Chapter 15

10 Balitansis a Quinion10 Loanesis a BalitanHence the Quinion contains 661511 16–144ths sq. ft. or 73501 2–9ths sq. yds.,65which, taking the Bengal bigha at 14400 sq. ft., gives about 46 bigahs, or 15 acres English.Their dry measure is as follows:8 Chupas, 1 Ganta.—25 Gantas, 1 Caban.I could not procure a sight of the standard. A mean measurement of several new Gantas and Cabans (for they are all clumsily made, though sold at a government office) gave as follows:The Caban, 4633 cubic inches English.The Ganta, 186,878 ditto.The mean of these two (for the first would give 185.72 to the Ganta) is thus about 186 cub. inches to a Ganta, and 4650 to the Caban, or 2 bushels and 1–6th Winchester measure.66↑65The quiñón = 2.79495 hectares = 6.89 acres. (Official Handbook of Philippines, p. 294; Jagor’sReisen, p. xv.) Jagor hasbalístasforbalitans, and Mallat hasbaletas.—Eds.↑66Since January 1, 1862, the caban of Manila (established January 1, 1860) is regarded as the standard measure for all the provinces. It measures exactly 75 liters, or, in cubical form, 422 mm., inside measure, or 5,990.96 Spanish cubic inches. (The caban of 1859 contained 80.00919 liters.) A caban of rice weighs 128 to 137 Spanish pounds = 59 to 63 kilograms.” (Jagor’sReisen, p. xv.)—Eds.↑67The table here referred to is as follows:“Estimate of the cost and annual product of one cabalita of land planted with sugar-cane in the province of Pampanga; to wit:p.r.gr.For plowing the said land 6 times14For breaking the clumps with thebalsa3 times6For the surrounding fence and rattan 3 p. 5 r., and three days’ work 3 r. 9 gr.49For 4,000 cane-shoots for planting, 1 p.; tracing the lines and making the holes, 5 r.; two days’ work at planting, 2 r. 6 gr.176For fencing twice more, and cutting out the grass6For 14 moulds, at 1½ r.25For 1½tareas[= amount of mill’s capacity at one time], each of 14 loaves [pilones] of sugar, the amount usually obtained, at 8 p. atarea12Total cost2353Selling price of a loaf of sugar, averaging those of the three grades266Deduct cost of each loaf, at the rate of161Net product, equivalent to 90 per cent profit132”Comyn gives similar tables for the production of indigo and rice, estimating the net profit thereon at 57 and 60 per cent respectively. He adds, on the margin of the sheet: “In favorable years the profit of the grower is wont to increase in an extraordinary manner. The 4,000 shoots of sugar-cane, for instance, yield him 3 tareas, or 28 loaves of sugar, in place of the 14 loaves which were figured in the comparative estimate preceding; the cavan of seed yields 80 and even 100 cavans of rice in the hull, in place of the 35 computed; and he obtains a quintal of indigo from 15, or even from 10,balsadas, instead of 25 being necessary for furnishing the said product. And if the grower is fairly well-to-do, so that he can send his produce to the general market, and sell it to the foreign merchants or ship-captains who come for these products, he can obtain incomparably more for them than by delivering them upon the ground to the middlemen. At Manila I have seen indigo from La Laguna sold at the rate of 130 pesos a quintal for extra fine grade, and at 100 pesos for the usual quality; sugar, at 4p. 5r. a loaf; and palay (or rice in the hull) at 3 pesos; but I have preferred to limit myself to a low rate in the selling price which I have assigned to the aforesaid products in the preceding estimates, in order to demonstrate more thoroughly the advantages which agriculture offers in Filipinas, and at the same time to conform to practical experience in the formation of estimates of this sort.” Cf. similar estimates by Mallat (Philippines, ii, pp. 256–281.—Eds.↑68Pilones are large bell-shaped moulds, from 2 to 2½ feet high, and 1½ broad.↑69Some of their voyages are most curious. One or more of the principal men in a village, sometimes 15 or 20 of them, join to build a small “parao.” On this they embark with their harvest in sugar, cacao, wax, &c., sell it at Manila, and return to their village; there the accounts are settled, and the return cargo distributed; after which a feast is held, and the Santo duly thanked for the good markets of this year, and asked for better next. All parties then visit the vessel, which theypull to pieces! every man carrying a piece home with him—to take care of till next season, when they are all sewed together for another trip.↑70At the present time there are six varieties of sugar-cane in Filipinas; of these, the purple is considered the best, and is more generally cultivated in the Visayas; the white and the green are almost exclusively restricted to some provinces of Luzon and the rural districts near Manila; the other kinds are cultivated sparingly and in few places. The sugar manufactured in the islands is “made inpilones(which includes nearly all from Luzon), and the granulated, which is the kind that has been adopted in the Visayan islands and in some Luzon plantations.” Thepilonweighs a quintal; the granulated is put up in sacks (known asbayones, containing two and a half arrobas of sugar. (José R. de Luzuriaga, inCensus of Philippines, iv, pp. 26, 27).—Eds.↑71These last, by a royal Cedula (ordonnance), areonlyadmitted into the island as cultivators. This, like almost every ordonnance of His Catholic Majesty, relative to this country, is disregarded; and the Chinese are almost all shopkeepers, or petty merchants. Were an impartial account of the administration of these islands to be presented to the king of Spain, it might begin thus: “Sire,—Not one of your Majesty’s orders are executed in your kingdom of the Philippines.”72↑72Cf. similar statements by Viana (letter to Carlos III) and Anda (Memorial), inVOL. L.—Eds.↑73This case actually occurred to one of the most respectable military officers in the Spanish service, now a captain in the Queen’s Regiment, whose name is Don M—— de O——. This gentleman, a man of high spirit, and one of the few Spaniards in Manila who are an ornament to their profession, bearing the king’s commission, and in pursuit of the robbers, suddenly fell in with a noted chief of them, when accompanied only by a piquet of infantry. The robber knew him, and with a gallantry worthy of a better cause, defied him to single combat! With true chivalric spirit, the challenge was instantly accepted; and orders given to the piquet not to interfere on pain of their lives. A desperate conflict ensued, in which the gallant Spaniard was at length victorious, and the robber’s head was sent through the country in triumph. Shall the sequel be told? When he returned to Manila, with the blessing of every honest native for having cleared that part of the country of robbers, a subject of prosecution was found in this service by those numerous enemies which every honest man has in a country like this, and on some frivolous pretext of having (unavoidably) fired into a cottage, and killed or wounded some innocent persons. He could not stoop to flatter or bribe; and it was with the utmost difficulty, and rather by the exertions of his friends than by his own, that after suffering a long series of vexations, he was saved from ruin!↑74Manufactured, I think, from theUrtica neveaof Linn.75↑75See ourVOL. XXII, p. 279. In regard to cultivation and preparation of abacá, see Jagor’sReisen, pp. 245–256; Mallat,Philippines, pp. 279, 280;Census of Phil., iv, pp. 14–24.—Eds.↑76Mimosa saponaria?77↑77This plant (variously known to the natives asgogong,gogo,bayogo, andbalogo) is a leguminous climbing plant,Entada scandens(Official Handbook of Philippines, pp. 367, 384). Blanco (Flora, pp. 247, 248) praises its detergent qualities, especially for bathing purposes, as even superior to the soap of Europe; and says that it is also used medicinally for asthma, and as a purgative, and that the Indians place dry pieces of its wood in their jars of cacao-beans to keep away worms. He states that it is also namedMimosa scandensby some writers.—Eds.↑78Tíndalois the native name of theAfzelia(orEperua)rhomboidea, a leguminous tree highly valued for its durable and beautiful timber. Mangachapuy,Vatica(orDipterocarpus)mangachapoi, furnishes a timber especially used for shipbuilding and other work which must resist sun and rain. (Official Handbook, pp. 352, 357; Blanco,Flora, pp. 260, 261, 281, 313.)—Eds.↑79It is said by the Indians.↑80Perhaps Boa hortulana?81↑81See ourVOL. XII, p. 259; andXXIX, p. 301.Dahon-palayisDryimus nasutus(Montero y Vidal,Archipiélago filipino, pp. 103, 104). See alsoOfficial Handbook, p. 149; and Worcester’sPhilippine Islands, p. 514.—Eds.↑82Many years ago, a complete set of forging machinery was sent out on speculation; it was sold as old iron, for no one of course would speculate in mines, when they could with so much more ease obtain 100 per cent. for their capital in the trade to Acapulco.↑83That is, “to reduce them to a desert, in order to assure her empire over them.”—Eds.↑84“By a royal decree of February 2, 1800, the residence of foreigners in Filipinas was forbidden. This mandate was renewed by royal decrees of September 3, 1807, and July 31, 1816.” (Montero y Vidal,Hist. de Filipinas, ii, p. 360.)—Eds.↑85Perhaps much of this may be traced to the avaricious spirit of the early adventurers, and to the cruelties of the Buccaneers; and thus what might have been only a local, became from habit a national principle; though “soy Cristiano viejo” [i.e., “I am an old-time Christian”], was always the surest passport amongst an intolerant people, with whom “filosofo” is yet an epithet of reproach.↑86Something of this is more or less visible in the colonial policy of almost all countries; but that those have been the most flourishing who have acted on the broad and liberal principle of “Ubi dives, ibi patria” [i.e., “where wealth is, there is my country”] (a humiliating but correct estimate, not only of the bulk of colonial adventurers, but of mankind in general), will scarcely be questioned. The Havannah is a splendid example. In 1780, strangers were rigorously prohibited, or at least loaded with restrictions; an enormous smuggling trade was carried on, and the island did not pay its own expenses. In 1820, when the prohibitory system had been long annihilated, and strangers allowed free intercourse and establishment, its trade had increased a hundred-fold; and not only did it suffice for its own, much more expensive establishments; but, both directly and indirectly, contributed large sums to the mother country, though at the first epoch, the profits on colonial capital were at least 30 per cent. more than at the last.↑87“We have been told, that we must not sit under the shade of our own vines and olives! that we must not pluck the fruits from the trees which our fathers have planted!—and why—lest the merchants of Cadiz should be deprived of their profits in supplying us with wine and oil.”—From a Chilian manifesto, published soon after the declaration of independence.↑88A valuable study of “The Spanish colonial system” is furnished by the chapter under that heading in Wilhelm Roscher’sKolonien, Kolonial-politik und Auswanderung(Leipzig, 1885), an English translation of which is published by Prof. E. G. Bourne (New York, 1904), with some additional annotations. See also “The colonial kingdom of Spain,” in Helmolt’sHistory of the World(New York, 1902), which is praised by Bourne as an excellent and scholarly study by Konrad Häbler; but unfortunately the American edition of that work does not name the author of the above section. Bourne also treats this subject in a chapter of hisSpain in America(New York, 1904), pp. 220–242, and at pp. 355, 356, gives a helpful list of authorities thereon.—Eds.↑89“Ecclesiastical foundations and obras pías were, it may be said, innumerable. From the richest city to the smallest village, from one extreme of the Peninsula to the other, and even to the farthest boundaries which the monarchy reached in the period of its greatest grandeur, the acts of Christian piety are seen in various foundations. These include not only hermitages, confraternities, memorials, charitable foundations, and chaplaincies,—which by themselves alone made a total of enormous wealth—but more pretentious establishments, as convents, cathedrals, parish churches, and colleges; and any person will be surprised at those which were supported by some towns which in their present condition are reduced in population and poor. Larruga in his memoirs states that Toledo had 25 parish churches and its cathedral, 39 convents, 14 hospitals, and four colleges, in all, 83 foundations. Salamanca had more; Cuenca had 31, Avila 31, Almagro 17, and so with the other cities of Castilla.” Among these pious gifts were “the exchanges of Barcelona, Sevilla, and Valencia, the colleges of Salamanca, that of Santa Cruz of Valladolid,” and many cathedrals and convents. (Arias y Miranda,Examen crítico-histórico, p. 139.)—Eds.↑90At one of them (I believe that of Santa Clara), thescullsof the seven founders are placed on the table at which the trustees meet!—but this, it is said, does not exempt the funds from being misapplied.↑91It was not uncommon for a person worth ten thousand dollars to borrow 40 more from the public funds. Of these about 25 or 30,000 were shipped, and the remainder kept at home. If the ship was lost, the accounts were settled; and if she came back, theinterestwas always repaid,—which of course entitled them to borrow again, till a fortunate loss made them independent. And where every body did this, no one thought it incorrect.↑92It is not here meant to controvert the principle of this kind of commerce being at times the most lucrative that can be carried on; but to remark, that had it not been for the strange system of trading just described, the restrictive system, and the monopoly of the Phillippine Company, the activity and ingenuity of private traders would have discovered other branches of commerce, and with them, that their own produce might suffice to pay for the piece goods of Bengal. As an instance, the English and every other nation of Europe have for a century carried betel-nut to China, but from the Phillippines not a nut was exported—it was a royal monopoly! and the merchants and growers were thus deprived of about half a million of dollars annually, that the king might pocket 30,000. Many other instances might be cited.↑93The boletas “long did duty as paper money, passing from hand to hand.” (Lala,Philippine Islands, p. 177.)—Eds.↑94“Aunque a Mexico llevan diablos cornudos siempre ganan dinero” (Though they should carry horned devils to Mexico, they would make money by them), was the gruff observation of an old soldier to the writer. The trade could not have been better characterized; for the very topmen and cabin servants crammed theirdepartmentsfull of goods of all kinds; and it was a very common thing to heave to, to clear the decks in the Bay of Manila. The “Timoneles” (quarter-masters) had always servants!↑95The revolt of Mexico from Spain began in 1810, but independence was not accomplished until 1821. The first constitution of the republic of Mexico was proclaimed on October 4, 1824.—Eds.↑96A ship was dispatched from Manila in 1821, and another freighted: this last as an English ship; both were on account of the Company.↑97The first constitution of Spain was promulgated on March 19, 1812, during the Napoleonic invasion of that country. Fernando VII had been displaced on the throne by Joseph Bonaparte for a time, but the latter fled from Madrid, at Wellington’s approach with an English army, and Fernando (who had been imprisoned in France since 1808) was restored to Spain as its king, returning in March, 1814. After long-continued struggles with the Liberal party, Fernando restored absolutism in that country in 1823, with the aid of a French army; and the Constitution was overthrown until after Fernando’s death in 1833.—Eds.↑98To account for the enormous difference, it will be sufficient to observe, that the Acapulco ships alone smuggle from 1–4th to 1–3d of their cargo (treasure) on shore—that opium which is prohibited, is smuggled to a considerable amount, as is also treasure, particularly gold, to avoid paying the import duties. With respect to the exports, the Chinese alone smuggle nearly a million annually, and no notice is taken in the account of treasure exported to Bengal in bars.↑99Comyn briefly sketches this domestic commerce (pp. 43–45), but in vague and indefinite terms, save for the following paragraph: “Besides the traffic founded on the ordinary consumption, and the necessity of being furnished with goods both domestic and foreign in order to supply the fairs known by the name oftianguis, which are held weekly in almost all the villages, there is also a species of traffic peculiar to the rich Indians and Sangley mestizos (who are an industrious class, and own the greater part of the ready money). This consists in buying up beforehand the harvests of indigo, sugar, rice, etc., with the aim of afterward dictating the prices when they resell those products to him who buys at second hand.”—Eds.↑100Large, heavy swords, which some of them wield with great dexterity.↑101They have some few brigs and schooners, but the number of these is not much more than 20.↑102“The Hong merchants (Chinese) were twelve in number, licensed by government as intermediate agents in trade, between foreign merchants and the Chinese people, becoming responsible for the good conduct of the former, and, at the same time, securing to the Emperor the payment of all maritime duties.” (Allen,Opium Trade, p. 45.)—Eds.↑103Dr. Nathan Allen, in a pamphlet entitledThe Opium Trade(Lowell, Mass., 1853), presents a history of this traffic, describes its results in both China and India, and protests against its continuance. He states that opium, originally a native of Persia, spread thence into Turkey and India, being cultivated more extensively in the latter country than anywhere else in the world. In 1767 the British East India Company formed the plan of sending opium from Bengal to China, where but little of this drug had previously been sold; but they had little success in this until 1794, when they began a traffic which lasted some twenty-five years at the ports of Whampoa and Macao. In 1821, the opium merchants abandoned these places, on account of difficulties encountered in their trade, and centered it at Lintin Island, in the bay at the entrance to Canton River, where it rapidly increased. “Here might be seen large armed vessels reposing, throughout the year, at anchor, constituting a floating depot of storehouses, for receiving the opium in large quantities from the ships bringing it from India, and dealing it out in chests and cases to the Chinese junks, to be retailed at various points on shore. The Merope, Capt. Parkyns, in 1821, was the first ship that commenced the system of delivering opium at different cities along the coast of China, and from that time, the trade increased with wonderful rapidity. Eligible places also on the east and north-east coast of China were selected to station receiving vessels, to which the Chinese might easily have access, and become participators in the trade.” Allen cites many contemporary and high authorities. Among these, James Holman says, in 1830 (Travels in China, p. 162), that the opium boats “are but seldom interfered with, nor are they likely to be, so long as theFree Traderscan afford to pay the mandarins so much better for not fighting, than the government will for doing their duty. The use of opium has become so universal among the people of China, that the laws which render it penal, and the proclamations which send forth their daily fulminations against its continuance, have not the slightest effect in checking the prevalence of so general a habit. Smoking houses abound in Canton; and the inhabitants of every class who can furnish themselves with the means to obtain the pipe, are seldom without this article of general luxury. It is a propensity that has seized upon all ranks and classes, and is generally on the increase.” From the year 1800, the Chinese government tried to stop this traffic, strictly prohibiting the importation of opium; but foreign merchants paid no attention to this, and forced the trade on the Chinese people. In 1839, a Chinese official destroyed, by command of the emperor, over 20,000 chests (worth $12,000,000) of the drug at Canton; this led to a war with England, commonly known as “the Opium War.” The resulting treaty of peace compelled the Chinese to open five ports to British trade and residence, to cede the island of Hong-kong to Great Britain—at which place the opium trade then centered; and in 1845 the British authorities licensed twenty shops to sell opium at retail—and to pay heavy indemnities not only to the English government and the merchants, but for the opium destroyed, which had been legally confiscated by the emperor as contraband goods. The Chinese commissioners objected, but were threatened with renewed hostilities if they persisted, and they had to yield. During the past year negotiations looking to a cessation of the opium traffic have been carried on between Great Britain and China. The following also shows the recent growth of the drug in China. “As for the gums from the Indias, the Chinese physicians and surgeons make hardly any use of them. I do not think that in an entire year there is used in Pekin a half-livre of opium (which they callYapien); its place is supplied by using the white poppy.” (Father Parennin, in a letter dated September 20, 1740;Lettres édifiantes, ed. 1811, t. xxii, p. 274.)—Eds.↑104One of the great drawbacks on the profits of the voyages from Europe since 1814 has been, that no light goods of value were to be obtained. An American, in 1816, remained 16 months to obtain two crops of indigo, and bought all to be got in the market. She made an excellent voyage, even with this heavy expense.↑105At this point in the book (namely, facing p. 82) is a plan of Manila entitled “Plano de la ciudad de Manila, capital de las Yslas Filipinas,” which shows the city and its suburbs; and a second illustration showing, first, “View of Manila from the plain of Bagumbayan,” and second, “View of Manila from the sea.” The plan of Manila is from a Spanish source.—Eds.↑106Generally, but incorrectly written, “Manilla.”↑107Under this title is included not only the Phillippines from the Bashees and Babuyanes to Mindanao, but also from Palawan on the west to the Carolinas on the east.↑108It has no ditch on this side.↑109A covert from an enemy’s fire, but not intended for defense with guns; composed of gabions or bags filled with earth, or of earth heaped up.—Eds.↑110Le Gentil states (Voyage, ii, pp. 103, 104) that Arandía was hated by the friars because he desired to demolish two churches outside the walls of Manila; these were so solid, and equipped with towers, and so near the walls, that they were a source of great danger to the city if they should fall into an enemy’s hands. “I have been assured that the friars raised the cry of heresy against M. Arandía, and that they talked of nothing less than excommunicating him; but his death stopped all that. This zealous governor actually died in 1760, before he had effected his project; but his death was not regarded as natural.” When the English appeared before Manila, Arandía’s loss was regretted, when it was too late. The English demolished the aforesaid churches and their towers, for their own safety.—Eds.↑111That is, elevated so as to fire over the top of a parapet.—Eds.↑112This place was afterward occupied (1824?) by “a statue of Carlos IV, in bronze, a true work of art, cast in Manila. It was erected in recognition of his having ordered the conveyance [to the islands] of vaccine virus, transmitted from arm to arm, for which purpose exclusively he arranged for the departure of a ship from Méjico, which reached Manila on April 15, 1805.” (Montero y Vidal,Archipiélago filipino, p. 301.) The same writer says (Hist. de Filipinas, ii, p. 388): “The benefits produced by vaccination among the natives, always so harassed by that pest [of smallpox], were evident,” and Folgueras made strenuous efforts to secure its propagation throughout the country. He also gave orders that the dead should not be interred within the churches, a measure which drew upon him hostilities and annoyances from the religious.” The Plaza Mayor, where the above statue stands, is now called Plaza McKinley.—Eds.↑113And yet the ignorant natives ascribed the pest of cholera, which caused such ravages in Manila in 1820, to the poisoning of their wells by foreigners. A French physician, Dr. Charles L. Benoit, who arrived at Manila at that time, and spent four years there, states, in hisObservacións sobre el cólera morbo espasmodico(Madrid, 1832) that in this belief the Indians, usually so humble and religious, then committed innumerable crimes. See account of their massacre of foreigners, pp. 39–45,ante.—Eds.↑114The brethren devote themselves to the care of the sick, and perform their duties most honourably and zealously; so much so, that the refectory is often supplied with little but rice for their own dinners. The other orders are richly endowed, and fare sumptuously—but they are more a-la-mode.↑115These plates are obtained from the shell of thePlacuna placenta, a mollusk; they are generally used in place of window-glass, and by their partial opacity modify the effects of the sun’s heat.—Eds.↑116This would appear a vulgar interpretation of a popular custom; but from this charge the writer will be exonerated, when it is known, that should a person yawn, he devoutly makes the sign of the cross before his mouth, while it continues open, to—keep the devil from him!Ex pede elephantem[i.e., “By the foot-print, one recognizes the elephant”].↑117“When the terrible epidemic which Manila had suffered came to an end, the municipal council caused a fine cemetery to be constructed in the village of San Fernando de Dilao, commonly called Paco.” (Montero y Vidal,Historia de Filipinas, ii, p. 457.)—Eds.↑118La Peyrouse, when speaking of the public flagellants in the Passion week, did not, I believe, do so; but though superstitious enough, this practice is no longer continued in the present day.↑119“Thank God! I am of a noble family!”—And if they are told, “Well, but if you have nothing to eat?” “Me hago frayle,” “Well, I can be a friar,” is the answer.↑120Le Gentil says (Voyage, ii, pp. 116, 117) that the Jesuits decided that the use of chocolate was admissible on fast days, consequently these were no mortification to most of the people.—Eds.↑121“This is no country for an honest man”—a remark quoted, too, I think, by Le Gentil.↑122Cervantes, whose keen but justly merited satire on many of the failings of his countrymen, is only equalled by his beautiful eulogies on many of their excellencies, has aptly described the composition of their colonies in his day.“To the Indies—the refuge and resource of despairing Spaniards—asylum of rebels—protector of homicides—receptacle of gamblers (called by some knowing ones)—common decoy for women of loose characters—the deceiver of many, and remedy of few.”—Novela del Zeloso Estnemeno[i.e., “The jealous Estremaduran”].↑123Andaluces: natives of Andalusia province. Montañeses:appellation of the dwellers in the hill-country of Santander province, Spain. Serviles (literally “those who are servile or fawning”): a political epithet applied to the Monarchists or Absolutists. Liberales: the Liberals in politics, much as that term is used at the present time. Le Gentil describes (Voyage, ii, p. 109) the clannishness and provincialism of the Spaniards in Manila.—Eds.↑124This is not an isolated opinion; and in corroboration, it will be sufficient to mention, that upwards of ¾ths of all the disposableSpanishproperty in the country has been sent out of it. This fact is a volume in itself. Since this was written, two serious commotions have taken place, in the latter of which the conspirators obtained possession of the city, which was regained by storming.125↑125Reference is here made to the rebellion incited by Novales in 1823; see account of it on pp. 47–48,ante.—Eds.↑

10 Balitansis a Quinion10 Loanesis a Balitan

Hence the Quinion contains 661511 16–144ths sq. ft. or 73501 2–9ths sq. yds.,65which, taking the Bengal bigha at 14400 sq. ft., gives about 46 bigahs, or 15 acres English.

Their dry measure is as follows:

8 Chupas, 1 Ganta.—25 Gantas, 1 Caban.

I could not procure a sight of the standard. A mean measurement of several new Gantas and Cabans (for they are all clumsily made, though sold at a government office) gave as follows:

The Caban, 4633 cubic inches English.

The Ganta, 186,878 ditto.

The mean of these two (for the first would give 185.72 to the Ganta) is thus about 186 cub. inches to a Ganta, and 4650 to the Caban, or 2 bushels and 1–6th Winchester measure.66↑

65The quiñón = 2.79495 hectares = 6.89 acres. (Official Handbook of Philippines, p. 294; Jagor’sReisen, p. xv.) Jagor hasbalístasforbalitans, and Mallat hasbaletas.—Eds.↑

66Since January 1, 1862, the caban of Manila (established January 1, 1860) is regarded as the standard measure for all the provinces. It measures exactly 75 liters, or, in cubical form, 422 mm., inside measure, or 5,990.96 Spanish cubic inches. (The caban of 1859 contained 80.00919 liters.) A caban of rice weighs 128 to 137 Spanish pounds = 59 to 63 kilograms.” (Jagor’sReisen, p. xv.)—Eds.↑

67The table here referred to is as follows:

“Estimate of the cost and annual product of one cabalita of land planted with sugar-cane in the province of Pampanga; to wit:

p.r.gr.For plowing the said land 6 times14For breaking the clumps with thebalsa3 times6For the surrounding fence and rattan 3 p. 5 r., and three days’ work 3 r. 9 gr.49For 4,000 cane-shoots for planting, 1 p.; tracing the lines and making the holes, 5 r.; two days’ work at planting, 2 r. 6 gr.176For fencing twice more, and cutting out the grass6For 14 moulds, at 1½ r.25For 1½tareas[= amount of mill’s capacity at one time], each of 14 loaves [pilones] of sugar, the amount usually obtained, at 8 p. atarea12Total cost2353Selling price of a loaf of sugar, averaging those of the three grades266Deduct cost of each loaf, at the rate of161Net product, equivalent to 90 per cent profit132”

Comyn gives similar tables for the production of indigo and rice, estimating the net profit thereon at 57 and 60 per cent respectively. He adds, on the margin of the sheet: “In favorable years the profit of the grower is wont to increase in an extraordinary manner. The 4,000 shoots of sugar-cane, for instance, yield him 3 tareas, or 28 loaves of sugar, in place of the 14 loaves which were figured in the comparative estimate preceding; the cavan of seed yields 80 and even 100 cavans of rice in the hull, in place of the 35 computed; and he obtains a quintal of indigo from 15, or even from 10,balsadas, instead of 25 being necessary for furnishing the said product. And if the grower is fairly well-to-do, so that he can send his produce to the general market, and sell it to the foreign merchants or ship-captains who come for these products, he can obtain incomparably more for them than by delivering them upon the ground to the middlemen. At Manila I have seen indigo from La Laguna sold at the rate of 130 pesos a quintal for extra fine grade, and at 100 pesos for the usual quality; sugar, at 4p. 5r. a loaf; and palay (or rice in the hull) at 3 pesos; but I have preferred to limit myself to a low rate in the selling price which I have assigned to the aforesaid products in the preceding estimates, in order to demonstrate more thoroughly the advantages which agriculture offers in Filipinas, and at the same time to conform to practical experience in the formation of estimates of this sort.” Cf. similar estimates by Mallat (Philippines, ii, pp. 256–281.—Eds.↑

68Pilones are large bell-shaped moulds, from 2 to 2½ feet high, and 1½ broad.↑

69Some of their voyages are most curious. One or more of the principal men in a village, sometimes 15 or 20 of them, join to build a small “parao.” On this they embark with their harvest in sugar, cacao, wax, &c., sell it at Manila, and return to their village; there the accounts are settled, and the return cargo distributed; after which a feast is held, and the Santo duly thanked for the good markets of this year, and asked for better next. All parties then visit the vessel, which theypull to pieces! every man carrying a piece home with him—to take care of till next season, when they are all sewed together for another trip.↑

70At the present time there are six varieties of sugar-cane in Filipinas; of these, the purple is considered the best, and is more generally cultivated in the Visayas; the white and the green are almost exclusively restricted to some provinces of Luzon and the rural districts near Manila; the other kinds are cultivated sparingly and in few places. The sugar manufactured in the islands is “made inpilones(which includes nearly all from Luzon), and the granulated, which is the kind that has been adopted in the Visayan islands and in some Luzon plantations.” Thepilonweighs a quintal; the granulated is put up in sacks (known asbayones, containing two and a half arrobas of sugar. (José R. de Luzuriaga, inCensus of Philippines, iv, pp. 26, 27).—Eds.↑

71These last, by a royal Cedula (ordonnance), areonlyadmitted into the island as cultivators. This, like almost every ordonnance of His Catholic Majesty, relative to this country, is disregarded; and the Chinese are almost all shopkeepers, or petty merchants. Were an impartial account of the administration of these islands to be presented to the king of Spain, it might begin thus: “Sire,—Not one of your Majesty’s orders are executed in your kingdom of the Philippines.”72↑

72Cf. similar statements by Viana (letter to Carlos III) and Anda (Memorial), inVOL. L.—Eds.↑

73This case actually occurred to one of the most respectable military officers in the Spanish service, now a captain in the Queen’s Regiment, whose name is Don M—— de O——. This gentleman, a man of high spirit, and one of the few Spaniards in Manila who are an ornament to their profession, bearing the king’s commission, and in pursuit of the robbers, suddenly fell in with a noted chief of them, when accompanied only by a piquet of infantry. The robber knew him, and with a gallantry worthy of a better cause, defied him to single combat! With true chivalric spirit, the challenge was instantly accepted; and orders given to the piquet not to interfere on pain of their lives. A desperate conflict ensued, in which the gallant Spaniard was at length victorious, and the robber’s head was sent through the country in triumph. Shall the sequel be told? When he returned to Manila, with the blessing of every honest native for having cleared that part of the country of robbers, a subject of prosecution was found in this service by those numerous enemies which every honest man has in a country like this, and on some frivolous pretext of having (unavoidably) fired into a cottage, and killed or wounded some innocent persons. He could not stoop to flatter or bribe; and it was with the utmost difficulty, and rather by the exertions of his friends than by his own, that after suffering a long series of vexations, he was saved from ruin!↑

74Manufactured, I think, from theUrtica neveaof Linn.75↑

75See ourVOL. XXII, p. 279. In regard to cultivation and preparation of abacá, see Jagor’sReisen, pp. 245–256; Mallat,Philippines, pp. 279, 280;Census of Phil., iv, pp. 14–24.—Eds.↑

76Mimosa saponaria?77↑

77This plant (variously known to the natives asgogong,gogo,bayogo, andbalogo) is a leguminous climbing plant,Entada scandens(Official Handbook of Philippines, pp. 367, 384). Blanco (Flora, pp. 247, 248) praises its detergent qualities, especially for bathing purposes, as even superior to the soap of Europe; and says that it is also used medicinally for asthma, and as a purgative, and that the Indians place dry pieces of its wood in their jars of cacao-beans to keep away worms. He states that it is also namedMimosa scandensby some writers.—Eds.↑

78Tíndalois the native name of theAfzelia(orEperua)rhomboidea, a leguminous tree highly valued for its durable and beautiful timber. Mangachapuy,Vatica(orDipterocarpus)mangachapoi, furnishes a timber especially used for shipbuilding and other work which must resist sun and rain. (Official Handbook, pp. 352, 357; Blanco,Flora, pp. 260, 261, 281, 313.)—Eds.↑

79It is said by the Indians.↑

80Perhaps Boa hortulana?81↑

81See ourVOL. XII, p. 259; andXXIX, p. 301.Dahon-palayisDryimus nasutus(Montero y Vidal,Archipiélago filipino, pp. 103, 104). See alsoOfficial Handbook, p. 149; and Worcester’sPhilippine Islands, p. 514.—Eds.↑

82Many years ago, a complete set of forging machinery was sent out on speculation; it was sold as old iron, for no one of course would speculate in mines, when they could with so much more ease obtain 100 per cent. for their capital in the trade to Acapulco.↑

83That is, “to reduce them to a desert, in order to assure her empire over them.”—Eds.↑

84“By a royal decree of February 2, 1800, the residence of foreigners in Filipinas was forbidden. This mandate was renewed by royal decrees of September 3, 1807, and July 31, 1816.” (Montero y Vidal,Hist. de Filipinas, ii, p. 360.)—Eds.↑

85Perhaps much of this may be traced to the avaricious spirit of the early adventurers, and to the cruelties of the Buccaneers; and thus what might have been only a local, became from habit a national principle; though “soy Cristiano viejo” [i.e., “I am an old-time Christian”], was always the surest passport amongst an intolerant people, with whom “filosofo” is yet an epithet of reproach.↑

86Something of this is more or less visible in the colonial policy of almost all countries; but that those have been the most flourishing who have acted on the broad and liberal principle of “Ubi dives, ibi patria” [i.e., “where wealth is, there is my country”] (a humiliating but correct estimate, not only of the bulk of colonial adventurers, but of mankind in general), will scarcely be questioned. The Havannah is a splendid example. In 1780, strangers were rigorously prohibited, or at least loaded with restrictions; an enormous smuggling trade was carried on, and the island did not pay its own expenses. In 1820, when the prohibitory system had been long annihilated, and strangers allowed free intercourse and establishment, its trade had increased a hundred-fold; and not only did it suffice for its own, much more expensive establishments; but, both directly and indirectly, contributed large sums to the mother country, though at the first epoch, the profits on colonial capital were at least 30 per cent. more than at the last.↑

87“We have been told, that we must not sit under the shade of our own vines and olives! that we must not pluck the fruits from the trees which our fathers have planted!—and why—lest the merchants of Cadiz should be deprived of their profits in supplying us with wine and oil.”—From a Chilian manifesto, published soon after the declaration of independence.↑

88A valuable study of “The Spanish colonial system” is furnished by the chapter under that heading in Wilhelm Roscher’sKolonien, Kolonial-politik und Auswanderung(Leipzig, 1885), an English translation of which is published by Prof. E. G. Bourne (New York, 1904), with some additional annotations. See also “The colonial kingdom of Spain,” in Helmolt’sHistory of the World(New York, 1902), which is praised by Bourne as an excellent and scholarly study by Konrad Häbler; but unfortunately the American edition of that work does not name the author of the above section. Bourne also treats this subject in a chapter of hisSpain in America(New York, 1904), pp. 220–242, and at pp. 355, 356, gives a helpful list of authorities thereon.—Eds.↑

89“Ecclesiastical foundations and obras pías were, it may be said, innumerable. From the richest city to the smallest village, from one extreme of the Peninsula to the other, and even to the farthest boundaries which the monarchy reached in the period of its greatest grandeur, the acts of Christian piety are seen in various foundations. These include not only hermitages, confraternities, memorials, charitable foundations, and chaplaincies,—which by themselves alone made a total of enormous wealth—but more pretentious establishments, as convents, cathedrals, parish churches, and colleges; and any person will be surprised at those which were supported by some towns which in their present condition are reduced in population and poor. Larruga in his memoirs states that Toledo had 25 parish churches and its cathedral, 39 convents, 14 hospitals, and four colleges, in all, 83 foundations. Salamanca had more; Cuenca had 31, Avila 31, Almagro 17, and so with the other cities of Castilla.” Among these pious gifts were “the exchanges of Barcelona, Sevilla, and Valencia, the colleges of Salamanca, that of Santa Cruz of Valladolid,” and many cathedrals and convents. (Arias y Miranda,Examen crítico-histórico, p. 139.)—Eds.↑

90At one of them (I believe that of Santa Clara), thescullsof the seven founders are placed on the table at which the trustees meet!—but this, it is said, does not exempt the funds from being misapplied.↑

91It was not uncommon for a person worth ten thousand dollars to borrow 40 more from the public funds. Of these about 25 or 30,000 were shipped, and the remainder kept at home. If the ship was lost, the accounts were settled; and if she came back, theinterestwas always repaid,—which of course entitled them to borrow again, till a fortunate loss made them independent. And where every body did this, no one thought it incorrect.↑

92It is not here meant to controvert the principle of this kind of commerce being at times the most lucrative that can be carried on; but to remark, that had it not been for the strange system of trading just described, the restrictive system, and the monopoly of the Phillippine Company, the activity and ingenuity of private traders would have discovered other branches of commerce, and with them, that their own produce might suffice to pay for the piece goods of Bengal. As an instance, the English and every other nation of Europe have for a century carried betel-nut to China, but from the Phillippines not a nut was exported—it was a royal monopoly! and the merchants and growers were thus deprived of about half a million of dollars annually, that the king might pocket 30,000. Many other instances might be cited.↑

93The boletas “long did duty as paper money, passing from hand to hand.” (Lala,Philippine Islands, p. 177.)—Eds.↑

94“Aunque a Mexico llevan diablos cornudos siempre ganan dinero” (Though they should carry horned devils to Mexico, they would make money by them), was the gruff observation of an old soldier to the writer. The trade could not have been better characterized; for the very topmen and cabin servants crammed theirdepartmentsfull of goods of all kinds; and it was a very common thing to heave to, to clear the decks in the Bay of Manila. The “Timoneles” (quarter-masters) had always servants!↑

95The revolt of Mexico from Spain began in 1810, but independence was not accomplished until 1821. The first constitution of the republic of Mexico was proclaimed on October 4, 1824.—Eds.↑

96A ship was dispatched from Manila in 1821, and another freighted: this last as an English ship; both were on account of the Company.↑

97The first constitution of Spain was promulgated on March 19, 1812, during the Napoleonic invasion of that country. Fernando VII had been displaced on the throne by Joseph Bonaparte for a time, but the latter fled from Madrid, at Wellington’s approach with an English army, and Fernando (who had been imprisoned in France since 1808) was restored to Spain as its king, returning in March, 1814. After long-continued struggles with the Liberal party, Fernando restored absolutism in that country in 1823, with the aid of a French army; and the Constitution was overthrown until after Fernando’s death in 1833.—Eds.↑

98To account for the enormous difference, it will be sufficient to observe, that the Acapulco ships alone smuggle from 1–4th to 1–3d of their cargo (treasure) on shore—that opium which is prohibited, is smuggled to a considerable amount, as is also treasure, particularly gold, to avoid paying the import duties. With respect to the exports, the Chinese alone smuggle nearly a million annually, and no notice is taken in the account of treasure exported to Bengal in bars.↑

99Comyn briefly sketches this domestic commerce (pp. 43–45), but in vague and indefinite terms, save for the following paragraph: “Besides the traffic founded on the ordinary consumption, and the necessity of being furnished with goods both domestic and foreign in order to supply the fairs known by the name oftianguis, which are held weekly in almost all the villages, there is also a species of traffic peculiar to the rich Indians and Sangley mestizos (who are an industrious class, and own the greater part of the ready money). This consists in buying up beforehand the harvests of indigo, sugar, rice, etc., with the aim of afterward dictating the prices when they resell those products to him who buys at second hand.”—Eds.↑

100Large, heavy swords, which some of them wield with great dexterity.↑

101They have some few brigs and schooners, but the number of these is not much more than 20.↑

102“The Hong merchants (Chinese) were twelve in number, licensed by government as intermediate agents in trade, between foreign merchants and the Chinese people, becoming responsible for the good conduct of the former, and, at the same time, securing to the Emperor the payment of all maritime duties.” (Allen,Opium Trade, p. 45.)—Eds.↑

103Dr. Nathan Allen, in a pamphlet entitledThe Opium Trade(Lowell, Mass., 1853), presents a history of this traffic, describes its results in both China and India, and protests against its continuance. He states that opium, originally a native of Persia, spread thence into Turkey and India, being cultivated more extensively in the latter country than anywhere else in the world. In 1767 the British East India Company formed the plan of sending opium from Bengal to China, where but little of this drug had previously been sold; but they had little success in this until 1794, when they began a traffic which lasted some twenty-five years at the ports of Whampoa and Macao. In 1821, the opium merchants abandoned these places, on account of difficulties encountered in their trade, and centered it at Lintin Island, in the bay at the entrance to Canton River, where it rapidly increased. “Here might be seen large armed vessels reposing, throughout the year, at anchor, constituting a floating depot of storehouses, for receiving the opium in large quantities from the ships bringing it from India, and dealing it out in chests and cases to the Chinese junks, to be retailed at various points on shore. The Merope, Capt. Parkyns, in 1821, was the first ship that commenced the system of delivering opium at different cities along the coast of China, and from that time, the trade increased with wonderful rapidity. Eligible places also on the east and north-east coast of China were selected to station receiving vessels, to which the Chinese might easily have access, and become participators in the trade.” Allen cites many contemporary and high authorities. Among these, James Holman says, in 1830 (Travels in China, p. 162), that the opium boats “are but seldom interfered with, nor are they likely to be, so long as theFree Traderscan afford to pay the mandarins so much better for not fighting, than the government will for doing their duty. The use of opium has become so universal among the people of China, that the laws which render it penal, and the proclamations which send forth their daily fulminations against its continuance, have not the slightest effect in checking the prevalence of so general a habit. Smoking houses abound in Canton; and the inhabitants of every class who can furnish themselves with the means to obtain the pipe, are seldom without this article of general luxury. It is a propensity that has seized upon all ranks and classes, and is generally on the increase.” From the year 1800, the Chinese government tried to stop this traffic, strictly prohibiting the importation of opium; but foreign merchants paid no attention to this, and forced the trade on the Chinese people. In 1839, a Chinese official destroyed, by command of the emperor, over 20,000 chests (worth $12,000,000) of the drug at Canton; this led to a war with England, commonly known as “the Opium War.” The resulting treaty of peace compelled the Chinese to open five ports to British trade and residence, to cede the island of Hong-kong to Great Britain—at which place the opium trade then centered; and in 1845 the British authorities licensed twenty shops to sell opium at retail—and to pay heavy indemnities not only to the English government and the merchants, but for the opium destroyed, which had been legally confiscated by the emperor as contraband goods. The Chinese commissioners objected, but were threatened with renewed hostilities if they persisted, and they had to yield. During the past year negotiations looking to a cessation of the opium traffic have been carried on between Great Britain and China. The following also shows the recent growth of the drug in China. “As for the gums from the Indias, the Chinese physicians and surgeons make hardly any use of them. I do not think that in an entire year there is used in Pekin a half-livre of opium (which they callYapien); its place is supplied by using the white poppy.” (Father Parennin, in a letter dated September 20, 1740;Lettres édifiantes, ed. 1811, t. xxii, p. 274.)—Eds.↑

104One of the great drawbacks on the profits of the voyages from Europe since 1814 has been, that no light goods of value were to be obtained. An American, in 1816, remained 16 months to obtain two crops of indigo, and bought all to be got in the market. She made an excellent voyage, even with this heavy expense.↑

105At this point in the book (namely, facing p. 82) is a plan of Manila entitled “Plano de la ciudad de Manila, capital de las Yslas Filipinas,” which shows the city and its suburbs; and a second illustration showing, first, “View of Manila from the plain of Bagumbayan,” and second, “View of Manila from the sea.” The plan of Manila is from a Spanish source.—Eds.↑

106Generally, but incorrectly written, “Manilla.”↑

107Under this title is included not only the Phillippines from the Bashees and Babuyanes to Mindanao, but also from Palawan on the west to the Carolinas on the east.↑

108It has no ditch on this side.↑

109A covert from an enemy’s fire, but not intended for defense with guns; composed of gabions or bags filled with earth, or of earth heaped up.—Eds.↑

110Le Gentil states (Voyage, ii, pp. 103, 104) that Arandía was hated by the friars because he desired to demolish two churches outside the walls of Manila; these were so solid, and equipped with towers, and so near the walls, that they were a source of great danger to the city if they should fall into an enemy’s hands. “I have been assured that the friars raised the cry of heresy against M. Arandía, and that they talked of nothing less than excommunicating him; but his death stopped all that. This zealous governor actually died in 1760, before he had effected his project; but his death was not regarded as natural.” When the English appeared before Manila, Arandía’s loss was regretted, when it was too late. The English demolished the aforesaid churches and their towers, for their own safety.—Eds.↑

111That is, elevated so as to fire over the top of a parapet.—Eds.↑

112This place was afterward occupied (1824?) by “a statue of Carlos IV, in bronze, a true work of art, cast in Manila. It was erected in recognition of his having ordered the conveyance [to the islands] of vaccine virus, transmitted from arm to arm, for which purpose exclusively he arranged for the departure of a ship from Méjico, which reached Manila on April 15, 1805.” (Montero y Vidal,Archipiélago filipino, p. 301.) The same writer says (Hist. de Filipinas, ii, p. 388): “The benefits produced by vaccination among the natives, always so harassed by that pest [of smallpox], were evident,” and Folgueras made strenuous efforts to secure its propagation throughout the country. He also gave orders that the dead should not be interred within the churches, a measure which drew upon him hostilities and annoyances from the religious.” The Plaza Mayor, where the above statue stands, is now called Plaza McKinley.—Eds.↑

113And yet the ignorant natives ascribed the pest of cholera, which caused such ravages in Manila in 1820, to the poisoning of their wells by foreigners. A French physician, Dr. Charles L. Benoit, who arrived at Manila at that time, and spent four years there, states, in hisObservacións sobre el cólera morbo espasmodico(Madrid, 1832) that in this belief the Indians, usually so humble and religious, then committed innumerable crimes. See account of their massacre of foreigners, pp. 39–45,ante.—Eds.↑

114The brethren devote themselves to the care of the sick, and perform their duties most honourably and zealously; so much so, that the refectory is often supplied with little but rice for their own dinners. The other orders are richly endowed, and fare sumptuously—but they are more a-la-mode.↑

115These plates are obtained from the shell of thePlacuna placenta, a mollusk; they are generally used in place of window-glass, and by their partial opacity modify the effects of the sun’s heat.—Eds.↑

116This would appear a vulgar interpretation of a popular custom; but from this charge the writer will be exonerated, when it is known, that should a person yawn, he devoutly makes the sign of the cross before his mouth, while it continues open, to—keep the devil from him!Ex pede elephantem[i.e., “By the foot-print, one recognizes the elephant”].↑

117“When the terrible epidemic which Manila had suffered came to an end, the municipal council caused a fine cemetery to be constructed in the village of San Fernando de Dilao, commonly called Paco.” (Montero y Vidal,Historia de Filipinas, ii, p. 457.)—Eds.↑

118La Peyrouse, when speaking of the public flagellants in the Passion week, did not, I believe, do so; but though superstitious enough, this practice is no longer continued in the present day.↑

119“Thank God! I am of a noble family!”—And if they are told, “Well, but if you have nothing to eat?” “Me hago frayle,” “Well, I can be a friar,” is the answer.↑

120Le Gentil says (Voyage, ii, pp. 116, 117) that the Jesuits decided that the use of chocolate was admissible on fast days, consequently these were no mortification to most of the people.—Eds.↑

121“This is no country for an honest man”—a remark quoted, too, I think, by Le Gentil.↑

122Cervantes, whose keen but justly merited satire on many of the failings of his countrymen, is only equalled by his beautiful eulogies on many of their excellencies, has aptly described the composition of their colonies in his day.

“To the Indies—the refuge and resource of despairing Spaniards—asylum of rebels—protector of homicides—receptacle of gamblers (called by some knowing ones)—common decoy for women of loose characters—the deceiver of many, and remedy of few.”—Novela del Zeloso Estnemeno[i.e., “The jealous Estremaduran”].↑

123Andaluces: natives of Andalusia province. Montañeses:appellation of the dwellers in the hill-country of Santander province, Spain. Serviles (literally “those who are servile or fawning”): a political epithet applied to the Monarchists or Absolutists. Liberales: the Liberals in politics, much as that term is used at the present time. Le Gentil describes (Voyage, ii, p. 109) the clannishness and provincialism of the Spaniards in Manila.—Eds.↑

124This is not an isolated opinion; and in corroboration, it will be sufficient to mention, that upwards of ¾ths of all the disposableSpanishproperty in the country has been sent out of it. This fact is a volume in itself. Since this was written, two serious commotions have taken place, in the latter of which the conspirators obtained possession of the city, which was regained by storming.125↑

125Reference is here made to the rebellion incited by Novales in 1823; see account of it on pp. 47–48,ante.—Eds.↑

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