually assumed the form of a distinct organization. They were remarkable for their strictness and abstinence, and had a rule of life analogous to that of a monastic order. Property was owned in common.
Essential Oils.An essential oil is distinguished from a fatty oil by its characteristic odour, and by being slightly soluble in water and more volatile. Most of the essential oils are decomposed by alkali, but they do not yield soaps as do the fatty oils. An essential oil usually contains one chief ingredient, which may be a compound of carbon and hydrogen, e.g.turpentine, in which the characteristic odour is due topinene(C10H16); or a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, e.g. bitter almond oil where the chief ingredient isbenzaldehyde(C6H5CHO); orcinnamon bark, containingcinnamic aldehyde(C6H5CH:CH·CHO). The extraction of these oils from plants containing them is usually accomplished by a process of distillation with water. In some cases this is not practicable, as the oil may be decomposed by water, e.g. to obtain the essential oil from violets the flowers are macerated with hot lard; the fat absorbs the essential oil, which is then extracted from the lard by means of alcohol. In other cases the oil is extracted by means of a solvent such as petroleum spirit. Large quantities of essential oils are extracted yearly for the preparation of perfumes, the preparation of various flavourings (essences), and for use in the soap industry. Many essential oils are now manufactured synthetically, e.g. oil of wintergreen owes its fragrance to methyl salicylate, pineapple oil to ethylbutyrate, pear oil to amylacetate.
Essequibo(es-se-kē´bō), a river of British Guiana, which flows into the Atlantic by an estuary 20 miles in width after a course of about 450 miles. The district or division of Essequibo is well cultivated and extremely fertile, producing coffee, cotton, cocoa, and sugar. It was the subject of a discussion between the British and Venezuelan Governments, settled by the Arbitration Treaty of 2nd Feb., 1897.
Essex, Earl of.SeeCromwell, Thomas.
Essex, Robert Devereux, second Earl of, in the Devereux line, was born at Netherwood, Herefordshire, in 1567. Having appeared at court, he soon became a favourite of Queen Elizabeth, by whom he was kept in attendance against his will during the defeat of the Armada. He served with more or less distinction in expeditions to Portugal and France, the latter on behalf of Henry of Navarre. In 1596 he was commander of the troops in an expedition against Spain, and distinguished himself by the capture of Cadiz. In an expedition next year he was less fortunate, and the queen, with whom he was always quarrelling, received him coldly. Presuming on the favour of Elizabeth, he behaved with rudeness to her at a Privy Council, received a box on the ear, and was told to "go and be hanged". After some months a reconciliation took place, and he was appointed Lord-Lieutenantof Ireland (1599), which was then in a state of rebellion. He returned to England in September, having been entirely unsuccessful in his government, was made a prisoner in his own house, and foolishly tried to excite an insurrection in London. After a skirmish with a party of soldiers he was compelled to surrender, and sent to the Tower. Tried for treason on 19th Feb., he was executed on 26th Feb., 1601.
Essex, a maritime county in the south-east of England, bounded by Suffolk, the Thames, Hertford, and Middlesex; area, 979,532 acres. The surface is generally level, except in the north-west, where it is undulating and sometimes hilly. The soil is in general extremely fertile, and particularly well adapted for the growth of wheat. Beans and pease also thrive uncommonly well. The other principal productions are potatoes, barley, oats, mangolds, turnips, tares, rape, mustard, and trefoil. The raising of caraway, coriander, and teazel is almost peculiar to this county. It had formerly a great extent of forest, the only survival of which is Epping Forest. The principal rivers in the county are the Roding, Crouch, Chelmer, Blackwater, and Colne. It has also the Thames, Lea, and Stour as boundary rivers. On the coast are some valuable oyster-beds, the oysters from which are exported in considerable quantities. The manufactures of the county are not very extensive, the chief being crape, silks, and straw-plait. The chief towns are: Chelmsford, the county town; West Ham, Colchester, Southend, and Harwich. The county has eight parliamentary divisions, each returning one member. Pop. 1,468,341 (1921).—Cf.Victoria History of the Counties of England.
Esslingen(es´ling-ėn), a town of Germany, in Würtemberg, on the Neckar, 7 milesE.S.E.of Stuttgart. It is of Roman origin, was long an imperial free town, has walls flanked with towers, a castle, and an ancient Gothic church, dating from the thirteenth century, with a tower 230 feet high. In 1488 the Swabian League was formed at Esslingen. It has manufactures of machinery, articles of wood, cutlery, philosophical instruments, and spinning and other mills. Pop. 32,364.
Established Church, a Church having a form of doctrine and government established by law in any country for the teaching of Christianity within its boundaries, and usually endowed by the State. The upholders of the establishment theory maintain that it is the duty of a State to provide for the religious instruction of the people. On the other hand, it is argued that the State has no right to endow or support any particular sect or denomination, unless they assume that that denomination alone is possessed of religious truth and worth. Regarding the establishedChurch of England, seeEngland; forChurch of Scotland, seeScotland.
Estate, the interest or quantity of interest a man has in lands, tenements, or other effects. Estates arerealorpersonal.Real estatecomprises lands, tenements, and hereditaments, held in freehold.Personal estatecomprises interests for terms of years in lands, tenements, and hereditaments, and property of every other description.Realestate descends to heirs;personalto executors or administrators. In ordinary language, an estate is a piece of landed property, especially one of some size.Estate duty, seeDeath Duties. In political history the term estate is applied to a distinct order or class in society. The term 'fourth-estate' is often used to designate the Press.
Estates of Scotland, the name given to a body of similar constitution to the English Parliament, but with important differences, the king himself, as well as his officers, being responsible to the Estates for wrongs done. They held the power of declaring war, or entering on a peace or treaty, and with them rested the right of declaring, with or without the consent of the king, resolutions of the assembly to be law. To prevent a Bill being hurried through Parliament, it was submitted to and discussed by a committee called theLords of the Articles. If sanctioned by this committee, the Bill was passed on to the whole House for approval. Another committee appointed by the Estates was called theAuditors of Complaints, whose duty was to hear appeals against the decisions of the king's judges, and, if necessary, to reverse their sentences.
Estates of the Realm, in Britain, are the Lords Spiritual, the Lords Temporal, and the Commons. From the circumstance that the Lords Spiritual and Temporal meet in one House, and practically form one branch of the legislature, the popular error has arisen that the sovereign forms one of the three Estates of the Realm.
Este(es´tā), a town of North Italy, 16 milesS.W.of Padua. It has a castle, the cradle of the Este family. It has also manufactures of silk goods, earthenware, and majolica; and numerous silk-mills and whetstone quarries. Pop. 11,704.
Este(es´tā), one of the most ancient and illustrious families of Italy. In the eleventh century the House of Este became connected by marriage with the German Welfs or Guelphs, and founded the German branch of the House of Este, the Dukes of Brunswick and Hanover. The sovereigns of Ferrara and Modena were of this family, several of them being famous as patrons of letters. The lives of Boiardo, Ariosto, and Tasso were closely connected with members of this House. The last male representative ofthe Estes died in 1798. His daughter married a son of the German emperor Francis I, and her grandson disappeared from the land of his fore-fathers at the consummation of Italian unity in 1860.
Estella(es-tel´ya˙), a town of N.E. Spain, in Navarre, on the Ega, 24 miles south-west of Pampeluna. Pop. 5658.
Este´pa, a town of Southern Spain, province of Seville, 50 miles east by south of Seville. It has a handsome Gothic church. Pop. 8234.
Estepo´na, a seaport of Southern Spain, province of Malaga, 23 miles north-east of Gibraltar. Pop. 9600.
Esterha´zy, a family of Hungarian magnates whose authentic genealogy goes back to the first half of the thirteenth century. They were zealous partisans of the House of Habsburg, to whom, during the reigns of Frederick II and Leopold I, they lent a powerful support. Among the more prominent members of the family are: Paul IV, Prince Esterhazy, a general and literary savant, 1635-1713. His grandson, Nicholas Joseph, a great patron of arts and music, founder of the school in which Haydn and Pleyel, among others, were formed, 1714-90. Nicholas, Prince Esterhazy, distinguished as a field-marshal and foreign Ambassador, 1765-1833. Prince Paul Anthony, a distinguished and able diplomatist, born 1786, died 1866; was successively Austrian Ambassador at Dresden, Rome, and Britain. He was a supporter of the national Hungarian movement.
Esters, orEthereal Salts, in chemistry, a general term for substances formed by the union of an acid and an alcohol with elimination of water. Thus ethyl acetate is formed from ethyl alcohol and acetic acid. Many of them are volatile, pleasant-smelling substances.
Esther, a Jewess, who became the queen of Ahasuerus, King of Persia, and whose story is told in the book of the Old Testament called by her name. This book is supposed by some to be the composition of Mordecai himself, the uncle of the heroine. Various opinions are held regarding the time and truth of the story; but the feast of Purim, which commemorates the events narrated, is still observed by the Jews during the month of Adar.
Esthonia, a new republic of North-Western Europe, formerly a dependency of Imperial Russia, and one of the Baltic Provinces. It is situated south of the Gulf of Finland, and is bounded by Russia, the Republic of Latvia, the Gulf of Riga, and the Baltic. The Republic of Esthonia comprises the former Russian government of Esthonia, the northern part of Livonia, and the north-western portion of Pskov. The country is divided into nine districts. It has an area of about 23,160 sq. miles, and a pop. of 1,750,000. It has for the most part a flat or undulating surface. The whole of the north side, however, rises considerably above the sea, and presents to it ranges of cliffs. The Narva is the only river of any importance; but minor streams, as well as small lakes, are very numerous. About a fourth of the surface is covered with forests of pine, birch, and alder. The crops include a little wheat, much barley and oats, and some flax, hops, and tobacco. Cattle are reared, and active fisheries are carried on. The peasantry are almost all of Finnish origin, and speak a Finnish dialect. Five-sixths of the population are Lutherans. Elementary education is compulsory, illiterates numbering about 3 per cent. There is a university at Dorpat, now called Tartu, founded in 1632, and reopened as an Esthonian university on 1st Dec., 1919. In the tenth and twelfth centuries Esthonia belonged to Denmark; it was afterwards annexed by Sweden, and in 1710 was seized by Russia. Esthonia is one of the new states formed in consequence and as a result of the European War. On 24th Feb., 1918, Esthonia declared her independence, and was recognized by Great Britain (3rd May, 1918), France, Italy, Japan, Poland, and Sweden. On 31st Dec., 1919, Esthonia concluded an armistice with the Bolshevik Government of Moscow, which recognized the republicde jure. In 1921 the supreme power was vested in a Constituent Assembly (elected 23rd April, 1919). Esthonia was admitted a member of the League of Nations on 22nd Sept., 1921. Reval is the capital.—Cf. M. Martna,L'Esthonie.
Eston, a town of England, North Riding of Yorkshire, 4 milesS.E.of Middlesbrough, with important steelworks and iron-mines. Pop. 30,634.
Estop´pel(Fr.étouper; Lat.stuppare, to stuff with tow, to cram), in law, anything done by a party himself, which puts a period to an action by closing the ground of controversy. Estoppels are divided into three classes: by Record; by Deed; and in Pais, or by Conduct.
Esto´vers(O.Fr.estover, need, necessity), in law, necessaries or supplies.Common of estoversis the liberty of taking the necessary wood for a house or farm from another's estate.
Estrad´iot, an Albanian dragoon or light-horseman, employed in the French army in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. They sometimes fought on foot as well as on horseback.
Estremadu´ra, a western division of Spain, consisting of the provinces of Badajoz and Caceres. It is fertile, but not cultivated to its full extent. The Tagus and Guadiana intersect it east to west. Immense flocks of sheep graze on the rich plains. The area is about 16,000 sq. miles, and the pop. 990,990.
Estremadura, a maritime province of Portugal, divided by the Tagus into two nearly equal parts, of which the northern is the more mountainous. Wines and olives are the principal produce. The principal city is Lisbon. Area, 6937 sq. miles. Pop. 1,438,726.