FOOTNOTES:

FOOTNOTES:[I]The term grafted, as here used, embraces budded trees as well.[J]Bulletin 30, Bureau Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1902.[K]Farm and Ranch, Dec. 3, 1904.

[I]The term grafted, as here used, embraces budded trees as well.

[J]Bulletin 30, Bureau Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1902.

[K]Farm and Ranch, Dec. 3, 1904.

Many of the pecan trees planted in groves have not fulfilled the hopes of their planters. These trees, raised from large selected nuts, for which the planters paid a dollar or more per pound, have not come true to seed. Some are irregular, shy bearers; others, when they do condescend to produce a few nuts, bear small-sized, inferior nuts, not larger than ordinary playing marbles, while some produce a large crop of good marketable nuts. Some are unhealthy, subject to the attacks of scab and rosette. It goes without saying that such pecan plantings are unprofitable. What is to be done with them? Briefly, this: Cut out and destroy, root and branch, those affected by rosette, those which are unhealthy, and top-work the remainder of those which do not produce a sufficient quantity of marketable nuts of good quality.

Top-working may be profitably applied to another class of trees—pecan trees in their native woods and thickets, and in some cases hickories, viz.: Hicoria tomentosa, H. alba, and H. aquatica, may be top-worked. Our knowledge is not sufficiently advanced in regard to top-working on hickory to warrant us in making any very strong recommendations, but the author has seen a large number of pecans worked on hickory, a few of which were in bearing, and all appeared healthy and vigorous. There is no good reason why hickories cannot be top-worked to advantage, and the delights of amateur efforts along this line will amply repay the attempt.

Plate VI.Plate VI.A two year top-worked Pecan tree. Variety, Van Deman.

Again, seedling trees may be grown or purchased and set out in orchard form. When these have grown to an inch or so in diameter and have developed several branches, they may be top-worked. This method of securing a pecan orchard is somewhat slow, and is open to the objection that the buds or grafts frequently fail to take, and in consequence the task of top-working extends over a number of years, resulting in trees of irregular size and shape. But by this plan a planting of desirable varieties can be secured at little expense, and provided time is not a consideration, the plan will prove quite satisfactory indeed.

It is best to insert both buds and grafts in parts having smooth bark, though grafts can be placed in rough barked parts as well. Frequently trees are in a very undesirable condition for top-working, and it should be borne in mind that those branches nearest the center of the tree will give the most satisfactory result in the rapid growth of buds inserted in them. If the tree is not in good shape for working—i. e., if no branches of desirable size and age are found in convenient places—the tree should be partially trimmed to a pollard, cutting some of the main branches back to stubs, and when shoots have started from these they may be grafted or budded. In from six to twelve months from the time buds have started from the branches thus cut back, under average conditions the new shoots will have grown to sufficient size to permit of their beingbudded or grafted. The best time to prune back trees to start new shoots for top-working is early in the month of March. In removing large branches there is always danger of splitting, because of the weight of the heavy branches. This may be entirely obviated by sawing upward from the under side of the branch as far as possible, then cutting from the upper side downward. A branch will split off and drop without injury to the remaining parts. All cut surfaces should be well covered with white lead paint to prevent decay.

The method of procedure depends upon the size and age of the tree and whether the tree is to be budded or grafted.

In top-working old trees, only a portion of the branches should be worked at one time. If the whole top be removed at once, the tree suffers a severe shock. Two or three years are necessary to top-work a large tree, a half or a third of the top being worked each year. If the trees are of small size, the whole top may be removed at one time.

For several months after the new top has commenced to grow, the scions have but a slight hold upon the stock. The leaf surface is often so large that a slight wind may twist them off. To prevent this, a number of branches may be tied together, or they may be fastened to stubs of branches left temporarily. Posts may be driven into the ground close to the growing scions, to which they may be tied. Use soft bandages and burlaps.

Plate VII.Plate VII.An old Pecan tree Top-worked in the branches.

The pecan succeeds on such a wide range of soils, that it is really easier to list those on which it should not be set than it is to enumerate those on which it may be planted. Of the soils not adapted to it, deep sandy lands, soils underlaid with quicksand close to the surface, soils with hardpan subsoil, wet, sour, poorly-drained lands, and stiff, pasty clays, may be mentioned particularly.

If pecans are planted on land with a quicksand subsoil, the roots are unable to make their way downward through the quicksand. So far as being able to take a downward direction is concerned, they might as well be planted on top of a plate of metal. The writer once planted a few nuts on such a soil, to see what they would do. At the end of three years the tops were about two feet in height; the taproot, while thick and stocky, was not more than six inches long. It stopped abruptly after numerous efforts to penetrate the quicksand. In normally developed trees of the same age, the taproot would have been three or four feet long. The same objections hold against soils underlaid with a hard, impervious layer.

While the pecan is at home on rich, alluvial river bottoms subject to overflow, yet it will not grow successfully on damp, soggy lands. It should not be planted on such soils unless they can be well drained,and not then until they have been limed and cultivated for some time to counteract the acidity of the land. We can definitely say that the pecan will do well on alluvial river bottoms, on sandy, loamy soils with a clay or sandy-clay foundation, on sandy-clay lands with clay predominating, on the flat woods sandy lands so common in the southeastern Gulf States, and on the higher uplands where hickory, dogwood, holly and oak abound.

Fig. 26. Pecan Tree grown on quicksand. Note the taproot.Fig. 26.Pecan Tree grown on quicksand. Note the taproot.

It is a fact worthy of note, however, that on extremely rich soils, the pecan will make wood growth at the expense of fruit, while on lands containing less fertility,less growth is developed with a proportionately large amount of fruit.

Choose not the poorest soil by any means, but a good, sandy loam in which there is a considerable amount of humus. A subsoil containing a very considerable amount of clay is to be preferred, by all means, for such a soil, with intelligent management, will gain rapidly in fertility.

The preparation of the soil should be complete and thorough. It may be stated, as an axiomatic truth, that the soil cannot be prepared for trees as well after they are planted as it can before, and nothing is to be gained by planting the trees in poorly prepared land. Better by all means to spend a year or more in getting the land in shape.

If the land is covered with a growth of timber, this should be cleared away and the ground cultivated for a year at least before the trees are set. Corn is probably the best crop to grow on new land, and at the last working cowpeas should be sowed. On fairly good land this will be sufficient, but on poorer ground the land should be continued in cultivation another year, sowing it down in beggarweed, cowpeas, soja beans, or velvet beans. These crops should be plowed into the soil in autumn or early winter, after they are dead and dry.

On lands which have been cultivated for some time, these same crops should be sowed for one season previous to planting, at least. Every effort should be made to insure a good stand and a good growth. Inoculation of the seed with nitrogen-gathering germs willhelp, and a good fertilizer, such as the one recommended for these crops elsewhere, should be applied. Nothing will insure a good growth in the young trees so well as the nitrogen and humus added to the soil by leguminous crops. Stable manure may also be used to advantage.

The ground should be deeply and thoroughly broken with a two-horse plow. In many cases the soil conditions will be greatly improved by the use of a subsoil plow, running it after the ordinary plow so as to break and loosen the soil to a depth of twelve or fifteen inches, or even more.

What varieties shall I plant? An easy question to ask—a difficult one to answer; for, though the one attempting a reply may know something of varieties, their size, quality and prolificness, there is always an unknown personal equation entering into the problem.

Every variety of importance has its advocates. If a man has a preference for a certain variety, and is interested in it, let him plant that variety largely. He will be likely to give it better care and attention than he will a variety for which he has no particular liking or for one which he may regard even with disfavor.

The question of adaptation of varieties to certain localities is an extremely important one. A variety which may do well in a certain state or region, may not succeed in another; and on the other hand, some varieties may be grown almost anywhere. To answer questions of this sort, one must have an intimate knowledge of varieties in their local adaptations.

Two of the worst faults which a variety may have are partial barrenness or shy bearing and poor filling quality. In this last respect the worst sinners are the larger varieties, and in point of filling quality, medium and small-sized varieties will, in nearly all cases, be found to have the greatest range of adaptability. The larger varieties are more likely to succeed on rich lands where the rainfall, particularly during the summer months, is great.

Again, all varieties are not equally hardy, and some may not ripen their wood and fruit early enough in autumn to avoid late killing frosts. Such varieties should not be selected for planting in sections where there is danger of such injury, viz: principally along the more northerly outskirts of the pecan area. In such regions, early varieties should be planted, for early ripening of fruit and wood usually go together in the pecan.

Many varieties are late in coming into bearing; others begin to bear while quite young. This difference in precocity is worthy of consideration. Other things being equal, those varieties which begin to bear early and are prolific, should by all means be given the preference.

In addition to setting out an orchard of what he believes to be the best varieties for his section, or which experience has taught to be the best, the grower should, if he is thoroughly interested in his work, plant a tree or two of a number of other different kinds to test their merits and to learn something of their characteristics.

The following recommendations have been made by growers and others in different parts of the South. These may be changed with the knowledge which time alone will bring; but they represent the best, most accurate and up-to-date knowledge which can be given at this time:

VIRGINIA, NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH CAROLINA.—In these States the different named varieties have not been grown and fruited long enough to warrant any very strong recommendations, Pabst, Stuart and Jewett have been planted in southeastern North Carolina and have succeeded, but on the whole, for the entire region of these three States, the most satisfactory and staple progress in pecanculture will probably come from the introduction of local varieties of merit.GEORGIA.—Dr. J. F. Wilson, Secretary National Nut Growers' Association, Poulan, Ga., has selected his varieties for that section as follows: Stuart, Schley, Van Deman, Georgia and Frotscher.Herbert C. White, horticulturist, G. M. Bacon Pecan Co., DeWitt, Ga., says that Georgia and Stuart are the best of the varieties thus far tested.J. B. Wight, Cairo, Ga., believes in planting Frotscher principally in his section.FLORIDA.—Prof. H. K. Miller, Monticello, Fla., believes in planting Schley, Dewey, Louisiana, Frotscher, Stuart, Russell, Pabst, Van Deman and Sweetmeat.James A. Bear, Palatka, Fla., reports that Frotscher, Stuart, Van Deman, Curtis and Money-maker are doing well for young trees, while Rome and Centennial have not proved satisfactory.Dr. J. B. Curtis, Orange Heights, Fla., recommends Curtis, Frotscher and Van Deman, these having proved most fruitful in his orchard.J. H. Girardeau, Monticello, Fla., regards Van Deman, Frotscher, Pabst, Clarke and Schley as good varieties.S. H. Graves, Gainesville, Fla., says: "Curtis, Stuart, Van Deman, Dalzell, Louisiana, Bolton and Frotscher are adapted here, and have proven good fruiters. From study and observation I would supplement this list with James, Money-maker, Success, Russell, Robson and Schley."J. F. Jones, Monticello, Fla., recommends Stuart, Van Deman, Frotscher and Schley, emphasizing the first as a commercial variety, and the last-named as an excellent variety for the "Fancy" trade.ALABAMA.—Prof. R. S. McIntosh, Auburn, Ala., believes Stuart, Van Deman, Pabst, Centennial and Schley to be good varieties for Alabama.MISSISSIPPI.—Theo. Bechtel, Ocean Springs, Miss., says: "My selection at present for this section would be in the order named—Success, Stuart, Pabst, Frotscher, Russell and Van Deman."Chas. E. Pabst, Ocean Springs, Miss., recommends Stuart, Pabst, Russell, Success, Van Deman and Rome.Stuart Pecan Co., Ocean Springs, Miss., recommends Stuart, Van Deman and Russell.Prof. H. E. Van Deman recommends Stuart, Van Deman, Money-maker and Pabst for the Lower Mississippi Valley.LOUISIANA.—S. H. James, Mound, La., has found Money-maker, Stuart, Van Deman and Pabst, in the order named, best for his section. He says that Money-maker is extremely hardy, having withstood 20° below zero in Illinois, without injury.Wm. Nelson, New Orleans, La., strongly recommends Frotscher and Centennial for his section.B. M. Young, Morgan City, La., is planting Stuart, Russell and Young for commercial orchard.TEXAS.—E. E. Risien, San Saba, Tex., says that San Saba is more in demand than any other variety he has. It succeeds well in his section. He recommends as well, Texas Prolific, Colorado, Kincaid, Atwater, Concho and others.E. W. Kirkpatrick, McKinney, Tex., President National Nurserymen's Association, regards Stuart, Russell, Pabst and Money-maker as valuable for his section. Good results have been secured with Hollis and Wolford.

GEORGIA.—Dr. J. F. Wilson, Secretary National Nut Growers' Association, Poulan, Ga., has selected his varieties for that section as follows: Stuart, Schley, Van Deman, Georgia and Frotscher.

Herbert C. White, horticulturist, G. M. Bacon Pecan Co., DeWitt, Ga., says that Georgia and Stuart are the best of the varieties thus far tested.

J. B. Wight, Cairo, Ga., believes in planting Frotscher principally in his section.

FLORIDA.—Prof. H. K. Miller, Monticello, Fla., believes in planting Schley, Dewey, Louisiana, Frotscher, Stuart, Russell, Pabst, Van Deman and Sweetmeat.

James A. Bear, Palatka, Fla., reports that Frotscher, Stuart, Van Deman, Curtis and Money-maker are doing well for young trees, while Rome and Centennial have not proved satisfactory.

Dr. J. B. Curtis, Orange Heights, Fla., recommends Curtis, Frotscher and Van Deman, these having proved most fruitful in his orchard.

J. H. Girardeau, Monticello, Fla., regards Van Deman, Frotscher, Pabst, Clarke and Schley as good varieties.

S. H. Graves, Gainesville, Fla., says: "Curtis, Stuart, Van Deman, Dalzell, Louisiana, Bolton and Frotscher are adapted here, and have proven good fruiters. From study and observation I would supplement this list with James, Money-maker, Success, Russell, Robson and Schley."

J. F. Jones, Monticello, Fla., recommends Stuart, Van Deman, Frotscher and Schley, emphasizing the first as a commercial variety, and the last-named as an excellent variety for the "Fancy" trade.

ALABAMA.—Prof. R. S. McIntosh, Auburn, Ala., believes Stuart, Van Deman, Pabst, Centennial and Schley to be good varieties for Alabama.

MISSISSIPPI.—Theo. Bechtel, Ocean Springs, Miss., says: "My selection at present for this section would be in the order named—Success, Stuart, Pabst, Frotscher, Russell and Van Deman."

Chas. E. Pabst, Ocean Springs, Miss., recommends Stuart, Pabst, Russell, Success, Van Deman and Rome.

Stuart Pecan Co., Ocean Springs, Miss., recommends Stuart, Van Deman and Russell.

Prof. H. E. Van Deman recommends Stuart, Van Deman, Money-maker and Pabst for the Lower Mississippi Valley.

LOUISIANA.—S. H. James, Mound, La., has found Money-maker, Stuart, Van Deman and Pabst, in the order named, best for his section. He says that Money-maker is extremely hardy, having withstood 20° below zero in Illinois, without injury.

Wm. Nelson, New Orleans, La., strongly recommends Frotscher and Centennial for his section.

B. M. Young, Morgan City, La., is planting Stuart, Russell and Young for commercial orchard.

TEXAS.—E. E. Risien, San Saba, Tex., says that San Saba is more in demand than any other variety he has. It succeeds well in his section. He recommends as well, Texas Prolific, Colorado, Kincaid, Atwater, Concho and others.

E. W. Kirkpatrick, McKinney, Tex., President National Nurserymen's Association, regards Stuart, Russell, Pabst and Money-maker as valuable for his section. Good results have been secured with Hollis and Wolford.

From careful observations, we believe that a list of varieties comprising Stuart, Georgia, Money-maker, Pabst, Success, Frotscher, Van Deman and Russell of the larger sorts will be found to contain varieties which will prove satisfactory in most locations. To these we must add Schley, San Saba, Curtis and a number of other medium-sized or small varieties of unsurpassed quality.

When about to plant in a given region, study the local conditions, visit the local trees or orchards, and upon these a conclusion may be based which is not likely to lead the prospective planter into very great error.

Since, in most cases, the trees are to be set in late autumn and early winter, the trees should be purchased in late summer and early autumn. Do not leave the purchasing of the trees until the last week, or the last minute, before planting, but buy in good season, i. e., several months before planting time. Too many forget about the trees until the time for setting them out has come, and not infrequently the matter is forgotten until after the season for planting is long since past.

The number of varieties in the commercial orchard should not be large. No greater mistake can be made than that of planting a few trees each of a large number of different varieties. Four or five, at most, are sufficient; got fewer varieties, rather than more.

Trees can be purchased in two ways: They can be secured direct from the nurserymen (usually by catalogue), or they can be purchased from agents. By far most of the pecan trees are bought from the nursery, and by many this method is preferred. If trees are secured from agents, be certain that they are responsible persons, representing responsible firms; be certain that they are properly accredited, i. e., have certificates to show whom they represent, and if they have notthese, then send them off down the road, and the dog with them for company, if necessary. This may seem to be harsh advice, but had it been followed by many purchasing pecan trees in recent years, it would have been much to their advantage. Plenty of seedling trees have been bought and planted in the belief that they were good grafted or budded stock.

But agents, with all sorts of credits, have represented firms which were not honest. Budded and grafted trees of certain well-known varieties of pecans have been sold, which were not those varieties.

There is every reason to believe that scions have been taken from ordinary seedling trees of any kind, inserted in stocks and sold for the best varieties, and that a large number of trees have been substituted and sold for what they were not. The prospective planter must depend upon the honesty and integrity of the nurseryman, and should inform himself on this point.

The National Nut Growers' Association has done no greater service to the pecan industry than that which they have rendered in protecting the public from fraudulent agents and nurserymen. Happy is the nurseryman whose reputation for square dealing merits the trust and confidence of tree-planters throughout the country.

At present, the prices quoted for one and two year old stock of standard varieties varies from 75 cents to $2.50 per tree, in small numbers, with considerable reduction for trees in lots of one hundred or one thousand. It is not improbable that these prices may be somewhat reduced within the next decade, as greater efficiency is gained in propagating.

How may budded or grafted trees be distinguished from ordinary seedlings or from "doctored" seedling trees? Many people have purchased seedling trees at a dollar or so per tree, under the supposition that they were budded or grafted stock. It is well to know something of the distinctions between them.

Fig. 27. External and Longitudinal Interior View of Bud Union.Fig. 27.External and Longitudinal Interior View of Bud Union.

If the trunks are straight and smooth, with bark uniform in appearance throughout, the trees have not been budded or grafted, unless the point of union is at the ground, and the trees having been grafted, and a terminal bud on graft has grown. If the young trees have been budded, the trunks will not be straight; a bend will be seen at the point where the bud was inserted (see Fig. 27), and the scars of the union of the veneer-shield or annular bud and the point at which the stock was cut off will be distinctly noticeable. The bark above the point of union on the grafted or budded stocks will be different from that below. There is something characteristic about the color and appearance and the number, size and shape of thelenticles of each variety of pecan, and while it is impossible to describe this difference in appearance (it can only be learned after a large amount of experience and observation), yet the very striking difference between the seedling stock and the wood of the variety worked upon, will serve as a useful index to the genuineness of the trees in question.

If the trees have been grafted instead of budded, the same statement will be true of the appearance of the bark. But the tree will be more nearly or quite straight, and the marks and scars at the point of union will be different. If the trees have been propagated by whip-grafting, the scar will be shaped like the letter N, the scar on young trees coming nearly or quite the whole distance across the stock. If the trunk of a whip-grafted tree is split through the point of union, the N-shaped mark in the form of a dark line may be distinctly made out, as shown in the illustration. In trees propagated by cleft-grafting, the union scar will be long, slim and V-shaped.

Fig. 28. External and Longitudinal Interior View of Whip-graft Union.Fig. 28.External and Longitudinal Interior View of Whip-graft Union.

But to make the similarity between the bogus and genuine trees more striking, the practice has been resorted to of scarring the stocks so as to make them resemble the genuine article. This we have known to be done,more particularly in the case of budded trees. Incisions were made in the trunks of seedling trees to resemble those made in inserting a veneer-shield or an annular bud. The incisions were made so as to include a bud, and the top of the seedling tree was then cut off just above the bud. A tree doctored in this way makes a very close imitation of the real article, and the buyer needs to be on his guard. But the appearance of the bark, as already noted, will serve as a guide. If in doubt, it may be well to sacrifice a few trees and cut them carefully open down to the pith just through the point of union.If the trees have been doctored, the tissues of the wood and the pith will be continuous; but, if the trees are genuinely budded or grafted, the tissues and pith will not be continuous.

Fig. 29. Annular bud growing (left). Split through same union (center). A normal branch union (right). Pith non-continuous (center); continuous (right).Fig. 29.Annular bud growing (left). Split through same union (center). A normal branch union (right). Pith non-continuous (center); continuous (right).

Finally, if still in doubt, send two or three trees to the botanist or horticulturist of the Experiment Station of your State, and ask his opinion.

Too often but slight attention is given to this important piece of work. There is too frequently a disposition on the part of the person setting trees of any kind to do the work as rapidly as possible without consideration for the future welfare of the trees. Few realize that time spent in careful, intelligent preparation of the soil and in setting the trees is time well spent, and well paid for in the after development of trunk and branch. Better a month spent in preparing the future home of the young tree, than years of its life spent in an unequal struggle for existence. More than that, the tree may die outright, and a year must elapse before it can be replaced. It is generally stated that the pecan is a slow grower, and yet I have seen trees from twelve to fourteen years old which measured from thirty-five to fifty-seven inches in circumference at the base, while under less favorable circumstances others stood still for a period of six or seven years, or until they had accumulated sufficient energy to overcome the untoward conditions of their environments.

Time.The best time to plant pecan trees is during the months of December, January and February. Planting should not be delayed until late in spring, as the percentage of loss will be very materially increased. Preference must be given to the earlier portion of the planting season, as the wounds on the roots will have had time to callous over, and the ground will be firmly packed about the roots by the winter rains. Then, with the opening of the growing season in spring, the trees will be ready to make a good, vigorous start.Distance Apart.The distance apart at which the pecan trees should be set must depend upon the character of the soil and the amount of fertility and moisture it contains.If planted too close, the trees may become their own worst enemies. Too close planting will not prove satisfactory. It is doubtful whether the trees should ever be planted closer than forty feet apart even on light lands, while on heavier soils this distance should be increased to sixty, seventy-five or eighty feet.

Distance Apart.The distance apart at which the pecan trees should be set must depend upon the character of the soil and the amount of fertility and moisture it contains.If planted too close, the trees may become their own worst enemies. Too close planting will not prove satisfactory. It is doubtful whether the trees should ever be planted closer than forty feet apart even on light lands, while on heavier soils this distance should be increased to sixty, seventy-five or eighty feet.

TABLE OF DISTANCESDISTANCE.NO. OF TREESNO. OF TREESRectangular System.Hexagonal System.40 x 40 feet.273140 x 50 "2140 x 60 "1850 x 50 "171950 x 60 "1460 x 60 "121360 x 70 "1070 x 70 "8980 x 80 "6100 x 100 "4

To find the number of trees that can be set on an acre for any distance, not given in the above table, multiply the distance apart in feet together and divide the product into 43,560, the number of square feet in an acre. The result will be the number of trees which can be put on an acre of ground.

For setting orchards a number of different systems may be used, but the two best adapted to the pecan orchard, are the square or rectangular and the hexagonal or septuple. If mixed plantings, such as pecans and peaches, are to be made, then the quincunx system should be used and a peach tree set in the center of the square or rectangle formed by every four pecan trees.

Square or Rectangular System.In this system is included only the methods of setting trees in rectangles, either square or oblong. It is by far the most commonly used of all the systems, and the ease with which a field can be laid off in rectangles, is greatly in its favor.The rows of trees intersect each other at right angles, and cultivation may be carried on conveniently either crosswise or lengthwise of the orchard. The planter has the choice of placing the trees the same distance apart both ways, or of planting them closer together in the rows than the distance between the rows.

The rows of trees intersect each other at right angles, and cultivation may be carried on conveniently either crosswise or lengthwise of the orchard. The planter has the choice of placing the trees the same distance apart both ways, or of planting them closer together in the rows than the distance between the rows.

Fig. 30. Rectangular Planting System.Fig. 30.Rectangular Planting System.

It has been argued that space is not equally divided among the trees, and while this is apparently true, yet, on the other hand, the roots of pecan trees, in most cases, penetrate and permeate all the space allowed in ordinary distances. The roots will certainly secure all the food and moisture in the top two or three feet of soil.When trees are to be planted by this system, the stakes must be set so as to be exactly in line, whether viewed from the end or from the side of the field.Hexagonal, Septuple or Equilateral Triangle System.By this system, six trees are set equidistant from a seventh placed in the center. The basis of the system is not the square, but the circle, since the radius of the circle is approximately equal to one-sixth of the circumference of thecircle. The name septuple, sometimes applied to this system, refers to the fact that the number of trees in each group-unit is seven. Equilateral triangle system refers to the planting of the trees in equilateral triangles, but is identical with the hexagonal or septuple.

When trees are to be planted by this system, the stakes must be set so as to be exactly in line, whether viewed from the end or from the side of the field.

Hexagonal, Septuple or Equilateral Triangle System.By this system, six trees are set equidistant from a seventh placed in the center. The basis of the system is not the square, but the circle, since the radius of the circle is approximately equal to one-sixth of the circumference of thecircle. The name septuple, sometimes applied to this system, refers to the fact that the number of trees in each group-unit is seven. Equilateral triangle system refers to the planting of the trees in equilateral triangles, but is identical with the hexagonal or septuple.

Fig. 31. Hexagonal Planting System.Fig. 31.Hexagonal Planting System.

It is the only system whereby each tree is placed equally distant from each of its adjoining neighbors, and the only system which equally divides the space among the trees. By this method about fifteen per cent. more trees can be set per acre than by the rectangular.For permanent plantings, at regular distances, this system and the rectangular should be recommended before other systems.

For permanent plantings, at regular distances, this system and the rectangular should be recommended before other systems.

Level and smooth the ground, harrow and pulverize thoroughly, then proceed to stake the ground off, placing a stake for every tree.

Laying Out Squares or Rectangles with the Plow.If a good plowman can be secured, very satisfactory work can be done with the plow. In some cases a man can be found who needs nothing in the way of a guide, except two or three stakes. But with a sufficient number of stakes anda marker attached to the plow, good results can be secured by almost any plowman.Furrows should be run both lengthwise and crosswise of the field, their intersections marking the place where the trees are to stand. At each one set a stake.It is essential that a true, square corner should be secured. This may be done by sighting with an ordinary carpenter's square set upon three posts.Laying Out in Rectangles with a Wire.A wire, long enough to reach down one side of the field, should be provided. Stretch this straight out between two posts and mark off the distance which the trees are to stand apart, upon it. At each point marked, firmly twist a piece of small wire about the larger one. These should then be soldered in place. It will not do to have them shift. This wire may be rolled upon a roller when not in use.Measure off along both ends of the field and set small stakes on the tree rows, at the marked places on the wire. Tightly stretch the wire down the first tree row, attaching it firmly at the ground level to a pair of good, stout posts. Then plant a lath stake at each mark on the wire. Set all of them on the outside of the wire, so as not to interfere with moving it. When this row in completed, lift the end stake with the wire attached, stretch on the second row, set the stakes as before and repeat the operations until the work is completed.Laying Out in Hexagons.Stretch the wire down one side of the field and firmly set the tree stakes, or stake out the base line by any method, firmly setting a stake for each tree. Then procure two pieces of wire with rings at each end, the length of each wire and ring to be exactly the distance between the stakes as set on the base line. Stretch these wires out toward the side where the next tree row is to stand. At the point where the rings overlap set a stake for a tree. Remove wire number one and set it on the third stake in the base line, stretch the two tight and set a tree stake. Repeat as often as necessary. In setting the third row of stakes, use the second as a base line, and so on.Planting the Trees.After setting a stake for each tree,the ground is ready for digging the holes and setting the trees. A planting board, such as is shown in the accompanying illustration, should be provided. It is made of a piece of inch board, four or five inches wide and five feet long. The ends may be notched or holes may be bored in them. In the center of one side, a notch, one and a half inches deep, should be cut. Provide a large number of small wooden pins or sticks, about one foot long and well sharpened.When ready to dig a hole, place the planting-board so that the notch in the side fits against the tree stake. Then place one of the small pins in each of the holes or notches at the ends of the board. Allow these to remain in the ground. Remove the board and the tree stake and dig the hole.

Furrows should be run both lengthwise and crosswise of the field, their intersections marking the place where the trees are to stand. At each one set a stake.

It is essential that a true, square corner should be secured. This may be done by sighting with an ordinary carpenter's square set upon three posts.

Laying Out in Rectangles with a Wire.A wire, long enough to reach down one side of the field, should be provided. Stretch this straight out between two posts and mark off the distance which the trees are to stand apart, upon it. At each point marked, firmly twist a piece of small wire about the larger one. These should then be soldered in place. It will not do to have them shift. This wire may be rolled upon a roller when not in use.

Measure off along both ends of the field and set small stakes on the tree rows, at the marked places on the wire. Tightly stretch the wire down the first tree row, attaching it firmly at the ground level to a pair of good, stout posts. Then plant a lath stake at each mark on the wire. Set all of them on the outside of the wire, so as not to interfere with moving it. When this row in completed, lift the end stake with the wire attached, stretch on the second row, set the stakes as before and repeat the operations until the work is completed.

Laying Out in Hexagons.Stretch the wire down one side of the field and firmly set the tree stakes, or stake out the base line by any method, firmly setting a stake for each tree. Then procure two pieces of wire with rings at each end, the length of each wire and ring to be exactly the distance between the stakes as set on the base line. Stretch these wires out toward the side where the next tree row is to stand. At the point where the rings overlap set a stake for a tree. Remove wire number one and set it on the third stake in the base line, stretch the two tight and set a tree stake. Repeat as often as necessary. In setting the third row of stakes, use the second as a base line, and so on.

Planting the Trees.After setting a stake for each tree,the ground is ready for digging the holes and setting the trees. A planting board, such as is shown in the accompanying illustration, should be provided. It is made of a piece of inch board, four or five inches wide and five feet long. The ends may be notched or holes may be bored in them. In the center of one side, a notch, one and a half inches deep, should be cut. Provide a large number of small wooden pins or sticks, about one foot long and well sharpened.

When ready to dig a hole, place the planting-board so that the notch in the side fits against the tree stake. Then place one of the small pins in each of the holes or notches at the ends of the board. Allow these to remain in the ground. Remove the board and the tree stake and dig the hole.

Fig. 32. Planting-Board.Fig. 32.Planting-Board.

The hole should preferably be dug just before setting the tree. In some cases, however, it may be necessary to have all the holes dug in advance. Make them wide and deep, six or eight inches wider than the extended lateral roots and eight inches deeper than the length of the taproot.In setting the tree, place the planting-board back on the pegs and place the tree at the right depth, against the notch in the side. It will then stand exactly where a stake stood, and if the stakes were in line, the trees will be also, if they are kept perpendicular while the earth is being filled in. The earth should be packed about the roots by hand, the tree being set no deeper than it stood in the nursery.To start the trees off well, one pound to one pound and a half of a good fertilizer, analyzing about six per cent. potash, five per cent. phosphoric acid and four per cent. nitrogen, should be thoroughly mixed with the earth that is used in filling in the hole. Preferably, only surface soil should be used to place about the roots.When the hole is filled in about three-fourths, water may be applied to advantage, particularly if the weather is dry. A good application should be given after the work is completed,so as to establish the capillary movement of the water in the soil.The greatest care should be taken to prevent the roots from becoming dry, if they do, the chances of their living, after planting, are very greatly reduced.From the time the trees are lifted from the nursery row until they are set in the orchard, the sun should never be allowed to shine on them. Neither should they be exposed to hot or drying winds. Should it happen that the trees are received before everything is ready for planting them, they should be unpacked and healed in, in a shady place.The roots of the trees must be pruned before planting, but this should be done under a shed. All broken parts of roots should be carefully cut off, leaving good, smooth surfaces, and the taproot cut or pruned back, as described in the chapter on pruning. When the pruning is finished,the trees should be wrapped in a damp blanket or in damp sacks and taken to the field. When needed for planting, they should be removed one by one and set out.

In setting the tree, place the planting-board back on the pegs and place the tree at the right depth, against the notch in the side. It will then stand exactly where a stake stood, and if the stakes were in line, the trees will be also, if they are kept perpendicular while the earth is being filled in. The earth should be packed about the roots by hand, the tree being set no deeper than it stood in the nursery.

To start the trees off well, one pound to one pound and a half of a good fertilizer, analyzing about six per cent. potash, five per cent. phosphoric acid and four per cent. nitrogen, should be thoroughly mixed with the earth that is used in filling in the hole. Preferably, only surface soil should be used to place about the roots.

When the hole is filled in about three-fourths, water may be applied to advantage, particularly if the weather is dry. A good application should be given after the work is completed,so as to establish the capillary movement of the water in the soil.

The greatest care should be taken to prevent the roots from becoming dry, if they do, the chances of their living, after planting, are very greatly reduced.

From the time the trees are lifted from the nursery row until they are set in the orchard, the sun should never be allowed to shine on them. Neither should they be exposed to hot or drying winds. Should it happen that the trees are received before everything is ready for planting them, they should be unpacked and healed in, in a shady place.

The roots of the trees must be pruned before planting, but this should be done under a shed. All broken parts of roots should be carefully cut off, leaving good, smooth surfaces, and the taproot cut or pruned back, as described in the chapter on pruning. When the pruning is finished,the trees should be wrapped in a damp blanket or in damp sacks and taken to the field. When needed for planting, they should be removed one by one and set out.

Too many of our ideas of fruit culture are borrowed from the woods, from the trees in the pasture lands and uncultivated places generally. As the pecan is a forest tree in many sections of the country, the inference is, that it needs no cultivation, no fertilizer, in short, is amply able to take care of itself. So it is, but not able to yield, at the same time, the large crops of nuts that are the object of its being planted.

From the woods, there is one lesson which it would be well for everyone to learn; a lesson, not of the trees, but of the soil, of the dense mass of mold, of partially decayed leaves, of vegetable matter, of humus that covers the forest floor. The soil in the pecan orchard needs humus, vegetable matter; so does the soil in any other kind of orchard, and to obtain results it must be provided.

Now, it is a well-known fact that a number of years (ten or twelve) must elapse before a pecan orchard will begin to give any adequate returns for the time and care bestowed upon it and the money invested in it. During this period, if rightly handled, the ground may be made to produce something else than pecan trees, and that, too, without injury to them. But in growing a crop in the orchard, bear in mind that the treesneed, and are benefited by, cultivation, and that fertilizer will make them grow.

But, as already noted, humus is needed, and since this is the case, corn or cotton or clean-culture crops, which leave little behind them to make humus after they are removed, should not be grown every year. Some of the legumes should be brought in. Cowpeas, soja beans, beggarweed, velvet beans, alfalfa and melilotus can all be grown in the pecan area. Not all of them in every locality, but some one or more of them in every section. To keep up the supply of vegetable matter, grow one of these leguminous crops every two or three years, or oftener, and after they have died and dried on the surface, plow them into the soil. And when corn is grown, sow cowpeas at the last working of the crop, to enrich the soil. These legumes will add nitrogen to the soil and help to reduce the fertilizer bills, for nitrogen is the costliest of all the fertilizer materials which we buy.

Sometimes, it will not do to crop the orchard. A condition may have to be met, in which there is not enough water to supply both the trees and the growing crops and one or the other will suffer—the trees, usually. In such a case the advisability of cropping is questionable unless, of course, water in sufficient quantity can be supplied by irrigation.

Small grains, oats, wheat, etc., should be rigidly excluded. When corn or cotton is planted, leave out a row or two of the crops where the tree row is. Let the trees have feeding space, but cultivate all the ground.

If the season is dry, then give cultivation just as often as can be done. Every week or ten days, between the first of April and the first or middle of July, theground should be stirred in young orchards. Shallow cultivation is all that is necessary after the first plowing. A weeder or light harrow will do the work. This shallow cultivation will preserve a dust mulch, a couple of inches or so in depth, and the loss of soil moisture by capillary action and evaporation will thereby be prevented; more moisture will be retained in the soil and the trees will be benefited accordingly.

Whether the orchard is planted in a crop or not, cultivation should begin about the time growth starts in spring. The ground should be plowed and leveled with a cultivator. After that, frequent shallow cultivation should be given with a light harrow or weeder. Once every week or ten days, if the weather is dry, will result in much good to the trees. If a shower should fall during one of these dry periods, the ground should be cultivated just as soon as it can be worked. A light harrow, which will break up the surface crust formed by the rain and leave instead a shallow mulch of pulverized soil, will go a long way toward conserving and holding the water which has been added by the recent rainfall.

The cultivation of old orchards may vary somewhat from that given younger ones. Some recommend that the old orchard be seeded to grass (Bermuda or Johnson grass) and used as a pasture. This may answer in some cases, particularly on very rich, alluvial soils, but, in general, it will not do as a definite policy year in and year out. Those orchards planted in grass which the author has had an opportunity to examine, have usually shown a large percentage of trees with branches dead at the tips, "stagheaded," with yellow leaves and a general appearance of unthriftiness. Itmay have been that these orchards were planted in grass while the trees were too young. The better treatment, and the safer one to follow in old orchards, is to cultivate the ground in spring and sow down in cowpeas or some other legume. Beggarweed, velvet beans or soja beans will answer well in many localities. Allow these to make what growth they will, and, when dead and dry, plow them back into the soil. It may seem strange to cultivate a forest tree, but it is the plan to follow to get results. Good results could doubtless be secured by seeding the pecan orchard in alfalfa and using it for a hog pasture up to the ripening season.

Cultivation should not be prolonged too late. If it be, the trees will continue to grow later than they should. Enough time will not be left in many sections before the coming of the first frosts. If the immature, sappy wood is caught by an early frost, severe injury may result. In the more southern extension of the pecan area cultivation can be carried on later than toward the northern limits of the region. Ordinarily, it is safest to cease cultivation not later than July the first to July the fifteenth.

On deep rich, alluvial soils the trees may not need to be fertilized, but many of the soils on which pecans have been set in orchard form, require to be fertilized to secure the best results. The three important plant foods required by plants and most frequently deficient in soils are nitrogen, phosphorus and potash. One or two or all three of these substances may have to be supplied.

Nitrogen, which is used by the trees largely in makinggrowth of leaf and wood, may be supplied from a number of different sources, viz: stable manure, cotton seed, cotton-seed meal, dried blood, fish scrap, sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda. These substances are the principal commercial sources of nitrogen. Large amounts of nitrogen are gathered by leguminous crops; cowpeas, vetch, beggarweed, velvet beans, alfalfa and others may be planted to advantage, resulting in a great saving in fertilizer bills, and besides, adding the necessary vegetable matter and humus.

The most common source of phosphorus, usually referred to as phosphoric acid, is acid phosphate. Some is obtained from bone, and bone meal is a good fertilizer to use among pecan trees. The results obtained from its use are not immediate, but since the bone does not decay rapidly, they extend over a considerable period. On the whole, acid phosphate is as satisfactory as any material as a source of phosphoric acid, and the goods with the highest percentage are usually the most economical in the end. A good grade is that analyzing fourteen per cent.

Potash may be purchased, as kainit, the raw salt, or as muriate of potash, low grade sulphate of potash and high grade sulphate of potash. Of these the sulphates are usually given the preference in fruit growing. Of the domestic sources of potash, woodashes are important.

The amount of fertilizer which it is best to apply is difficult to decide upon; much depends on the character of the soil, what crops are cultivated and whether a crop of legumes is grown or not.

If legumes are grown for the benefit of the orchard, they should be fertilized, and if the crop is turned back into the soil, this may be sufficient for the trees, particularlywhile they are young. For the legumes, a good fertilizer to use per acre is:

Kainit, 100 lbs.; Acid Phosphate, 200 lbs.or, High-Grade Sulphate of Potash, 50 lbs.Acid Phosphate, 200 lbs.

In any case some allowance should be made for the amount of nitrogen collected by the legumes. When corn, cotton or some other crops are grown in the orchard, fertilizing may simply consist in distributing an additional amount of the crop fertilizer for the benefit of the trees.

For the growth of the young trees, a larger amount of nitrogen and a relatively smaller amount of phosphoric acid and potash are required, while for older trees, the reverse is true. Phosphoric acid and potash are required by bearing trees for the formation of fruit. Consequently, when the pecan orchard comes into bearing, these materials should be increased in the fertilizer applied. If the soil is not very rich at the time of planting, good results will follow the use of a pound of good commercial fertilizer at the time of planting.

A good fertilizer for young trees should analyze five per cent. phosphoric acid, six per cent. potash and four per cent. nitrogen. For bearing trees, one analyzing eight per cent. phosphoric acid, ten per cent. potash and four per cent. nitrogen will give good results. If so desired, well-known brands of commercial fertilizers, having approximately the above analysis, can be purchased in the markets, but if preferred, the several materials may be purchased separately, then mixed and applied.

The roots of young trees do not extend to any great distance away from the trunk. In distributing the fertilizer this fact should be remembered. A safe rule for all small-sized trees is to commence just outside an imaginary circle of two feet radius and apply the fertilizer in a circular band extending out some distance beyond the spread of the branches. Old trees, or those having a considerable spread of top, when planted in orchard form, should be fertilized by broadcasting the fertilizer over the ground. In the northerly pecan sections, all the fertilizer should be given in one application, about the time growth starts in spring, and plowed in, while farther south, two applications may be made, one at the time mentioned above, the other from the first to the middle of June.

The pruning of the pecan is neither difficult nor complicated. In short, after the top of the tree is well started, little need be done except to cut back a branch here and there that the trees may develop well-rounded, symmetrical tops. A splendid type of tree is shown in Plate VI.

Frequently trees are so pruned that their first branches are eight or ten feet from the ground. Even young trees are pruned to slim stems, surmounted by a small umbrella-like top. Such trees frequently have to be tied to a post to keep them upright until such time as they attain sufficient size to support themselves. Such pruning should not be countenanced. The trees will make a much more rapid and satisfactory growth, and their trunks will be less affected by the hot sun, if the branches are allowed to develop lower down. Sometimes the system of pruning pecans with tall, bare trunks is adopted to allow of crops being grown under the trees, or because it is desired to use the ground as a cattle pasture. These considerations should not weigh against the welfare of the trees. As much ground can be cropped around low-headed trees as is good forthem, and, in brief, the cows should be pastured elsewhere.

Ordinarily the top of the tree should be so shaped that the lower branches will be about four feet from the ground. The trunk will be shaded and protected, the crop will be nearer the ground, and the low tops will be less subject to the destructive force of heavy winds, so injurious to both fruit and branches.

To start the trees at four feet, the tops must be cut back to that height at the time the trees are set, or, if smaller, when they have grown to that height. Three or four buds nearest the top should then be allowed to develop and form the main framework of the tree. After this the trees will need little or no pruning, except the cutting back of straggling branches, and the removal of dead or broken ones.

Some writers have advised the persistent and severe cutting back of the tops, from time to time, so as to keep them small, compact and low, but such a system of pruning must be put into practice on a considerable scale for a number of years before it can be recommended. Such a plan might prove valuable where the trees are subject to the force of strong winds, but otherwise it is of doubtful value.

Pruning may be done at any convenient time, but the best period is probably either just before the flow of sap in spring, or just after the trees have fully developed their leaves in spring. Following the removal of branches of any considerable size—three-quarters of an inch and upward—the wounds should be carefully painted over with white lead paint to prevent decay.

When trees are broken or injured by wind-storms, the broken branches should be cut off and the resulting wounds carefully trimmed and painted. If the branches are only partly split off, the injury may be repaired, in many cases, by pressing the branch back into place and bolting it there, so as to hold it firmly in place. Trees with forked trunks should be protected by passing a bolt through the two branches some distance above where they divide to prevent splitting.

Too frequently the root system of pecan trees, intended for planting, is but poorly developed. The root consists almost entirely of one large taproot destitute of laterals. Such trees are slow in starting and are hard to transplant. Figure 33 shows an excellent root system on a nursery tree. Such a tree should be almost as easily transplanted as an apple tree. A little more care on the part of nurserymen would insure good root systems.

In a former publication it was suggested that the young seedlings intended for stocks be root-pruned "in the fall, after the trees are one year old. It could easily be accomplished by running the tree-digger down the row at a depth of nine or ten inches. The taproots could thus be severed, and the following spring, or summer, the trees could be worked (budded or grafted). This course of treatment would insure greater success in transplanting, as it would have a tendency to develop the lateral roots; and in addition to that, it would, in all probability, induce earlier fruiting."

Two year old taproots should be cut to eighteen or twenty-four inches; larger ones, in proportion. The old idea that transplanted pecan trees, the taproots of which have been cut back, will not live and bear, is not borne out by experience. They are in no-wise injured by its partial removal, and it might all be removed were it not that so many would die in transplanting.

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