1Fray Tomás Ortiz took the Augustinian habit at the age of nineteen, at the Valladolid convent in 1687. Within a short time after his arrival in Manila he became lecturer there (1695), and acted as secretary of the province. Soon however he went to China to engage in the mission work of that empire, and upon the expulsion of the missionaries in 1713, he was appointed prior of Manila, and in 1716 provincial. He filled other important posts in the mission work of the islands, and died at Manila in 1742. He composed numerous works in Spanish, Tagálog, and Chinese. See Perez’sCatálogo, pp. 167–173. A fuller account of his life is also given in vol. xxix ofRevista Agustiniana.2The calumpang tree (Sterculia fœtida—Linn.) grows to a great size; its roots branch out half way up the trunk, and are so large that a roof could be laid over them so that they could be used as a dwelling. The fruit of this tree resembles a pomegranate, which divides when ripe into four quarters having certain kernels, from which an oil is extracted which is used for medicine, and which the natives use to anoint the hair. The wood is easy to work but is not very durable. See Delgado’sHistoria, p. 457; Blanco’sFlora, p. 524; andOfficial Handbook of the Philippines, p. 346.3Many instances of ancestor worship by the peoples of the Philippines are recorded in this series. There is no evidence that suggests that the custom was borrowed from the Chinese. It had become the general rule almost in the Philippines to refer many things, the origin of which was unknown, to the Chinese.4This is the anting-anting. See Retana’sAniterías, which gives examples of formulas, most of which are a meaningless conglomeration of words.5A Tagálog word for a sort of earthen vessel. See Noceda and Sanlucar’sVocabulario de la lengua tagala.6The translation of the title-page of theHistoriais as follows: “History of the Philipinas Islands, composed by the reverend father lector, Fray Joaquin Martinez de Zuñiga of the Order of St. Augustine, ex-definitor of his province, calificador of the Holy Office, and regular parish priest of the village of Parañaque. With the necessary licenses. Printed in Sampaloc, by Fray Pedro Argüelles de la Concepcion, Franciscan religious, in the year 1803.”Joaquin Martínez de Zúñiga was one of the most illustrious men of the Augustinian order who ever labored in the Philippines. He was born in Aguilar in Navarra, February 19, 1760, and deciding to embrace the religious life professed in the Augustinian college at Valladolid January 26, 1779. Setting out for the Philippines in 1785, he remained one year in Mexico, before going to them, arriving in Manila, August 3, 1786. In the islands he learned the Tagálog language, and acted as minister-associate in Batangas and Tambobon for four years. In 1790 he was appointed lector [i. e., reader or lecturer], but was soon appointed parish priest of Hagonoy (1791). In 1792 he acted as secretary of the province, and in 1794 and 1797 administered the villages of Calumpit and Pasig respectively. Being invited by General Álava to accompany him on his tour of inspection among the islands, he did so, and theEstadismo(published in Madrid in 1893 by W. E. Retana) is the fruit of that journey. After returning to Manila, he took charge of the parish of Parañaque (1801–1806). In 1806 he was elected provincial of the order. He had also filled the office of definitor in 1794, and was a calificador of the Holy Office. After his provincialate he resumed charge of the ministry of Parañaque which he held until his death (March 7, 1818). TheHistoriahas been translated into English by John Maver and printed in two editions. He is said also to have translated, annotated, and printed the work of Le Gentil, but which Retana (Estadismo, i, pp. xviii, xxix) says cannot now be found. Apropos of this, Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera sends a copy of the title-page of a MS. of this Spanish work which is as follows: “Voyage of M. Le Gentil, to the Philipinas Islands, translated from the French into the Spanish, by the very reverend father lector, Fray Joaquin Martinez de Zuñiga.... The translator adds some notes in which he reveals and refutes many errors of the author.” Pardo de Tavera says that this MS. is unpublished and that its existence is unsuspected and not known even by the Augustinians. See Pérez’sCatáloga, pp. 346–348, and Pardo de Tavera’sBiblioteca Filipina(Washington, 1903), p. 252.7Louis Lapicque, chief of the laboratory of the faculty of Medicine in Paris, was commissioned by the Minister of Public Instruction in 1892 to study the question of the distribution of the Negrito and to collect data concerning that race. He spent the months of March-December 1893 in this study, working in the Andaman Islands, the Mergui Islands in the Bay of Bengal, and the Malay Peninsula, and considering also in his report the inhabitants of other places, especially the Philippines. He brings out the interesting conclusion that the inhabitants of the Andaman Islands are perhaps the purest race in existence, and that they are closely allied to the Negritos of the Philippines. Both being brachycephalic, they are thus differentiated from the African negro, who is dolichocephalic. SeeAnnales de Géographie, v, pp. 407–424. Wm. A. Reed (Negritos of Zambales, p. 34) gives the average of the cephalic index of the nineteen individuals whom he was able to measure as 82 for the males and 86 for the females.8Angola, formerly called Dongo or Ambonde, is located on the west coast of Africa. Its coast was discovered in 1486 by the Spaniards who still own it.9Of the Bontoc Igorot, Albert Ernest Jenks, chief of the Ethnological Survey of the Philippines, says (The Bontoc Igorot, Manila, 1905, p. 14): “He belongs to that extensive stock of primitive people of which the Malay is the most commonly named. I do not believe he has received any of his characteristics, as a group, from either the Chinese or Japanese, though this theory has frequently been presented.”10That the theory of the origin of the Filipino peoples here expressed is false needs no demonstration. The peoples of the Philippines show two stocks—the Malayan and the Negrito. The inhabitants of the Polynesian Islands (using the term in its restricted sense) probably migrated from the East Indies and hence are allied to the modern Malayan peoples, and the same is true of the Huvas of Madagascar, having migrated from the parent stock from which the latter peoples originated. Sec Cust’sModern Languages of East India(London, 1878); andNew International Encyclopædia; Lesson’sLes Polynésiens(Paris, 1880–84); and Ratzel’sHistory of Mankind(English translation, London, 1898).11The San Duisk Islands are the Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands; and the Otayti Islands are the Society Islands, so called from their largest island O-Taiti, Taiti, or Tahiti. The group of the Society Islands, of which Tahiti is chief, is called Windward Islands.12Easter Island, so called because discovered by Roggeveen on Easter of 1772; called also Waihu, Teapi, and by the natives Rapanui. The inhabitants of this island are the last outpost of the Malayo-Polynesian race. It has belonged to Chile since 1888.13The Tagálog word for “house” isbahay, notbalay.14A reference toLa Araucana, a Spanish epic poem written by Alonso de Ercilla y Zuñiga, the first part of which (15 cantos) was published at Madrid, 1569. This is the first work of literary merit known to have been composed upon either American continent. Ercilla y Zuñiga accompanied Felipe II to England on the occasion of his marriage to Mary Tudor. Thence he went to Chile with the army to fight the rebellious Araucanians. He was accused of having plotted an insurrection, and was condemned to death but the sentence was commuted to exile to Callao. He returned to Spain in 1562 and being coldly received wandered through various European countries until 1580 when he died in Madrid poor and forgotten. The continuations of his poem consisting of 37 cantos in all, were published in 1578 and 1590. The complete poem is published in vol. 17 ofAutores españoles(Madrid, 1851). SeeNew International Encyclopædia, andGrande Encyclopédie.15In May, 1874, three canoes containing sixteen savages were driven by gales from the Pelew Islands, and after drifting on the ocean sixty days reached Formosa, distant 1,600 miles; and all but one survived these hardships—a striking example of endurance in both themselves and their craft (Davidson,Formosa, p. 215).16Charles Wilkes was born in New York City, in 1798. He entered the U. S. navy as midshipman in 1818, and sailed in the Mediterranean and Pacific. He became lieutenant in 1826, and was placed in charge of the department of charts and instruments in 1830. In 1838, he was placed in charge of the expedition authorized by Congress in 1836 for the purpose of exploring and surveying the southern ocean. This was the first scientific expedition fitted out by the United States government, and much valuable information resulted from it. Of the record of the expedition (which lasted during the years 1838–1842) consisting of nineteen volumes, Wilkes wrote the six containing the narrative and the volumes on meteorology and hydrography. In 1843 he was made a commander, and a captain in 1855. He served through most of the Civil war on the northern side and was the one who removed the Confederate commissioners Slidell and Mason from the English mail boat “Trent,” November 8, 1861. He was made a commodore in July 1862, retired in June 1864, and created a rear admiral on the retired list, in 1866. His death occurred in 1877. The names of the vessels in his fleet were the sloops of war “Vincennes” and “Peacock,” the brig “Porpoise,” the store-ship “Relief,” and the two tenders, “Sea-Gull,” and “Flying-Fish.” See Introduction to Vol. i. of Wilkes’s narrative, andNew International Encyclopædia.17i.e., The island of Busuang̃a, the largest of the Calamianes group, which has an area of 390 square miles. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 274.18i.e., The island of Ambolón, south of Mindoro, of four square miles. Seeut supra, i, p. 267.19The island of Simara, near Romblón.20“Although Spain had jurisdiction over these islands for more than three centuries, little topographic information had been acquired regarding them, except such as was of a very general character. The coasts were badly mapped, and in many places are now known to have been miles out of position. The coast charts, made from Spanish surveys, are so inaccurate as to be, on the whole, worse than useless to mariners, while of the interior of the larger islands, little was known except what could be seen from the sea.”Census of the Philippines, i, p. 51.21The population is given by theCensusfor 1903 (ii, p. 30) as 743,646.22On my arrival at Singapore, this circumstance was investigated by a court of inquiry. The result showed that Mr. Knox had no knowledge of the Vincennes having been seen; for the officer of the watch had not reported to him the fact.—Wilkes.23The full name of this village is San José de Buenavista. It is the capital of Antique.24The crest of the mountains in Panay is a few miles inland from the west coast. Among the peaks of that range, are the following: Usigan, 4,300 ft.; Agótay, 3,764 ft.; Madiaás, 7,466 ft.; Nangtud, 6,834 ft.; Maymagui, 5,667 ft.; Llorente, 4,466 ft.; Tiguran, 4,900 ft.; and Igbanig, 4,343 ft. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 69.25Wilkes accompanies (p. 349) this description of Caldera fort with a sketch.26There are two islands called Sangboy, one called the north island and the other the south island. They both belong to the Pilas group of the Sulu Archipelago, and are less than one square mile in area. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 283.27Wilkes presents figures of both the whole canoe and a cross section, on p. 353.28For the methods of fishing in the Philippines, seeOfficialHandbook, p. 151. Wilkes also mentions (v, pp. 321, 322) various methods, namely, by weirs, hooks, and seine. The former are made of bamboo stakes in the shallow waters of the lake of Bay where it empties into the Pasig. The nets used in the bay are suspended by the four corners from hoops attached to a crane by which they are lowered into the water. The fishing-boats are little better than rafts and are calledsaraboas.29Evidently at the village of Joló.30On p. 354, Wilkes presents a sketch of houses at Soung—the typical Moro house.31A full-page engraving of the “Mosque in the town of Sooloo” faces page 354 of Wilkes’s narrative.32Chewing the betel-nut and pepper-leaf also produce this effect, and is carried on to a great extent among these islanders.—Wilkes.33Cf. the description of the betel caskets given by Morga,VOL. XVI, p. 99.34The Sultan, on the visit of one of our merchant-vessels, had informed the supercargo that he wished to encourage our trade, and to see the vessels of the United States coming to his port.—Wilkes.35An engraving made from this sketch is given by Wilkes facing p. 358.36Opium is known by its Arabic name “afyun” throughout the Eastern Archipelago. Crawfurd asserts that its moderate use produces no worse results than does the moderate use of wine, spirits, and perhaps smoking. Shortly after American occupation of the Philippines, the necessity for taking some action in regard to the traffic was seen. The Philippine Commission were convinced that the smoking of opium was increasing among the Filipinos. Accordingly a committee was appointed to study the conditions, and restrictions of other Oriental countries in regard to opium. There were then practically no restrictions in regard to the smoking of the drug. On August 1, 1903, there were 190 opium dens in Manila, and no license was required, as they had no authority in law. The vice was mainly restricted to the Chinese. In 1904 a considerable amount of opium was smuggled into the district of Lanao in Mindanao. “Nothing has had a more demoralizing effect upon the Moros and savage peoples than opium, and it will absolutely destroy them if its importation and use is authorized.... It is believed that a license to smoke opium, sufficiently low to escape fraud, should be issued for those hopelessly addicted to the habit, and that exceedingly severe penalties should attach to those who furnish opium to youth or those who are nonsmokers.... It is a poor policy in developing a people to count on the income of legalized vice for a large portion of the revenue, as is done in most eastern colonies.” The importation of opium has shown considerable increase during American occupation. See Crawfurd’sDictionary, pp. 312–314; and the following reports of the Philippine Commission—for 1903, pt. i, p. 63, pt. 2, p. 96; for 1904, pt. 2, pp. 590, 591, pt. 3, p. 545.37Since our return, inquiries have been made by him, which resulted in proving that such was in truth their origin, and that the vessel in which they were shipped was for a long time missing. The identical stones which he saw were a part of a monument that was on its way to Canton.—Wilkes.38Marongas belongs to the Joló group of the Sulu Archipelago, and has an area of .4 square miles. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 284.39The Sulug or Sulus were the dominant people of Joló before their conversion to Mahometanism, and still maintain that position. The bulk of the Moro Sulus is on the island of Joló and the islands immediately south as far as Siassi and Pandami. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, pp. 463, 464.40Orang is the Malay term for man or human being. As used here it would mean “the men,”i. e., “nobles.”41The tripang or sea-slug (Holothuria edulis), which is esteemed as a great delicacy by the Chinese.42Evidently the people called Guimbajanos by the historians of the eighteenth century. From Wilkes’s description, they would appear to be at least partially Negrito.43Banjarmasin is a principality and river on the southern side of Borneo, the word meaning in Javanese “salt or saline garden.” The sovereignty of Banjarmasin is said in olden times to have extended over all of southeastern Borneo. See Crawfurd’sDictionary(pp. 36, 37), where an historical sketch of the principality is given.44The Chinese emperor at this time was Choo Yuen Chang, the founder of the Ming dynasty, who defeated Chunti, the last of the Mongol dynasty, in 1367, and ruled from then until the year 1398. He adopted as emperor the name of Hongwon. The statements in the text may be only common report. See Boulger’sShort History of China, pp. 79–87.45See Montero y Vidal’s account of Joloan affairs during this period, in hisHistoria, i, pp. 475–548, 561–581, ii, pp. 6–77, 575, 576.46Manila was captured by the English October 6 (or, October 5, according to Spanish reckoning), 1762 (not1763). SeeA plain Narrative(London, 1565?), p. 4.47This name is derived from the large bay that makes in on the south side of the island of Mindanao, and on which a set of free-booters reside.—Wilkes.This is the bay of Illana. Illano or Illanum means “people of the lake.” At present they inhabit the south coast of Mindanao from Punta [de] Flechas to Polloc. They are but few in number, but in the past have been bold pirates. They are probably closely connected with the Malanao or Moros dwelling in the valley of Lake Lanao. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, pp. 466, 472.48Pulo Toolyan is Tulaian of the Jolo group of the Sulu Archipelago, with an area of .5 sq. mi.; Tonho may be Tang̃o or Tangu of the Tawi Tawi group; Pilas is the chief island of its group, with an area of 8.2 sq. mi.; Tawi Tawi is the chief island of its group, with an area of 232 sq. mi.; Sumlout is perhaps Simaluc, of the Tawi Tawi group, with an area of 1.3 sq. mi.; Pantutaran is perhaps Pantocunan, of the Joló group, with an area of .6 sq. mi.; Parodasan is perhaps Parangaan of the Tawi Tawi group, or Parang̃an of the Tapul group; Basilan is the chief island of its group, with an area of 478 sq. mi. SeeCensus of Philippines, i.49In 1861 a number of light steam gunboats with steel hulls and of twenty or thirty horsepower were constructed in England for the Spaniards for use against the Moro pirates; and they were very effective in reducing piracy, both in the Lake Lanao district and that of Mindanao and the adjacent islands. See Montero y Vidal’sHistoria, iii, pp. 327, 328, and elsewhere; andHistoria de la piratería, ii.50The sea-gypsies. SeeVOL. XXXVI, p. 199, note 38.51This treaty is as follows:[Preceding the text of the treaty are some Arabic characters.]I, Mohamed, Sultan of Sooloo, for the purpose of encouraging trade with the people of the United States of America, do promise hereby and bind myself that I will afford full protection to all vessels of the United States, and their commanders and crews visiting any of the islands of my dominions, and they shall be allowed to trade on the terms of the most favoured nation, and receive such provisions and necessaries as they may be in want of.2dly. In case of shipwreck or accident to any vessel, I will afford them all the assistance in my power, and protect the persons and property of those wrecked, and afford them all the assistance in my power for its preservation and safe-keeping, and for the return of the officers and crews of said vessels to the Spanish settlements, or wherever they may wish to proceed.3dly. That any one of my subjects who shall do any injury or harm to the commanders or crews belonging to American vessels, shall receive such punishment as his crime merits.In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand and seal, in presence of the datus and chiefs at Soung, island of Sooloo.February 5th, 1842.[Here follows a signature in Arabic characters.]Witnesses:Charles Wilkes,Commanding Exploring Expedition.William L. Hudson,Late Commanding U. S. Ship Peacock.R. R. Waldron,Purser, U. S. Exploring Expedition.52Pang̃utárang is the largest island of the numerous group of the same name belonging to the Sulu Archipelago, and has an area of 42 square miles. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 284.53Cagayan Sulu has an area of 27 square miles. It is located in a group of 31 islands. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 286.54According toCensus of Philippines(i, p. 28, ii, p. 123), the area of the Davao district is 9,707 square miles, and the total population 65,496, of whom 45,272 are uncivilized.55JoséOyangúrenwas a native of Guipúzcoa who went to the Philippines in 1825, leaving Spain for political reasons. He passed several years in the province of Caraga (now Surigao), engaged in business, and in the Calamianes. For a number of years also he occupied the judicial post in Tondo. In 1846 he was deprived of that post because such officials were thereafter appointed in Madrid. On hearing of the cession of the gulf of Davao by the sultan to the Spaniards, he visited that region. On his return he proposed to Governor Clavería to conquer and subdue the entire gulf district, expel or pacify the Moros there, and establish the Christian religion, if he were given supplies and equipment, the command of the district, and exclusive rights of trade therein. A decree issued by Clavería February 27, 1847, gave him the command for ten years and exclusive rights of trade for the first six years. He was also given artillery, muskets, and ammunition, and permission to raise a company. By the beginning of 1849 he was in peaceful possession of the entire coast-line of the gulf and then turned his attention into the interior. The government, however, did not live up to its promises, andOyangúrenafter the death of Clavería was removed from his command. The last years of his life (1852–1859) were spent in the fruitless endeavor to obtain what had been promised him. See Montero y Vidal’sHist. piratería, i, pp. 382–403.56A vessel for the coasting trade in the Philippines. SeeNew Velázquez Dictionary.57The island of Sámal is located in the Gulf of Davao, and has an area of 147 square miles. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 282.58This is the Tagálog word for the upper part of a village. It seems here to mean the eastern mountainous district of Surigao.59Of the tribes of Mindanao,Census of Philippines, i, p. 462, says: “Going eastward in Mindanao and passing by the central lake region, which is inhabited entirely by Lanao Moros, we come to other tribes, which, so far as I have seen, differ in no essential from the Subanon.... Around the headwaters of the Rio Grande de Mindanao they are called Manobo. South of the Rio Grande they are called Tiruray, Bilan, Manobo, and other names. The reason for the use of these different terms is not satisfactorily explained. There are doubtless changes of dialect between them comparable to the changes we find among the Igorots in northern Luzón, but I believe it is hardly justifiable to break up into separate tribes or divisions a population so thoroughly homogeneous as these pagans of Mindanao appear to be.”60Sangil is a local term apparently derived from the volcano of the same name. It is sometimes applied as a collective title for pagan tribes of that region and sometimes to the Maguindanao Moros, who have settled between Craan and Makar. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 476.61The Tagacaolos are closely related to the Bagobos. The word is probably derived from “olo,” meaning “head,” and thus “source” (of a river), the particleka, “toward,” and the prefixtaga. The entire word thus means “people who go up toward the source of the river,” to distinguish them from the “Tagabawa,” people who live in the lowlands,bawameaning “down,” the “region low down.” SeeCensus of Philippines, i, pp. 462, 476.62This promise was fulfilled June 21 of the same year, and the letter is given in theCartas, pp. 93–111.63i. e., The district ruled over by a dato.64The pagatpat (Sonneratia), called also palapad and palatpat, is frequently found along the beaches. It grows to the height of twenty feet or so. Its wood is strong and is used in ordinary construction. The fruit is very sour and a vinegar is made from it. See Blanco, pp. 296, 297.
1Fray Tomás Ortiz took the Augustinian habit at the age of nineteen, at the Valladolid convent in 1687. Within a short time after his arrival in Manila he became lecturer there (1695), and acted as secretary of the province. Soon however he went to China to engage in the mission work of that empire, and upon the expulsion of the missionaries in 1713, he was appointed prior of Manila, and in 1716 provincial. He filled other important posts in the mission work of the islands, and died at Manila in 1742. He composed numerous works in Spanish, Tagálog, and Chinese. See Perez’sCatálogo, pp. 167–173. A fuller account of his life is also given in vol. xxix ofRevista Agustiniana.2The calumpang tree (Sterculia fœtida—Linn.) grows to a great size; its roots branch out half way up the trunk, and are so large that a roof could be laid over them so that they could be used as a dwelling. The fruit of this tree resembles a pomegranate, which divides when ripe into four quarters having certain kernels, from which an oil is extracted which is used for medicine, and which the natives use to anoint the hair. The wood is easy to work but is not very durable. See Delgado’sHistoria, p. 457; Blanco’sFlora, p. 524; andOfficial Handbook of the Philippines, p. 346.3Many instances of ancestor worship by the peoples of the Philippines are recorded in this series. There is no evidence that suggests that the custom was borrowed from the Chinese. It had become the general rule almost in the Philippines to refer many things, the origin of which was unknown, to the Chinese.4This is the anting-anting. See Retana’sAniterías, which gives examples of formulas, most of which are a meaningless conglomeration of words.5A Tagálog word for a sort of earthen vessel. See Noceda and Sanlucar’sVocabulario de la lengua tagala.6The translation of the title-page of theHistoriais as follows: “History of the Philipinas Islands, composed by the reverend father lector, Fray Joaquin Martinez de Zuñiga of the Order of St. Augustine, ex-definitor of his province, calificador of the Holy Office, and regular parish priest of the village of Parañaque. With the necessary licenses. Printed in Sampaloc, by Fray Pedro Argüelles de la Concepcion, Franciscan religious, in the year 1803.”Joaquin Martínez de Zúñiga was one of the most illustrious men of the Augustinian order who ever labored in the Philippines. He was born in Aguilar in Navarra, February 19, 1760, and deciding to embrace the religious life professed in the Augustinian college at Valladolid January 26, 1779. Setting out for the Philippines in 1785, he remained one year in Mexico, before going to them, arriving in Manila, August 3, 1786. In the islands he learned the Tagálog language, and acted as minister-associate in Batangas and Tambobon for four years. In 1790 he was appointed lector [i. e., reader or lecturer], but was soon appointed parish priest of Hagonoy (1791). In 1792 he acted as secretary of the province, and in 1794 and 1797 administered the villages of Calumpit and Pasig respectively. Being invited by General Álava to accompany him on his tour of inspection among the islands, he did so, and theEstadismo(published in Madrid in 1893 by W. E. Retana) is the fruit of that journey. After returning to Manila, he took charge of the parish of Parañaque (1801–1806). In 1806 he was elected provincial of the order. He had also filled the office of definitor in 1794, and was a calificador of the Holy Office. After his provincialate he resumed charge of the ministry of Parañaque which he held until his death (March 7, 1818). TheHistoriahas been translated into English by John Maver and printed in two editions. He is said also to have translated, annotated, and printed the work of Le Gentil, but which Retana (Estadismo, i, pp. xviii, xxix) says cannot now be found. Apropos of this, Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera sends a copy of the title-page of a MS. of this Spanish work which is as follows: “Voyage of M. Le Gentil, to the Philipinas Islands, translated from the French into the Spanish, by the very reverend father lector, Fray Joaquin Martinez de Zuñiga.... The translator adds some notes in which he reveals and refutes many errors of the author.” Pardo de Tavera says that this MS. is unpublished and that its existence is unsuspected and not known even by the Augustinians. See Pérez’sCatáloga, pp. 346–348, and Pardo de Tavera’sBiblioteca Filipina(Washington, 1903), p. 252.7Louis Lapicque, chief of the laboratory of the faculty of Medicine in Paris, was commissioned by the Minister of Public Instruction in 1892 to study the question of the distribution of the Negrito and to collect data concerning that race. He spent the months of March-December 1893 in this study, working in the Andaman Islands, the Mergui Islands in the Bay of Bengal, and the Malay Peninsula, and considering also in his report the inhabitants of other places, especially the Philippines. He brings out the interesting conclusion that the inhabitants of the Andaman Islands are perhaps the purest race in existence, and that they are closely allied to the Negritos of the Philippines. Both being brachycephalic, they are thus differentiated from the African negro, who is dolichocephalic. SeeAnnales de Géographie, v, pp. 407–424. Wm. A. Reed (Negritos of Zambales, p. 34) gives the average of the cephalic index of the nineteen individuals whom he was able to measure as 82 for the males and 86 for the females.8Angola, formerly called Dongo or Ambonde, is located on the west coast of Africa. Its coast was discovered in 1486 by the Spaniards who still own it.9Of the Bontoc Igorot, Albert Ernest Jenks, chief of the Ethnological Survey of the Philippines, says (The Bontoc Igorot, Manila, 1905, p. 14): “He belongs to that extensive stock of primitive people of which the Malay is the most commonly named. I do not believe he has received any of his characteristics, as a group, from either the Chinese or Japanese, though this theory has frequently been presented.”10That the theory of the origin of the Filipino peoples here expressed is false needs no demonstration. The peoples of the Philippines show two stocks—the Malayan and the Negrito. The inhabitants of the Polynesian Islands (using the term in its restricted sense) probably migrated from the East Indies and hence are allied to the modern Malayan peoples, and the same is true of the Huvas of Madagascar, having migrated from the parent stock from which the latter peoples originated. Sec Cust’sModern Languages of East India(London, 1878); andNew International Encyclopædia; Lesson’sLes Polynésiens(Paris, 1880–84); and Ratzel’sHistory of Mankind(English translation, London, 1898).11The San Duisk Islands are the Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands; and the Otayti Islands are the Society Islands, so called from their largest island O-Taiti, Taiti, or Tahiti. The group of the Society Islands, of which Tahiti is chief, is called Windward Islands.12Easter Island, so called because discovered by Roggeveen on Easter of 1772; called also Waihu, Teapi, and by the natives Rapanui. The inhabitants of this island are the last outpost of the Malayo-Polynesian race. It has belonged to Chile since 1888.13The Tagálog word for “house” isbahay, notbalay.14A reference toLa Araucana, a Spanish epic poem written by Alonso de Ercilla y Zuñiga, the first part of which (15 cantos) was published at Madrid, 1569. This is the first work of literary merit known to have been composed upon either American continent. Ercilla y Zuñiga accompanied Felipe II to England on the occasion of his marriage to Mary Tudor. Thence he went to Chile with the army to fight the rebellious Araucanians. He was accused of having plotted an insurrection, and was condemned to death but the sentence was commuted to exile to Callao. He returned to Spain in 1562 and being coldly received wandered through various European countries until 1580 when he died in Madrid poor and forgotten. The continuations of his poem consisting of 37 cantos in all, were published in 1578 and 1590. The complete poem is published in vol. 17 ofAutores españoles(Madrid, 1851). SeeNew International Encyclopædia, andGrande Encyclopédie.15In May, 1874, three canoes containing sixteen savages were driven by gales from the Pelew Islands, and after drifting on the ocean sixty days reached Formosa, distant 1,600 miles; and all but one survived these hardships—a striking example of endurance in both themselves and their craft (Davidson,Formosa, p. 215).16Charles Wilkes was born in New York City, in 1798. He entered the U. S. navy as midshipman in 1818, and sailed in the Mediterranean and Pacific. He became lieutenant in 1826, and was placed in charge of the department of charts and instruments in 1830. In 1838, he was placed in charge of the expedition authorized by Congress in 1836 for the purpose of exploring and surveying the southern ocean. This was the first scientific expedition fitted out by the United States government, and much valuable information resulted from it. Of the record of the expedition (which lasted during the years 1838–1842) consisting of nineteen volumes, Wilkes wrote the six containing the narrative and the volumes on meteorology and hydrography. In 1843 he was made a commander, and a captain in 1855. He served through most of the Civil war on the northern side and was the one who removed the Confederate commissioners Slidell and Mason from the English mail boat “Trent,” November 8, 1861. He was made a commodore in July 1862, retired in June 1864, and created a rear admiral on the retired list, in 1866. His death occurred in 1877. The names of the vessels in his fleet were the sloops of war “Vincennes” and “Peacock,” the brig “Porpoise,” the store-ship “Relief,” and the two tenders, “Sea-Gull,” and “Flying-Fish.” See Introduction to Vol. i. of Wilkes’s narrative, andNew International Encyclopædia.17i.e., The island of Busuang̃a, the largest of the Calamianes group, which has an area of 390 square miles. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 274.18i.e., The island of Ambolón, south of Mindoro, of four square miles. Seeut supra, i, p. 267.19The island of Simara, near Romblón.20“Although Spain had jurisdiction over these islands for more than three centuries, little topographic information had been acquired regarding them, except such as was of a very general character. The coasts were badly mapped, and in many places are now known to have been miles out of position. The coast charts, made from Spanish surveys, are so inaccurate as to be, on the whole, worse than useless to mariners, while of the interior of the larger islands, little was known except what could be seen from the sea.”Census of the Philippines, i, p. 51.21The population is given by theCensusfor 1903 (ii, p. 30) as 743,646.22On my arrival at Singapore, this circumstance was investigated by a court of inquiry. The result showed that Mr. Knox had no knowledge of the Vincennes having been seen; for the officer of the watch had not reported to him the fact.—Wilkes.23The full name of this village is San José de Buenavista. It is the capital of Antique.24The crest of the mountains in Panay is a few miles inland from the west coast. Among the peaks of that range, are the following: Usigan, 4,300 ft.; Agótay, 3,764 ft.; Madiaás, 7,466 ft.; Nangtud, 6,834 ft.; Maymagui, 5,667 ft.; Llorente, 4,466 ft.; Tiguran, 4,900 ft.; and Igbanig, 4,343 ft. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 69.25Wilkes accompanies (p. 349) this description of Caldera fort with a sketch.26There are two islands called Sangboy, one called the north island and the other the south island. They both belong to the Pilas group of the Sulu Archipelago, and are less than one square mile in area. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 283.27Wilkes presents figures of both the whole canoe and a cross section, on p. 353.28For the methods of fishing in the Philippines, seeOfficialHandbook, p. 151. Wilkes also mentions (v, pp. 321, 322) various methods, namely, by weirs, hooks, and seine. The former are made of bamboo stakes in the shallow waters of the lake of Bay where it empties into the Pasig. The nets used in the bay are suspended by the four corners from hoops attached to a crane by which they are lowered into the water. The fishing-boats are little better than rafts and are calledsaraboas.29Evidently at the village of Joló.30On p. 354, Wilkes presents a sketch of houses at Soung—the typical Moro house.31A full-page engraving of the “Mosque in the town of Sooloo” faces page 354 of Wilkes’s narrative.32Chewing the betel-nut and pepper-leaf also produce this effect, and is carried on to a great extent among these islanders.—Wilkes.33Cf. the description of the betel caskets given by Morga,VOL. XVI, p. 99.34The Sultan, on the visit of one of our merchant-vessels, had informed the supercargo that he wished to encourage our trade, and to see the vessels of the United States coming to his port.—Wilkes.35An engraving made from this sketch is given by Wilkes facing p. 358.36Opium is known by its Arabic name “afyun” throughout the Eastern Archipelago. Crawfurd asserts that its moderate use produces no worse results than does the moderate use of wine, spirits, and perhaps smoking. Shortly after American occupation of the Philippines, the necessity for taking some action in regard to the traffic was seen. The Philippine Commission were convinced that the smoking of opium was increasing among the Filipinos. Accordingly a committee was appointed to study the conditions, and restrictions of other Oriental countries in regard to opium. There were then practically no restrictions in regard to the smoking of the drug. On August 1, 1903, there were 190 opium dens in Manila, and no license was required, as they had no authority in law. The vice was mainly restricted to the Chinese. In 1904 a considerable amount of opium was smuggled into the district of Lanao in Mindanao. “Nothing has had a more demoralizing effect upon the Moros and savage peoples than opium, and it will absolutely destroy them if its importation and use is authorized.... It is believed that a license to smoke opium, sufficiently low to escape fraud, should be issued for those hopelessly addicted to the habit, and that exceedingly severe penalties should attach to those who furnish opium to youth or those who are nonsmokers.... It is a poor policy in developing a people to count on the income of legalized vice for a large portion of the revenue, as is done in most eastern colonies.” The importation of opium has shown considerable increase during American occupation. See Crawfurd’sDictionary, pp. 312–314; and the following reports of the Philippine Commission—for 1903, pt. i, p. 63, pt. 2, p. 96; for 1904, pt. 2, pp. 590, 591, pt. 3, p. 545.37Since our return, inquiries have been made by him, which resulted in proving that such was in truth their origin, and that the vessel in which they were shipped was for a long time missing. The identical stones which he saw were a part of a monument that was on its way to Canton.—Wilkes.38Marongas belongs to the Joló group of the Sulu Archipelago, and has an area of .4 square miles. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 284.39The Sulug or Sulus were the dominant people of Joló before their conversion to Mahometanism, and still maintain that position. The bulk of the Moro Sulus is on the island of Joló and the islands immediately south as far as Siassi and Pandami. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, pp. 463, 464.40Orang is the Malay term for man or human being. As used here it would mean “the men,”i. e., “nobles.”41The tripang or sea-slug (Holothuria edulis), which is esteemed as a great delicacy by the Chinese.42Evidently the people called Guimbajanos by the historians of the eighteenth century. From Wilkes’s description, they would appear to be at least partially Negrito.43Banjarmasin is a principality and river on the southern side of Borneo, the word meaning in Javanese “salt or saline garden.” The sovereignty of Banjarmasin is said in olden times to have extended over all of southeastern Borneo. See Crawfurd’sDictionary(pp. 36, 37), where an historical sketch of the principality is given.44The Chinese emperor at this time was Choo Yuen Chang, the founder of the Ming dynasty, who defeated Chunti, the last of the Mongol dynasty, in 1367, and ruled from then until the year 1398. He adopted as emperor the name of Hongwon. The statements in the text may be only common report. See Boulger’sShort History of China, pp. 79–87.45See Montero y Vidal’s account of Joloan affairs during this period, in hisHistoria, i, pp. 475–548, 561–581, ii, pp. 6–77, 575, 576.46Manila was captured by the English October 6 (or, October 5, according to Spanish reckoning), 1762 (not1763). SeeA plain Narrative(London, 1565?), p. 4.47This name is derived from the large bay that makes in on the south side of the island of Mindanao, and on which a set of free-booters reside.—Wilkes.This is the bay of Illana. Illano or Illanum means “people of the lake.” At present they inhabit the south coast of Mindanao from Punta [de] Flechas to Polloc. They are but few in number, but in the past have been bold pirates. They are probably closely connected with the Malanao or Moros dwelling in the valley of Lake Lanao. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, pp. 466, 472.48Pulo Toolyan is Tulaian of the Jolo group of the Sulu Archipelago, with an area of .5 sq. mi.; Tonho may be Tang̃o or Tangu of the Tawi Tawi group; Pilas is the chief island of its group, with an area of 8.2 sq. mi.; Tawi Tawi is the chief island of its group, with an area of 232 sq. mi.; Sumlout is perhaps Simaluc, of the Tawi Tawi group, with an area of 1.3 sq. mi.; Pantutaran is perhaps Pantocunan, of the Joló group, with an area of .6 sq. mi.; Parodasan is perhaps Parangaan of the Tawi Tawi group, or Parang̃an of the Tapul group; Basilan is the chief island of its group, with an area of 478 sq. mi. SeeCensus of Philippines, i.49In 1861 a number of light steam gunboats with steel hulls and of twenty or thirty horsepower were constructed in England for the Spaniards for use against the Moro pirates; and they were very effective in reducing piracy, both in the Lake Lanao district and that of Mindanao and the adjacent islands. See Montero y Vidal’sHistoria, iii, pp. 327, 328, and elsewhere; andHistoria de la piratería, ii.50The sea-gypsies. SeeVOL. XXXVI, p. 199, note 38.51This treaty is as follows:[Preceding the text of the treaty are some Arabic characters.]I, Mohamed, Sultan of Sooloo, for the purpose of encouraging trade with the people of the United States of America, do promise hereby and bind myself that I will afford full protection to all vessels of the United States, and their commanders and crews visiting any of the islands of my dominions, and they shall be allowed to trade on the terms of the most favoured nation, and receive such provisions and necessaries as they may be in want of.2dly. In case of shipwreck or accident to any vessel, I will afford them all the assistance in my power, and protect the persons and property of those wrecked, and afford them all the assistance in my power for its preservation and safe-keeping, and for the return of the officers and crews of said vessels to the Spanish settlements, or wherever they may wish to proceed.3dly. That any one of my subjects who shall do any injury or harm to the commanders or crews belonging to American vessels, shall receive such punishment as his crime merits.In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand and seal, in presence of the datus and chiefs at Soung, island of Sooloo.February 5th, 1842.[Here follows a signature in Arabic characters.]Witnesses:Charles Wilkes,Commanding Exploring Expedition.William L. Hudson,Late Commanding U. S. Ship Peacock.R. R. Waldron,Purser, U. S. Exploring Expedition.52Pang̃utárang is the largest island of the numerous group of the same name belonging to the Sulu Archipelago, and has an area of 42 square miles. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 284.53Cagayan Sulu has an area of 27 square miles. It is located in a group of 31 islands. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 286.54According toCensus of Philippines(i, p. 28, ii, p. 123), the area of the Davao district is 9,707 square miles, and the total population 65,496, of whom 45,272 are uncivilized.55JoséOyangúrenwas a native of Guipúzcoa who went to the Philippines in 1825, leaving Spain for political reasons. He passed several years in the province of Caraga (now Surigao), engaged in business, and in the Calamianes. For a number of years also he occupied the judicial post in Tondo. In 1846 he was deprived of that post because such officials were thereafter appointed in Madrid. On hearing of the cession of the gulf of Davao by the sultan to the Spaniards, he visited that region. On his return he proposed to Governor Clavería to conquer and subdue the entire gulf district, expel or pacify the Moros there, and establish the Christian religion, if he were given supplies and equipment, the command of the district, and exclusive rights of trade therein. A decree issued by Clavería February 27, 1847, gave him the command for ten years and exclusive rights of trade for the first six years. He was also given artillery, muskets, and ammunition, and permission to raise a company. By the beginning of 1849 he was in peaceful possession of the entire coast-line of the gulf and then turned his attention into the interior. The government, however, did not live up to its promises, andOyangúrenafter the death of Clavería was removed from his command. The last years of his life (1852–1859) were spent in the fruitless endeavor to obtain what had been promised him. See Montero y Vidal’sHist. piratería, i, pp. 382–403.56A vessel for the coasting trade in the Philippines. SeeNew Velázquez Dictionary.57The island of Sámal is located in the Gulf of Davao, and has an area of 147 square miles. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 282.58This is the Tagálog word for the upper part of a village. It seems here to mean the eastern mountainous district of Surigao.59Of the tribes of Mindanao,Census of Philippines, i, p. 462, says: “Going eastward in Mindanao and passing by the central lake region, which is inhabited entirely by Lanao Moros, we come to other tribes, which, so far as I have seen, differ in no essential from the Subanon.... Around the headwaters of the Rio Grande de Mindanao they are called Manobo. South of the Rio Grande they are called Tiruray, Bilan, Manobo, and other names. The reason for the use of these different terms is not satisfactorily explained. There are doubtless changes of dialect between them comparable to the changes we find among the Igorots in northern Luzón, but I believe it is hardly justifiable to break up into separate tribes or divisions a population so thoroughly homogeneous as these pagans of Mindanao appear to be.”60Sangil is a local term apparently derived from the volcano of the same name. It is sometimes applied as a collective title for pagan tribes of that region and sometimes to the Maguindanao Moros, who have settled between Craan and Makar. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 476.61The Tagacaolos are closely related to the Bagobos. The word is probably derived from “olo,” meaning “head,” and thus “source” (of a river), the particleka, “toward,” and the prefixtaga. The entire word thus means “people who go up toward the source of the river,” to distinguish them from the “Tagabawa,” people who live in the lowlands,bawameaning “down,” the “region low down.” SeeCensus of Philippines, i, pp. 462, 476.62This promise was fulfilled June 21 of the same year, and the letter is given in theCartas, pp. 93–111.63i. e., The district ruled over by a dato.64The pagatpat (Sonneratia), called also palapad and palatpat, is frequently found along the beaches. It grows to the height of twenty feet or so. Its wood is strong and is used in ordinary construction. The fruit is very sour and a vinegar is made from it. See Blanco, pp. 296, 297.
1Fray Tomás Ortiz took the Augustinian habit at the age of nineteen, at the Valladolid convent in 1687. Within a short time after his arrival in Manila he became lecturer there (1695), and acted as secretary of the province. Soon however he went to China to engage in the mission work of that empire, and upon the expulsion of the missionaries in 1713, he was appointed prior of Manila, and in 1716 provincial. He filled other important posts in the mission work of the islands, and died at Manila in 1742. He composed numerous works in Spanish, Tagálog, and Chinese. See Perez’sCatálogo, pp. 167–173. A fuller account of his life is also given in vol. xxix ofRevista Agustiniana.2The calumpang tree (Sterculia fœtida—Linn.) grows to a great size; its roots branch out half way up the trunk, and are so large that a roof could be laid over them so that they could be used as a dwelling. The fruit of this tree resembles a pomegranate, which divides when ripe into four quarters having certain kernels, from which an oil is extracted which is used for medicine, and which the natives use to anoint the hair. The wood is easy to work but is not very durable. See Delgado’sHistoria, p. 457; Blanco’sFlora, p. 524; andOfficial Handbook of the Philippines, p. 346.3Many instances of ancestor worship by the peoples of the Philippines are recorded in this series. There is no evidence that suggests that the custom was borrowed from the Chinese. It had become the general rule almost in the Philippines to refer many things, the origin of which was unknown, to the Chinese.4This is the anting-anting. See Retana’sAniterías, which gives examples of formulas, most of which are a meaningless conglomeration of words.5A Tagálog word for a sort of earthen vessel. See Noceda and Sanlucar’sVocabulario de la lengua tagala.6The translation of the title-page of theHistoriais as follows: “History of the Philipinas Islands, composed by the reverend father lector, Fray Joaquin Martinez de Zuñiga of the Order of St. Augustine, ex-definitor of his province, calificador of the Holy Office, and regular parish priest of the village of Parañaque. With the necessary licenses. Printed in Sampaloc, by Fray Pedro Argüelles de la Concepcion, Franciscan religious, in the year 1803.”Joaquin Martínez de Zúñiga was one of the most illustrious men of the Augustinian order who ever labored in the Philippines. He was born in Aguilar in Navarra, February 19, 1760, and deciding to embrace the religious life professed in the Augustinian college at Valladolid January 26, 1779. Setting out for the Philippines in 1785, he remained one year in Mexico, before going to them, arriving in Manila, August 3, 1786. In the islands he learned the Tagálog language, and acted as minister-associate in Batangas and Tambobon for four years. In 1790 he was appointed lector [i. e., reader or lecturer], but was soon appointed parish priest of Hagonoy (1791). In 1792 he acted as secretary of the province, and in 1794 and 1797 administered the villages of Calumpit and Pasig respectively. Being invited by General Álava to accompany him on his tour of inspection among the islands, he did so, and theEstadismo(published in Madrid in 1893 by W. E. Retana) is the fruit of that journey. After returning to Manila, he took charge of the parish of Parañaque (1801–1806). In 1806 he was elected provincial of the order. He had also filled the office of definitor in 1794, and was a calificador of the Holy Office. After his provincialate he resumed charge of the ministry of Parañaque which he held until his death (March 7, 1818). TheHistoriahas been translated into English by John Maver and printed in two editions. He is said also to have translated, annotated, and printed the work of Le Gentil, but which Retana (Estadismo, i, pp. xviii, xxix) says cannot now be found. Apropos of this, Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera sends a copy of the title-page of a MS. of this Spanish work which is as follows: “Voyage of M. Le Gentil, to the Philipinas Islands, translated from the French into the Spanish, by the very reverend father lector, Fray Joaquin Martinez de Zuñiga.... The translator adds some notes in which he reveals and refutes many errors of the author.” Pardo de Tavera says that this MS. is unpublished and that its existence is unsuspected and not known even by the Augustinians. See Pérez’sCatáloga, pp. 346–348, and Pardo de Tavera’sBiblioteca Filipina(Washington, 1903), p. 252.7Louis Lapicque, chief of the laboratory of the faculty of Medicine in Paris, was commissioned by the Minister of Public Instruction in 1892 to study the question of the distribution of the Negrito and to collect data concerning that race. He spent the months of March-December 1893 in this study, working in the Andaman Islands, the Mergui Islands in the Bay of Bengal, and the Malay Peninsula, and considering also in his report the inhabitants of other places, especially the Philippines. He brings out the interesting conclusion that the inhabitants of the Andaman Islands are perhaps the purest race in existence, and that they are closely allied to the Negritos of the Philippines. Both being brachycephalic, they are thus differentiated from the African negro, who is dolichocephalic. SeeAnnales de Géographie, v, pp. 407–424. Wm. A. Reed (Negritos of Zambales, p. 34) gives the average of the cephalic index of the nineteen individuals whom he was able to measure as 82 for the males and 86 for the females.8Angola, formerly called Dongo or Ambonde, is located on the west coast of Africa. Its coast was discovered in 1486 by the Spaniards who still own it.9Of the Bontoc Igorot, Albert Ernest Jenks, chief of the Ethnological Survey of the Philippines, says (The Bontoc Igorot, Manila, 1905, p. 14): “He belongs to that extensive stock of primitive people of which the Malay is the most commonly named. I do not believe he has received any of his characteristics, as a group, from either the Chinese or Japanese, though this theory has frequently been presented.”10That the theory of the origin of the Filipino peoples here expressed is false needs no demonstration. The peoples of the Philippines show two stocks—the Malayan and the Negrito. The inhabitants of the Polynesian Islands (using the term in its restricted sense) probably migrated from the East Indies and hence are allied to the modern Malayan peoples, and the same is true of the Huvas of Madagascar, having migrated from the parent stock from which the latter peoples originated. Sec Cust’sModern Languages of East India(London, 1878); andNew International Encyclopædia; Lesson’sLes Polynésiens(Paris, 1880–84); and Ratzel’sHistory of Mankind(English translation, London, 1898).11The San Duisk Islands are the Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands; and the Otayti Islands are the Society Islands, so called from their largest island O-Taiti, Taiti, or Tahiti. The group of the Society Islands, of which Tahiti is chief, is called Windward Islands.12Easter Island, so called because discovered by Roggeveen on Easter of 1772; called also Waihu, Teapi, and by the natives Rapanui. The inhabitants of this island are the last outpost of the Malayo-Polynesian race. It has belonged to Chile since 1888.13The Tagálog word for “house” isbahay, notbalay.14A reference toLa Araucana, a Spanish epic poem written by Alonso de Ercilla y Zuñiga, the first part of which (15 cantos) was published at Madrid, 1569. This is the first work of literary merit known to have been composed upon either American continent. Ercilla y Zuñiga accompanied Felipe II to England on the occasion of his marriage to Mary Tudor. Thence he went to Chile with the army to fight the rebellious Araucanians. He was accused of having plotted an insurrection, and was condemned to death but the sentence was commuted to exile to Callao. He returned to Spain in 1562 and being coldly received wandered through various European countries until 1580 when he died in Madrid poor and forgotten. The continuations of his poem consisting of 37 cantos in all, were published in 1578 and 1590. The complete poem is published in vol. 17 ofAutores españoles(Madrid, 1851). SeeNew International Encyclopædia, andGrande Encyclopédie.15In May, 1874, three canoes containing sixteen savages were driven by gales from the Pelew Islands, and after drifting on the ocean sixty days reached Formosa, distant 1,600 miles; and all but one survived these hardships—a striking example of endurance in both themselves and their craft (Davidson,Formosa, p. 215).16Charles Wilkes was born in New York City, in 1798. He entered the U. S. navy as midshipman in 1818, and sailed in the Mediterranean and Pacific. He became lieutenant in 1826, and was placed in charge of the department of charts and instruments in 1830. In 1838, he was placed in charge of the expedition authorized by Congress in 1836 for the purpose of exploring and surveying the southern ocean. This was the first scientific expedition fitted out by the United States government, and much valuable information resulted from it. Of the record of the expedition (which lasted during the years 1838–1842) consisting of nineteen volumes, Wilkes wrote the six containing the narrative and the volumes on meteorology and hydrography. In 1843 he was made a commander, and a captain in 1855. He served through most of the Civil war on the northern side and was the one who removed the Confederate commissioners Slidell and Mason from the English mail boat “Trent,” November 8, 1861. He was made a commodore in July 1862, retired in June 1864, and created a rear admiral on the retired list, in 1866. His death occurred in 1877. The names of the vessels in his fleet were the sloops of war “Vincennes” and “Peacock,” the brig “Porpoise,” the store-ship “Relief,” and the two tenders, “Sea-Gull,” and “Flying-Fish.” See Introduction to Vol. i. of Wilkes’s narrative, andNew International Encyclopædia.17i.e., The island of Busuang̃a, the largest of the Calamianes group, which has an area of 390 square miles. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 274.18i.e., The island of Ambolón, south of Mindoro, of four square miles. Seeut supra, i, p. 267.19The island of Simara, near Romblón.20“Although Spain had jurisdiction over these islands for more than three centuries, little topographic information had been acquired regarding them, except such as was of a very general character. The coasts were badly mapped, and in many places are now known to have been miles out of position. The coast charts, made from Spanish surveys, are so inaccurate as to be, on the whole, worse than useless to mariners, while of the interior of the larger islands, little was known except what could be seen from the sea.”Census of the Philippines, i, p. 51.21The population is given by theCensusfor 1903 (ii, p. 30) as 743,646.22On my arrival at Singapore, this circumstance was investigated by a court of inquiry. The result showed that Mr. Knox had no knowledge of the Vincennes having been seen; for the officer of the watch had not reported to him the fact.—Wilkes.23The full name of this village is San José de Buenavista. It is the capital of Antique.24The crest of the mountains in Panay is a few miles inland from the west coast. Among the peaks of that range, are the following: Usigan, 4,300 ft.; Agótay, 3,764 ft.; Madiaás, 7,466 ft.; Nangtud, 6,834 ft.; Maymagui, 5,667 ft.; Llorente, 4,466 ft.; Tiguran, 4,900 ft.; and Igbanig, 4,343 ft. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 69.25Wilkes accompanies (p. 349) this description of Caldera fort with a sketch.26There are two islands called Sangboy, one called the north island and the other the south island. They both belong to the Pilas group of the Sulu Archipelago, and are less than one square mile in area. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 283.27Wilkes presents figures of both the whole canoe and a cross section, on p. 353.28For the methods of fishing in the Philippines, seeOfficialHandbook, p. 151. Wilkes also mentions (v, pp. 321, 322) various methods, namely, by weirs, hooks, and seine. The former are made of bamboo stakes in the shallow waters of the lake of Bay where it empties into the Pasig. The nets used in the bay are suspended by the four corners from hoops attached to a crane by which they are lowered into the water. The fishing-boats are little better than rafts and are calledsaraboas.29Evidently at the village of Joló.30On p. 354, Wilkes presents a sketch of houses at Soung—the typical Moro house.31A full-page engraving of the “Mosque in the town of Sooloo” faces page 354 of Wilkes’s narrative.32Chewing the betel-nut and pepper-leaf also produce this effect, and is carried on to a great extent among these islanders.—Wilkes.33Cf. the description of the betel caskets given by Morga,VOL. XVI, p. 99.34The Sultan, on the visit of one of our merchant-vessels, had informed the supercargo that he wished to encourage our trade, and to see the vessels of the United States coming to his port.—Wilkes.35An engraving made from this sketch is given by Wilkes facing p. 358.36Opium is known by its Arabic name “afyun” throughout the Eastern Archipelago. Crawfurd asserts that its moderate use produces no worse results than does the moderate use of wine, spirits, and perhaps smoking. Shortly after American occupation of the Philippines, the necessity for taking some action in regard to the traffic was seen. The Philippine Commission were convinced that the smoking of opium was increasing among the Filipinos. Accordingly a committee was appointed to study the conditions, and restrictions of other Oriental countries in regard to opium. There were then practically no restrictions in regard to the smoking of the drug. On August 1, 1903, there were 190 opium dens in Manila, and no license was required, as they had no authority in law. The vice was mainly restricted to the Chinese. In 1904 a considerable amount of opium was smuggled into the district of Lanao in Mindanao. “Nothing has had a more demoralizing effect upon the Moros and savage peoples than opium, and it will absolutely destroy them if its importation and use is authorized.... It is believed that a license to smoke opium, sufficiently low to escape fraud, should be issued for those hopelessly addicted to the habit, and that exceedingly severe penalties should attach to those who furnish opium to youth or those who are nonsmokers.... It is a poor policy in developing a people to count on the income of legalized vice for a large portion of the revenue, as is done in most eastern colonies.” The importation of opium has shown considerable increase during American occupation. See Crawfurd’sDictionary, pp. 312–314; and the following reports of the Philippine Commission—for 1903, pt. i, p. 63, pt. 2, p. 96; for 1904, pt. 2, pp. 590, 591, pt. 3, p. 545.37Since our return, inquiries have been made by him, which resulted in proving that such was in truth their origin, and that the vessel in which they were shipped was for a long time missing. The identical stones which he saw were a part of a monument that was on its way to Canton.—Wilkes.38Marongas belongs to the Joló group of the Sulu Archipelago, and has an area of .4 square miles. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 284.39The Sulug or Sulus were the dominant people of Joló before their conversion to Mahometanism, and still maintain that position. The bulk of the Moro Sulus is on the island of Joló and the islands immediately south as far as Siassi and Pandami. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, pp. 463, 464.40Orang is the Malay term for man or human being. As used here it would mean “the men,”i. e., “nobles.”41The tripang or sea-slug (Holothuria edulis), which is esteemed as a great delicacy by the Chinese.42Evidently the people called Guimbajanos by the historians of the eighteenth century. From Wilkes’s description, they would appear to be at least partially Negrito.43Banjarmasin is a principality and river on the southern side of Borneo, the word meaning in Javanese “salt or saline garden.” The sovereignty of Banjarmasin is said in olden times to have extended over all of southeastern Borneo. See Crawfurd’sDictionary(pp. 36, 37), where an historical sketch of the principality is given.44The Chinese emperor at this time was Choo Yuen Chang, the founder of the Ming dynasty, who defeated Chunti, the last of the Mongol dynasty, in 1367, and ruled from then until the year 1398. He adopted as emperor the name of Hongwon. The statements in the text may be only common report. See Boulger’sShort History of China, pp. 79–87.45See Montero y Vidal’s account of Joloan affairs during this period, in hisHistoria, i, pp. 475–548, 561–581, ii, pp. 6–77, 575, 576.46Manila was captured by the English October 6 (or, October 5, according to Spanish reckoning), 1762 (not1763). SeeA plain Narrative(London, 1565?), p. 4.47This name is derived from the large bay that makes in on the south side of the island of Mindanao, and on which a set of free-booters reside.—Wilkes.This is the bay of Illana. Illano or Illanum means “people of the lake.” At present they inhabit the south coast of Mindanao from Punta [de] Flechas to Polloc. They are but few in number, but in the past have been bold pirates. They are probably closely connected with the Malanao or Moros dwelling in the valley of Lake Lanao. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, pp. 466, 472.48Pulo Toolyan is Tulaian of the Jolo group of the Sulu Archipelago, with an area of .5 sq. mi.; Tonho may be Tang̃o or Tangu of the Tawi Tawi group; Pilas is the chief island of its group, with an area of 8.2 sq. mi.; Tawi Tawi is the chief island of its group, with an area of 232 sq. mi.; Sumlout is perhaps Simaluc, of the Tawi Tawi group, with an area of 1.3 sq. mi.; Pantutaran is perhaps Pantocunan, of the Joló group, with an area of .6 sq. mi.; Parodasan is perhaps Parangaan of the Tawi Tawi group, or Parang̃an of the Tapul group; Basilan is the chief island of its group, with an area of 478 sq. mi. SeeCensus of Philippines, i.49In 1861 a number of light steam gunboats with steel hulls and of twenty or thirty horsepower were constructed in England for the Spaniards for use against the Moro pirates; and they were very effective in reducing piracy, both in the Lake Lanao district and that of Mindanao and the adjacent islands. See Montero y Vidal’sHistoria, iii, pp. 327, 328, and elsewhere; andHistoria de la piratería, ii.50The sea-gypsies. SeeVOL. XXXVI, p. 199, note 38.51This treaty is as follows:[Preceding the text of the treaty are some Arabic characters.]I, Mohamed, Sultan of Sooloo, for the purpose of encouraging trade with the people of the United States of America, do promise hereby and bind myself that I will afford full protection to all vessels of the United States, and their commanders and crews visiting any of the islands of my dominions, and they shall be allowed to trade on the terms of the most favoured nation, and receive such provisions and necessaries as they may be in want of.2dly. In case of shipwreck or accident to any vessel, I will afford them all the assistance in my power, and protect the persons and property of those wrecked, and afford them all the assistance in my power for its preservation and safe-keeping, and for the return of the officers and crews of said vessels to the Spanish settlements, or wherever they may wish to proceed.3dly. That any one of my subjects who shall do any injury or harm to the commanders or crews belonging to American vessels, shall receive such punishment as his crime merits.In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand and seal, in presence of the datus and chiefs at Soung, island of Sooloo.February 5th, 1842.[Here follows a signature in Arabic characters.]Witnesses:Charles Wilkes,Commanding Exploring Expedition.William L. Hudson,Late Commanding U. S. Ship Peacock.R. R. Waldron,Purser, U. S. Exploring Expedition.52Pang̃utárang is the largest island of the numerous group of the same name belonging to the Sulu Archipelago, and has an area of 42 square miles. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 284.53Cagayan Sulu has an area of 27 square miles. It is located in a group of 31 islands. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 286.54According toCensus of Philippines(i, p. 28, ii, p. 123), the area of the Davao district is 9,707 square miles, and the total population 65,496, of whom 45,272 are uncivilized.55JoséOyangúrenwas a native of Guipúzcoa who went to the Philippines in 1825, leaving Spain for political reasons. He passed several years in the province of Caraga (now Surigao), engaged in business, and in the Calamianes. For a number of years also he occupied the judicial post in Tondo. In 1846 he was deprived of that post because such officials were thereafter appointed in Madrid. On hearing of the cession of the gulf of Davao by the sultan to the Spaniards, he visited that region. On his return he proposed to Governor Clavería to conquer and subdue the entire gulf district, expel or pacify the Moros there, and establish the Christian religion, if he were given supplies and equipment, the command of the district, and exclusive rights of trade therein. A decree issued by Clavería February 27, 1847, gave him the command for ten years and exclusive rights of trade for the first six years. He was also given artillery, muskets, and ammunition, and permission to raise a company. By the beginning of 1849 he was in peaceful possession of the entire coast-line of the gulf and then turned his attention into the interior. The government, however, did not live up to its promises, andOyangúrenafter the death of Clavería was removed from his command. The last years of his life (1852–1859) were spent in the fruitless endeavor to obtain what had been promised him. See Montero y Vidal’sHist. piratería, i, pp. 382–403.56A vessel for the coasting trade in the Philippines. SeeNew Velázquez Dictionary.57The island of Sámal is located in the Gulf of Davao, and has an area of 147 square miles. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 282.58This is the Tagálog word for the upper part of a village. It seems here to mean the eastern mountainous district of Surigao.59Of the tribes of Mindanao,Census of Philippines, i, p. 462, says: “Going eastward in Mindanao and passing by the central lake region, which is inhabited entirely by Lanao Moros, we come to other tribes, which, so far as I have seen, differ in no essential from the Subanon.... Around the headwaters of the Rio Grande de Mindanao they are called Manobo. South of the Rio Grande they are called Tiruray, Bilan, Manobo, and other names. The reason for the use of these different terms is not satisfactorily explained. There are doubtless changes of dialect between them comparable to the changes we find among the Igorots in northern Luzón, but I believe it is hardly justifiable to break up into separate tribes or divisions a population so thoroughly homogeneous as these pagans of Mindanao appear to be.”60Sangil is a local term apparently derived from the volcano of the same name. It is sometimes applied as a collective title for pagan tribes of that region and sometimes to the Maguindanao Moros, who have settled between Craan and Makar. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 476.61The Tagacaolos are closely related to the Bagobos. The word is probably derived from “olo,” meaning “head,” and thus “source” (of a river), the particleka, “toward,” and the prefixtaga. The entire word thus means “people who go up toward the source of the river,” to distinguish them from the “Tagabawa,” people who live in the lowlands,bawameaning “down,” the “region low down.” SeeCensus of Philippines, i, pp. 462, 476.62This promise was fulfilled June 21 of the same year, and the letter is given in theCartas, pp. 93–111.63i. e., The district ruled over by a dato.64The pagatpat (Sonneratia), called also palapad and palatpat, is frequently found along the beaches. It grows to the height of twenty feet or so. Its wood is strong and is used in ordinary construction. The fruit is very sour and a vinegar is made from it. See Blanco, pp. 296, 297.
1Fray Tomás Ortiz took the Augustinian habit at the age of nineteen, at the Valladolid convent in 1687. Within a short time after his arrival in Manila he became lecturer there (1695), and acted as secretary of the province. Soon however he went to China to engage in the mission work of that empire, and upon the expulsion of the missionaries in 1713, he was appointed prior of Manila, and in 1716 provincial. He filled other important posts in the mission work of the islands, and died at Manila in 1742. He composed numerous works in Spanish, Tagálog, and Chinese. See Perez’sCatálogo, pp. 167–173. A fuller account of his life is also given in vol. xxix ofRevista Agustiniana.
2The calumpang tree (Sterculia fœtida—Linn.) grows to a great size; its roots branch out half way up the trunk, and are so large that a roof could be laid over them so that they could be used as a dwelling. The fruit of this tree resembles a pomegranate, which divides when ripe into four quarters having certain kernels, from which an oil is extracted which is used for medicine, and which the natives use to anoint the hair. The wood is easy to work but is not very durable. See Delgado’sHistoria, p. 457; Blanco’sFlora, p. 524; andOfficial Handbook of the Philippines, p. 346.
3Many instances of ancestor worship by the peoples of the Philippines are recorded in this series. There is no evidence that suggests that the custom was borrowed from the Chinese. It had become the general rule almost in the Philippines to refer many things, the origin of which was unknown, to the Chinese.
4This is the anting-anting. See Retana’sAniterías, which gives examples of formulas, most of which are a meaningless conglomeration of words.
5A Tagálog word for a sort of earthen vessel. See Noceda and Sanlucar’sVocabulario de la lengua tagala.
6The translation of the title-page of theHistoriais as follows: “History of the Philipinas Islands, composed by the reverend father lector, Fray Joaquin Martinez de Zuñiga of the Order of St. Augustine, ex-definitor of his province, calificador of the Holy Office, and regular parish priest of the village of Parañaque. With the necessary licenses. Printed in Sampaloc, by Fray Pedro Argüelles de la Concepcion, Franciscan religious, in the year 1803.”
Joaquin Martínez de Zúñiga was one of the most illustrious men of the Augustinian order who ever labored in the Philippines. He was born in Aguilar in Navarra, February 19, 1760, and deciding to embrace the religious life professed in the Augustinian college at Valladolid January 26, 1779. Setting out for the Philippines in 1785, he remained one year in Mexico, before going to them, arriving in Manila, August 3, 1786. In the islands he learned the Tagálog language, and acted as minister-associate in Batangas and Tambobon for four years. In 1790 he was appointed lector [i. e., reader or lecturer], but was soon appointed parish priest of Hagonoy (1791). In 1792 he acted as secretary of the province, and in 1794 and 1797 administered the villages of Calumpit and Pasig respectively. Being invited by General Álava to accompany him on his tour of inspection among the islands, he did so, and theEstadismo(published in Madrid in 1893 by W. E. Retana) is the fruit of that journey. After returning to Manila, he took charge of the parish of Parañaque (1801–1806). In 1806 he was elected provincial of the order. He had also filled the office of definitor in 1794, and was a calificador of the Holy Office. After his provincialate he resumed charge of the ministry of Parañaque which he held until his death (March 7, 1818). TheHistoriahas been translated into English by John Maver and printed in two editions. He is said also to have translated, annotated, and printed the work of Le Gentil, but which Retana (Estadismo, i, pp. xviii, xxix) says cannot now be found. Apropos of this, Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera sends a copy of the title-page of a MS. of this Spanish work which is as follows: “Voyage of M. Le Gentil, to the Philipinas Islands, translated from the French into the Spanish, by the very reverend father lector, Fray Joaquin Martinez de Zuñiga.... The translator adds some notes in which he reveals and refutes many errors of the author.” Pardo de Tavera says that this MS. is unpublished and that its existence is unsuspected and not known even by the Augustinians. See Pérez’sCatáloga, pp. 346–348, and Pardo de Tavera’sBiblioteca Filipina(Washington, 1903), p. 252.
7Louis Lapicque, chief of the laboratory of the faculty of Medicine in Paris, was commissioned by the Minister of Public Instruction in 1892 to study the question of the distribution of the Negrito and to collect data concerning that race. He spent the months of March-December 1893 in this study, working in the Andaman Islands, the Mergui Islands in the Bay of Bengal, and the Malay Peninsula, and considering also in his report the inhabitants of other places, especially the Philippines. He brings out the interesting conclusion that the inhabitants of the Andaman Islands are perhaps the purest race in existence, and that they are closely allied to the Negritos of the Philippines. Both being brachycephalic, they are thus differentiated from the African negro, who is dolichocephalic. SeeAnnales de Géographie, v, pp. 407–424. Wm. A. Reed (Negritos of Zambales, p. 34) gives the average of the cephalic index of the nineteen individuals whom he was able to measure as 82 for the males and 86 for the females.
8Angola, formerly called Dongo or Ambonde, is located on the west coast of Africa. Its coast was discovered in 1486 by the Spaniards who still own it.
9Of the Bontoc Igorot, Albert Ernest Jenks, chief of the Ethnological Survey of the Philippines, says (The Bontoc Igorot, Manila, 1905, p. 14): “He belongs to that extensive stock of primitive people of which the Malay is the most commonly named. I do not believe he has received any of his characteristics, as a group, from either the Chinese or Japanese, though this theory has frequently been presented.”
10That the theory of the origin of the Filipino peoples here expressed is false needs no demonstration. The peoples of the Philippines show two stocks—the Malayan and the Negrito. The inhabitants of the Polynesian Islands (using the term in its restricted sense) probably migrated from the East Indies and hence are allied to the modern Malayan peoples, and the same is true of the Huvas of Madagascar, having migrated from the parent stock from which the latter peoples originated. Sec Cust’sModern Languages of East India(London, 1878); andNew International Encyclopædia; Lesson’sLes Polynésiens(Paris, 1880–84); and Ratzel’sHistory of Mankind(English translation, London, 1898).
11The San Duisk Islands are the Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands; and the Otayti Islands are the Society Islands, so called from their largest island O-Taiti, Taiti, or Tahiti. The group of the Society Islands, of which Tahiti is chief, is called Windward Islands.
12Easter Island, so called because discovered by Roggeveen on Easter of 1772; called also Waihu, Teapi, and by the natives Rapanui. The inhabitants of this island are the last outpost of the Malayo-Polynesian race. It has belonged to Chile since 1888.
13The Tagálog word for “house” isbahay, notbalay.
14A reference toLa Araucana, a Spanish epic poem written by Alonso de Ercilla y Zuñiga, the first part of which (15 cantos) was published at Madrid, 1569. This is the first work of literary merit known to have been composed upon either American continent. Ercilla y Zuñiga accompanied Felipe II to England on the occasion of his marriage to Mary Tudor. Thence he went to Chile with the army to fight the rebellious Araucanians. He was accused of having plotted an insurrection, and was condemned to death but the sentence was commuted to exile to Callao. He returned to Spain in 1562 and being coldly received wandered through various European countries until 1580 when he died in Madrid poor and forgotten. The continuations of his poem consisting of 37 cantos in all, were published in 1578 and 1590. The complete poem is published in vol. 17 ofAutores españoles(Madrid, 1851). SeeNew International Encyclopædia, andGrande Encyclopédie.
15In May, 1874, three canoes containing sixteen savages were driven by gales from the Pelew Islands, and after drifting on the ocean sixty days reached Formosa, distant 1,600 miles; and all but one survived these hardships—a striking example of endurance in both themselves and their craft (Davidson,Formosa, p. 215).
16Charles Wilkes was born in New York City, in 1798. He entered the U. S. navy as midshipman in 1818, and sailed in the Mediterranean and Pacific. He became lieutenant in 1826, and was placed in charge of the department of charts and instruments in 1830. In 1838, he was placed in charge of the expedition authorized by Congress in 1836 for the purpose of exploring and surveying the southern ocean. This was the first scientific expedition fitted out by the United States government, and much valuable information resulted from it. Of the record of the expedition (which lasted during the years 1838–1842) consisting of nineteen volumes, Wilkes wrote the six containing the narrative and the volumes on meteorology and hydrography. In 1843 he was made a commander, and a captain in 1855. He served through most of the Civil war on the northern side and was the one who removed the Confederate commissioners Slidell and Mason from the English mail boat “Trent,” November 8, 1861. He was made a commodore in July 1862, retired in June 1864, and created a rear admiral on the retired list, in 1866. His death occurred in 1877. The names of the vessels in his fleet were the sloops of war “Vincennes” and “Peacock,” the brig “Porpoise,” the store-ship “Relief,” and the two tenders, “Sea-Gull,” and “Flying-Fish.” See Introduction to Vol. i. of Wilkes’s narrative, andNew International Encyclopædia.
17i.e., The island of Busuang̃a, the largest of the Calamianes group, which has an area of 390 square miles. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 274.
18i.e., The island of Ambolón, south of Mindoro, of four square miles. Seeut supra, i, p. 267.
19The island of Simara, near Romblón.
20“Although Spain had jurisdiction over these islands for more than three centuries, little topographic information had been acquired regarding them, except such as was of a very general character. The coasts were badly mapped, and in many places are now known to have been miles out of position. The coast charts, made from Spanish surveys, are so inaccurate as to be, on the whole, worse than useless to mariners, while of the interior of the larger islands, little was known except what could be seen from the sea.”Census of the Philippines, i, p. 51.
21The population is given by theCensusfor 1903 (ii, p. 30) as 743,646.
22On my arrival at Singapore, this circumstance was investigated by a court of inquiry. The result showed that Mr. Knox had no knowledge of the Vincennes having been seen; for the officer of the watch had not reported to him the fact.—Wilkes.
23The full name of this village is San José de Buenavista. It is the capital of Antique.
24The crest of the mountains in Panay is a few miles inland from the west coast. Among the peaks of that range, are the following: Usigan, 4,300 ft.; Agótay, 3,764 ft.; Madiaás, 7,466 ft.; Nangtud, 6,834 ft.; Maymagui, 5,667 ft.; Llorente, 4,466 ft.; Tiguran, 4,900 ft.; and Igbanig, 4,343 ft. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 69.
25Wilkes accompanies (p. 349) this description of Caldera fort with a sketch.
26There are two islands called Sangboy, one called the north island and the other the south island. They both belong to the Pilas group of the Sulu Archipelago, and are less than one square mile in area. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 283.
27Wilkes presents figures of both the whole canoe and a cross section, on p. 353.
28For the methods of fishing in the Philippines, seeOfficialHandbook, p. 151. Wilkes also mentions (v, pp. 321, 322) various methods, namely, by weirs, hooks, and seine. The former are made of bamboo stakes in the shallow waters of the lake of Bay where it empties into the Pasig. The nets used in the bay are suspended by the four corners from hoops attached to a crane by which they are lowered into the water. The fishing-boats are little better than rafts and are calledsaraboas.
29Evidently at the village of Joló.
30On p. 354, Wilkes presents a sketch of houses at Soung—the typical Moro house.
31A full-page engraving of the “Mosque in the town of Sooloo” faces page 354 of Wilkes’s narrative.
32Chewing the betel-nut and pepper-leaf also produce this effect, and is carried on to a great extent among these islanders.—Wilkes.
33Cf. the description of the betel caskets given by Morga,VOL. XVI, p. 99.
34The Sultan, on the visit of one of our merchant-vessels, had informed the supercargo that he wished to encourage our trade, and to see the vessels of the United States coming to his port.—Wilkes.
35An engraving made from this sketch is given by Wilkes facing p. 358.
36Opium is known by its Arabic name “afyun” throughout the Eastern Archipelago. Crawfurd asserts that its moderate use produces no worse results than does the moderate use of wine, spirits, and perhaps smoking. Shortly after American occupation of the Philippines, the necessity for taking some action in regard to the traffic was seen. The Philippine Commission were convinced that the smoking of opium was increasing among the Filipinos. Accordingly a committee was appointed to study the conditions, and restrictions of other Oriental countries in regard to opium. There were then practically no restrictions in regard to the smoking of the drug. On August 1, 1903, there were 190 opium dens in Manila, and no license was required, as they had no authority in law. The vice was mainly restricted to the Chinese. In 1904 a considerable amount of opium was smuggled into the district of Lanao in Mindanao. “Nothing has had a more demoralizing effect upon the Moros and savage peoples than opium, and it will absolutely destroy them if its importation and use is authorized.... It is believed that a license to smoke opium, sufficiently low to escape fraud, should be issued for those hopelessly addicted to the habit, and that exceedingly severe penalties should attach to those who furnish opium to youth or those who are nonsmokers.... It is a poor policy in developing a people to count on the income of legalized vice for a large portion of the revenue, as is done in most eastern colonies.” The importation of opium has shown considerable increase during American occupation. See Crawfurd’sDictionary, pp. 312–314; and the following reports of the Philippine Commission—for 1903, pt. i, p. 63, pt. 2, p. 96; for 1904, pt. 2, pp. 590, 591, pt. 3, p. 545.
37Since our return, inquiries have been made by him, which resulted in proving that such was in truth their origin, and that the vessel in which they were shipped was for a long time missing. The identical stones which he saw were a part of a monument that was on its way to Canton.—Wilkes.
38Marongas belongs to the Joló group of the Sulu Archipelago, and has an area of .4 square miles. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 284.
39The Sulug or Sulus were the dominant people of Joló before their conversion to Mahometanism, and still maintain that position. The bulk of the Moro Sulus is on the island of Joló and the islands immediately south as far as Siassi and Pandami. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, pp. 463, 464.
40Orang is the Malay term for man or human being. As used here it would mean “the men,”i. e., “nobles.”
41The tripang or sea-slug (Holothuria edulis), which is esteemed as a great delicacy by the Chinese.
42Evidently the people called Guimbajanos by the historians of the eighteenth century. From Wilkes’s description, they would appear to be at least partially Negrito.
43Banjarmasin is a principality and river on the southern side of Borneo, the word meaning in Javanese “salt or saline garden.” The sovereignty of Banjarmasin is said in olden times to have extended over all of southeastern Borneo. See Crawfurd’sDictionary(pp. 36, 37), where an historical sketch of the principality is given.
44The Chinese emperor at this time was Choo Yuen Chang, the founder of the Ming dynasty, who defeated Chunti, the last of the Mongol dynasty, in 1367, and ruled from then until the year 1398. He adopted as emperor the name of Hongwon. The statements in the text may be only common report. See Boulger’sShort History of China, pp. 79–87.
45See Montero y Vidal’s account of Joloan affairs during this period, in hisHistoria, i, pp. 475–548, 561–581, ii, pp. 6–77, 575, 576.
46Manila was captured by the English October 6 (or, October 5, according to Spanish reckoning), 1762 (not1763). SeeA plain Narrative(London, 1565?), p. 4.
47This name is derived from the large bay that makes in on the south side of the island of Mindanao, and on which a set of free-booters reside.—Wilkes.
This is the bay of Illana. Illano or Illanum means “people of the lake.” At present they inhabit the south coast of Mindanao from Punta [de] Flechas to Polloc. They are but few in number, but in the past have been bold pirates. They are probably closely connected with the Malanao or Moros dwelling in the valley of Lake Lanao. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, pp. 466, 472.
48Pulo Toolyan is Tulaian of the Jolo group of the Sulu Archipelago, with an area of .5 sq. mi.; Tonho may be Tang̃o or Tangu of the Tawi Tawi group; Pilas is the chief island of its group, with an area of 8.2 sq. mi.; Tawi Tawi is the chief island of its group, with an area of 232 sq. mi.; Sumlout is perhaps Simaluc, of the Tawi Tawi group, with an area of 1.3 sq. mi.; Pantutaran is perhaps Pantocunan, of the Joló group, with an area of .6 sq. mi.; Parodasan is perhaps Parangaan of the Tawi Tawi group, or Parang̃an of the Tapul group; Basilan is the chief island of its group, with an area of 478 sq. mi. SeeCensus of Philippines, i.
49In 1861 a number of light steam gunboats with steel hulls and of twenty or thirty horsepower were constructed in England for the Spaniards for use against the Moro pirates; and they were very effective in reducing piracy, both in the Lake Lanao district and that of Mindanao and the adjacent islands. See Montero y Vidal’sHistoria, iii, pp. 327, 328, and elsewhere; andHistoria de la piratería, ii.
50The sea-gypsies. SeeVOL. XXXVI, p. 199, note 38.
51This treaty is as follows:
[Preceding the text of the treaty are some Arabic characters.]
I, Mohamed, Sultan of Sooloo, for the purpose of encouraging trade with the people of the United States of America, do promise hereby and bind myself that I will afford full protection to all vessels of the United States, and their commanders and crews visiting any of the islands of my dominions, and they shall be allowed to trade on the terms of the most favoured nation, and receive such provisions and necessaries as they may be in want of.
2dly. In case of shipwreck or accident to any vessel, I will afford them all the assistance in my power, and protect the persons and property of those wrecked, and afford them all the assistance in my power for its preservation and safe-keeping, and for the return of the officers and crews of said vessels to the Spanish settlements, or wherever they may wish to proceed.
3dly. That any one of my subjects who shall do any injury or harm to the commanders or crews belonging to American vessels, shall receive such punishment as his crime merits.
In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand and seal, in presence of the datus and chiefs at Soung, island of Sooloo.
February 5th, 1842.
[Here follows a signature in Arabic characters.]
Witnesses:
Charles Wilkes,Commanding Exploring Expedition.
William L. Hudson,Late Commanding U. S. Ship Peacock.
R. R. Waldron,Purser, U. S. Exploring Expedition.
52Pang̃utárang is the largest island of the numerous group of the same name belonging to the Sulu Archipelago, and has an area of 42 square miles. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 284.
53Cagayan Sulu has an area of 27 square miles. It is located in a group of 31 islands. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 286.
54According toCensus of Philippines(i, p. 28, ii, p. 123), the area of the Davao district is 9,707 square miles, and the total population 65,496, of whom 45,272 are uncivilized.
55JoséOyangúrenwas a native of Guipúzcoa who went to the Philippines in 1825, leaving Spain for political reasons. He passed several years in the province of Caraga (now Surigao), engaged in business, and in the Calamianes. For a number of years also he occupied the judicial post in Tondo. In 1846 he was deprived of that post because such officials were thereafter appointed in Madrid. On hearing of the cession of the gulf of Davao by the sultan to the Spaniards, he visited that region. On his return he proposed to Governor Clavería to conquer and subdue the entire gulf district, expel or pacify the Moros there, and establish the Christian religion, if he were given supplies and equipment, the command of the district, and exclusive rights of trade therein. A decree issued by Clavería February 27, 1847, gave him the command for ten years and exclusive rights of trade for the first six years. He was also given artillery, muskets, and ammunition, and permission to raise a company. By the beginning of 1849 he was in peaceful possession of the entire coast-line of the gulf and then turned his attention into the interior. The government, however, did not live up to its promises, andOyangúrenafter the death of Clavería was removed from his command. The last years of his life (1852–1859) were spent in the fruitless endeavor to obtain what had been promised him. See Montero y Vidal’sHist. piratería, i, pp. 382–403.
56A vessel for the coasting trade in the Philippines. SeeNew Velázquez Dictionary.
57The island of Sámal is located in the Gulf of Davao, and has an area of 147 square miles. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 282.
58This is the Tagálog word for the upper part of a village. It seems here to mean the eastern mountainous district of Surigao.
59Of the tribes of Mindanao,Census of Philippines, i, p. 462, says: “Going eastward in Mindanao and passing by the central lake region, which is inhabited entirely by Lanao Moros, we come to other tribes, which, so far as I have seen, differ in no essential from the Subanon.... Around the headwaters of the Rio Grande de Mindanao they are called Manobo. South of the Rio Grande they are called Tiruray, Bilan, Manobo, and other names. The reason for the use of these different terms is not satisfactorily explained. There are doubtless changes of dialect between them comparable to the changes we find among the Igorots in northern Luzón, but I believe it is hardly justifiable to break up into separate tribes or divisions a population so thoroughly homogeneous as these pagans of Mindanao appear to be.”
60Sangil is a local term apparently derived from the volcano of the same name. It is sometimes applied as a collective title for pagan tribes of that region and sometimes to the Maguindanao Moros, who have settled between Craan and Makar. SeeCensus of Philippines, i, p. 476.
61The Tagacaolos are closely related to the Bagobos. The word is probably derived from “olo,” meaning “head,” and thus “source” (of a river), the particleka, “toward,” and the prefixtaga. The entire word thus means “people who go up toward the source of the river,” to distinguish them from the “Tagabawa,” people who live in the lowlands,bawameaning “down,” the “region low down.” SeeCensus of Philippines, i, pp. 462, 476.
62This promise was fulfilled June 21 of the same year, and the letter is given in theCartas, pp. 93–111.
63i. e., The district ruled over by a dato.
64The pagatpat (Sonneratia), called also palapad and palatpat, is frequently found along the beaches. It grows to the height of twenty feet or so. Its wood is strong and is used in ordinary construction. The fruit is very sour and a vinegar is made from it. See Blanco, pp. 296, 297.