COMMERCE OF THE PHILIPINAS ISLANDS,

COMMERCE OF THE PHILIPINAS ISLANDS,AND ADVANTAGES WHICH THEY CAN YIELD TO HIS MAJESTY CARLOS IIITo the king our sovereign Carlos III:1Sire: The pressing obligation which rests upon all good vassals to render some service which shall be profitable to their sovereigns encourages my faint-heartednessto lay at the royal feet of your Majesty this work, which I offer with the utmost submission, with the assurance of my most loyal desires that your Majesty may enjoy the most prosperous and glorious reign over these dominions. [I am also urged on by] my own practical knowledge [of the subject], and the demand of the entire nation, especially of the mercantile interests—although little do they suspect that I have undertaken the enterprise with so much energy from persuading myself that my good fortune would gain for this act your Majesty’s kindly regard, which, coming to the knowledge of your loyal vassals, will be received with the utmost satisfaction,and as a proof of your paternal affection and your sincere desire for their advancement.I entreat our Lord that He will grant you all success and prosperity, and a long life, in order that these realms may enjoy for very many years the felicitous rule which the nation ought to expect from the distinguished qualifications possessed by your Majesty, from which it hopes to become more glorious than ever.Prologue to the ReaderCommerce is contemporaneous with human society, from whose necessities it was born. [The author here sketches the origin and development of commerce among civilized nations, and states how in his undertaking this work he received the approval of the late king of Spain Fernando VI.]Commerce of the Philipinas Islands; the benefit and advantages which the said islands ought to yield to his Majesty (whom may God preserve).[This will seem] a strange statement when it is considered that the Philipinas Islands since the year 1565 have caused to España every year a very great expense, without affording the least temporal advantage; and when I now try to demonstrate the advantage and benefit of them to the crown of España some will say that it is already time to stop; and others will ask, “Who is this newcomer2who soboldly tries to persuade us that the Spaniards have neglected their duty for one hundred and ninety-two years?” But so it is, and now is the time to warn them of this neglect; and, although ignorance attempts to prevent this, it shall not make me desist from the undertaking. I desire that his Majesty (whom may God preserve) may have positive knowledge of the treasure which he possesses in the Philipinas Islands; and I am undertaking to place before his Majesty plain and clear evidence that they can and ought to furnish very great profit, and maintain themselves from their own products.I make no pretensions as an author, nor do I claim to have the ability for that; therefore let us lay aside panegyrics, which are so unprofitable; for, even if this little work deserves them, that does not comport with my purpose, which is simply the service of his Majesty and the advancement of his realms.As regards all that I shall be able to state of the products of commodities which the said islands yield, in order that every one may know that I do not advocate something that is not so, I recommend (although various persons have written on the subject) to the curious the two books of the reverend master Father Pedro Murillo Velarde, of the Society of Jesus, entitledHistoria de las Islas PhilipinasandHistoria geograficaof the same Philipinas Islands.These are worthy of attention, and in regard to what is theoretical can furnish much light; as for what concerns the practical, and the experiencewhich I have acquired at the cost of much money, labor, and application, I must make evident all the following.First: We must consider what commodities or products these islands contain or produce, as well as the fact that we do not have to build castles in the air or proceed on fanciful assumptions; all that I assert shall be from my own knowledge.Second: Whether the products or commodities can be used, and to explain and demonstrate how we can avail ourselves of them; and all that I shall say on this subject will proceed from the long experience which I have had.Third: The advantages and benefits which will redound to his Majesty, to the Spaniards settled in those regions, and to the Indians themselves.The first point: As the products of the Philipinas Islands are enumerated by the reverend Father Murillo (whom may God keep in Paradise), whom I have cited, and those of each island separately, in order not to extend this little work needlessly I will state the most important ones, which are the following: Rice, sugar, cotton (of choice quality and very fine), indigo, sulphur, siguey, balate, wax, pepper, coffee, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl; gold, mines of iron, and mines of copper (like that of Japon); tobacco, brazil-wood [sibucao], and pearl-fisheries; oil, cacao, birds’-nests, and ebony wood; lead (I believe that, as for the soil in some parts of Bisayas,3it melts into lead, just as in the island of Mauricius, which belongs to the French, it melts into iron);cocoanuts, which produce abundance of oil;4horses; deer and buffaloes, from which the people make what they calltapa[i.e., dried beef], and also use the sinews; and bichuca, or rattans.5The above-mentioned products are very abundant, and exceedingly easy to collect. I do not, however, wish to include the following, for the reasons which I have mentioned: Lead, [of which] I have not personally actual experience, although I regard it as being as sure as all the others; coffee, which, as it is not cultivated, is not abundant, and its consumption is small for exportation, less than it would be for España or Europa; iron, [the working of] which, although it is very abundant, they have not yet succeeded in perfecting; the pearl-fisheries, which are not operated; copper, the mines of which are not worked; and cocoanuts, which are little used outside [the islands] except for oil and nails.6The second: The commodities that I have mentioned are exported to the places that are enumerated as follows, and sell at prices that are very profitable—although commerce has, as in all regions, its ups and downs [sus altos y bajos]. To various ports of China: rice, sugar, cotton, indigo, bichuca or rattan, balate, pepper, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl, brazil-wood, ebony,tapa, the sinews of cattle, birds’-nests, and lead when they have it. To the Malabar coast and Persia: sugar in large quantities, which is sold for money. To the Coromandel coast and Bengala: sugar, indigo, brazil-wood, sulphur, pepper, siguey, birds’-nests, cotton, and often rice.The third: The advantages and benefit which will accrue to his Majesty from the commerce and exportation of the commodities and products of those same islands are various, to wit: The more that the commodities which they need from outside can be supplied from the native products of the islands themselves, the more silver remains in the [Spanish] dominions. The more commodities or fruits are exported, so much more land will be cultivated, and many more people employed; and consequently the tributes imposed by his Majesty can be all the more easily collected, and from that time the royal exchequer will be better filled; and the vassals, by being kept busy, become more obedient and more loyal. The Spanish traders who are established there are favored [by such policy]; for they obtain their profits on both the exportation and the importation, and if one of these fail, the other will be able to supply the deficiency; but the advantage will be the greater if it can be obtained from both sources of gain. When commerce is flourishing, his Majesty will obtain greater profits from the customs duties, for which reason it is highly expedient that his Majesty encourage the cultivation of the land and the increase of its products—a thing which I do notconsider difficult of accomplishment, as I have already demonstrated in another little work, which I have placed in the hands of the ministers.7In order to demonstrate clearly how much the people of Manila could avail themselves of the products of the land, I will relate what occurred with myself (and it is a circumstance which proves what I advanced in the second point), to wit: When I was at Manila the exportation of sugar was rigorously prohibited, so that hardly could a ship carry away enough for its own supply, [the authorities] telling the vessel-owners that it was against the ordinances of his Majesty. I remained for some time under this delusion, until I had carefully examined the said ordinances, from which it was clear to me that his Majesty had decreed everything in favor of his Indian vassals, and that his royal will was, not to oppress them therein. It caused me, then, much pain to see that this thing was so entirely misunderstood, since this prohibition was diametrically opposed to it; for it forbade the people to enjoy the benefits of the country which God had given them, which the king never had intended to take away from them—especially as this [commerce] is the only means that they possess by which they can pay their tributes. Finally I undertook to establish generally the exportation of sugar. Having been warned of the difficulties, I went to the province where it8greatly abounds (which is called Pampanga),and did what I could; it was agreed that I should make an experiment, in order to please his Lordship. I consented, on the condition that a certain Don Francisco Salgado, a careful and industrious man, should be appointed my assistant; as I had not the time to execute this plan, I only gave him all [necessary] information and instructions. At last we succeeded in making indigo so good that it stood every test, the severest and most certain that are known being those of water and of fire. I sent specimens of that quality to China, the Coromandel coast, Persia, and Londres [i.e., London]; in the first three places they were anxious to obtain it, and offered good prices, and in the last-named one the indigo that had cost 500 reals vellon was sold for 2,600 reals. They will be able to manufacture every year such quantity as they desire.I believe that I have succeeded in what I undertook to demonstrate, which is as follows: First, to make known the abundance of the products of the Philipinas Islands; second, to prove from my own experience that it is easy to secure the benefit of these; third, to set forth the advantage and benefit which will accrue to his Majesty, to the Spaniards settled in those regions, and to the Indian vassals generally.I can say that charity has induced me to make known what I have already related from my own experience, seeing that all that has hitherto been written [on this subject] is very superficial; nor can the most intelligent man form from those books a stable opinion of what these islands are capable of yielding from their so abundant products.This little work is condensed, but those who are capable of comprehending it will see that it is [so]on account of being written out of thorough understanding and knowledge of what I write about, and not for lack of a very broad field in which I might descant, for it cannot be denied that there is material for filling a volume.Nevertheless, I do not claim to lay down the law, nor do I presume to change any system; my intention is only to depict things as they are, in order that his Majesty may have actual knowledge of the treasure which he possesses in these islands. No advantage results to me, nor do I expect more than to be a man ready to communicate [what he knows], and desirous to do what shall depend on a limited ability, for the greater benefit of his Majesty and the advancement of his realms. But it is already time that we show in what consists the advantage and benefit which will accrue to his Majesty from the Philipinas Islands.What precedes this serves only to demonstrate that the Spaniards settled in Manila have a broad field for carrying on a flourishing commerce, and even it would redound much to the advantage of his Majesty. But what I am earnestly advocating is cinnamon, and it is of great importance to his Majesty and worthy of his royal attention; and if I say that no one has hitherto, or since España conquered the Philipinas, made a proposition so certain, so well founded, and so advantageous to his Majesty, and to all his dominions and his vassals, it is not much to say. For it is no exaggeration when I say that it is more than the conquistador accomplished; he succeeded, with honor and glory, in conquering the islands, but they have always cost España most dearly for their maintenance. For not only do Iaim to relieve those expenses, which are so large, but those islands can in a few years become a benefit to his Majesty, and to his vassals, both Spaniards and Indians. I do not ask these gratuities,9nor that the king should spend one maravedi; my chief object and desire is, that a stable commerce be allowed from those countries to these kingdoms by the most direct route.No one is ignorant of the vast amount of silver which goes every year from España to the Dutch for the supply of cinnamon, for it is not less than many millions of pesos duros each year, as they have estimated; but I affirm that this is because they [i.e., the Spaniards] are willing to let the silver go out [of the country]. España might with as good reason send to Olanda to buy her wine as her cinnamon. I will not undertake to argue whence it comes, although I know it very well. What I am trying to do, without offending any one, is to remedy this lack which España suffers, that the Spaniards may use their good judgment and their reason and become true patriots. What a pity it is that his Majesty, possessing so noble a commodity, and being able to place it on the market—with as good success as that of Ceylán, and even at less than half of the price—should permit so many millions of silver to pass every year from his dominions to the Dutch! which is to furnish that people with arms for carrying on war when opportunity may offer. It is well known that España consumes more cinnamon than all the other nations; can there, then, be greater folly? In order (as I suppose) to humor the Dutch, Españaleaves unused the cinnamon which she has in her own house, in order to buy it from those enemies and the destroyers of the holy faith in those countries; I say that this is opposed to the Christian religion, and I prove it in a few words: if España would avail herself of this product which she could so easily dispose of, the Dutch could not maintain [their establishments in] the island of Ceylon, and then España could even introduce missions in that island. But what foolish talk! The Dutch maintain Ceilon? The Spaniards support it; they pay for its ships, its fortresses, and its garrisons which the Dutch have there—although in order to destroy these the Spaniards need neither balls, nor gunpowder, nor war. If any one thinks that this is a sweeping statement [es adelantar mucho], we are of differing opinions, because to me it seems a moderate one.I am known as a man who has accomplished much, who has traveled in many lands, and who has not passed through them heedlessly; nor have I stopped to consider the expenditure of money, or the risk to health, in order to satisfy my curiosity and obtain well grounded knowledge of all things wherever I have traveled. To the point: Samboanga, the capital of the island of Mindanao, is the place which could produce cinnamon as good as that of Ceylon, if our people knew how to cultivate it; I have already made the experiment, and it will yield the amount that I shall require. The Dutch are well aware of this, [as appears] by evidence which can be verified by me; for they, with their trained and accustomed cunning, placed in the said island a stone with the initial letters of [the name of] their companyengraved on it, like those which they are wont to place in their bales of goods, etc., by way of manifesting that these belong to the said company. The said stone was brought to Manila while I was there, and was delivered to the Marques de Obando; and his Lordship, knowing that I understood the tricks and policy of those gentlemen, sent to call me, and, showing me the stone, he said, “What is the meaning of this stone, which they have brought to me under such-and-such circumstances?” I replied to his Lordship, “It is nothing; it is a mark which the Dutch are wont to set up in order to have a pretext, when opportunity offers, for laying claim to the lands in which they have placed the said stones.”10No one, then, who understands that people—keen, mercenary, and always on the watch—will fail to agree with me, that they do not set up these stones in barren islands, unless it is evident that, on account of the location of these islands, it will not suit the Dutch to have [other people there as] close neighbors. When they abandoned the island of Maurisius, considering it uninhabitable on account of its sterility, they left no engraved stone in it. It is a circumstance which deserves attention, and is evenworthy of coming to his Majesty’s knowledge; and likewise those who have or have had practical knowledge of these matters regard them in this way. Finally, I have compared the quality of the soil at Samboanga with that of Ceylon, also the leaves of the cinnamon tree; still more, I have gathered the bark of this tree at Samboanga and made certain experiments with it, and when I compared it with that from Ceylon they were of equal value. I consider, then, [from] the manner of making these experiments with the cultivation of the soil and the culture of the cinnamon, [that] it will prove to be equal [to that of Ceylon]. Finally, in commencing the experiments which I have made—with the greatest application and industry, and enormous expenses—they are quite sufficient to prove that it will be possible, in the term of five or six years, to produce a large part of the best cinnamon which comes to Europa. This I have learned from the experiment with a quantity of chocolate which I ordered to be made in my own house at Manila; this product has been greatly liked by the ladies, and by people of taste and understanding, in the said city.In view of these proofs, which I have from actual knowledge of the method of cultivating and preparing this product, it causes me surprise that his Majesty is losing a source of profit so extensive and lucrative; and I am persuaded that if full knowledge of them could have reached the officials who might have authority to examine the subject, they would have taken suitable measures to secure this benefit—although it is certain that it would not be considered that no one hitherto has attained it [i.e., such knowledge] except that which is here explainedby myself, which is the simple truth. And as for what concerns my part, I can serve, if desirable, in carrying out a work so national and so advantageous to his Majesty—in which honor and fame spur me to place myself at the disposal of his Majesty, without causing him the expenditure of one real of silver; for, thanks to God, I have the means for travel. Nevertheless, I shall never weary in the acquisition of the precious treasures of honor and truth; for God only knows the exceeding satisfaction which I feel in being the first and only person who has had the good fortune to furnish this information, so clear and plain that, if it were published to the world, I am sure that the rest of the nations would conspire against me; for they know its great usefulness, and the little difficulty which I would find in carrying out the plan.I have been assured that the clove is found in Mindanao. I have made every possible effort to investigate this, and I believe that it is certainly so, although I cannot assert more than what experience has taught me. But I can affirm with more certainty that the nutmeg grows there, and needs only to be cultivated; also pepper of the best quality, and most delicious, can be had in abundance. At present the only thing left for us is to reflect upon the many advantages and incredible benefits which will accrue to his Majesty, and to his dominions and vassals, both Spaniards and Indians, without costing him a real vellon to establish this commerce. The English and Dutch, on the other hand, will spend millions to prevent the success of this great project, for which reason it is evidently necessary to maintain the utmost secrecy regarding it.Recapitulation of the advantages and benefits of this commerceFirst: The millions of pesos duros which now pass out of the domains of his Majesty, with which the Dutch are enriching themselves and promoting their main commerce, that of the cinnamon; they will have so much less for hostilities against España, the more that this matter of the cinnamon is pushed in that country, thus rendering it impossible for them to carry away the silver thence.Second: Great numbers of Indians would be employed who now have no way in which to make a living or to pay their tributes; by this means not only would they be relieved [from their burdens], but it would be with great increase to the royal exchequer; and through their application and gains they would consequently be more faithful and constant vassals, while now idleness and vices prevent them from being such.Third: The Philipinas Islands are suffering severely from the lack of communication by a direct route with España; this could be easily secured by arming the ships there, which need from España more people than a few officers; and it would be very desirable to transport for those islands some artisans whom they will need for promoting and cultivating the various products of the land.Fourth: The more that the lands are cultivated and their products made available, the greater will be the number of men and of infidel Indians that will be needed; and consequently they will submit [to Spanish authority], and be converted into loyal vassals and friends, and Christianity will be increasedin those regions, without any fear that the Moro and infidel enemies can disturb them.Fifth: It will be possible to equip every year three or four ships of six hundred to a thousand toneladas each, and despatch them for Europa with cinnamon, pepper, and other spices which will be produced there; and in return they will go back with various commodities and fruits, the products of España, which the people of Manila always find themselves compelled to buy from the English and Dutch, carrying away the money for them. In this manner not only will these gains remain within the dominions of his Majesty, without the other nations being able to draw thence the money with which they carry on war, [to the] injury of the commerce of España, but by this means the [Spanish] dominions that are so remote will come to be to a large extent dependent one upon another; and as the intercourse between them would be mutual and friendly, the Indians consequently would have occasion to see and experience the greatness [of the Spanish power]. Thus they would come to be more faithful and loyal vassals, and returning to their own lands, would influence their countrymen to be the same.Sixth: No one will deny my statement that the cinnamon would [thus] be obtained at a much less cost [by the Spaniards] than that at which the Dutch can sell it, unless [they encounter] less risk and danger—[which are] so manifest that for the preservation of this commerce they find themselves compelled to maintain a great number of troops and keep up many forts and garrisons, solely to defend themselves. Let to all this be added the governors, and the enormous number of people whom they have intheir service, with some very large expenses which arise from the various opinions of the companies—the costs of which, so ill applied, render the cinnamon more expensive (although in reality its cost is low), and it is certain that their commerce in spices does not prove to be so profitable as the nations assert. Very differently, then, will it be in favor of España when she reaches the cultivation of the cinnamon; for in place of the great expenses which his Majesty has had ever since he took possession of the said island, without its producing any benefit, he will obtain the greatest advantages without spending a real vellon more than at present. Especially, labor will be found as cheap, and the cultivation of the soil as easy, as in Ceylon; and the navigation can be made with the same advantages that [other] nations [possess], or even greater. For this reason the cinnamon will cost the merchants forty or fifty per cent less than they have actually paid hitherto. It is certain that it is a very serious damage which España generally suffers in her commerce, from paying, through this negligence, the freight charges of the Dutch ships, and the cost of their officers and seamen; and they even maintain their fortifications, etc., with the money which they obtain from España for this product of cinnamon.Seventh: Likewise, there would be great advantage to España in the ships which would come from the Philipinas, as I have said (in the fifth point); for they would return laden with many fruits and products of these kingdoms of España.Eighth: The Americans would likewise share in this great benefit; for the cinnamon, for which they are today paying so exorbitant a price, they wouldobtain at very nearly the same price at which it is usually sold in Cadiz.Ninth: If the cinnamon should become cheap, much chocolate would be consumed by the poor; and consequently the duties would amount to much more, to the advantage of his Majesty.Notwithstanding that the greatness of the enterprise is clearly demonstrated, and no additional information is needed, two things ought to be noted. First, that no damage or expense can result to his Majesty. Second, that from this arrangement, it is evident and positive, not the least injury or disadvantage ensues to España or to America; rather, it is a triple benefit, and indispensable—which, [however,] without general experience and practical knowledge it would be impossible to bring about without each dominion injuring the other; for in this consists the superiority of a man who is an expert.[The writer then proceeds to mention the spiritual advantages which would result from the temporal; but his argument becomes somewhat lame here, reducing itself to the “hope that, with the help of our Lord, a firm and permanent peace with the Moros may be secured” He makes an interesting statement regarding the extent of the ravages committed by the Mindanao pirates: “I am certain, from accurate information, that during the government of the Marqués de Obando he cost the king eight millions of reals vellon [for this purpose], although he proceeded with the utmost economy and care in the manner in which he used the royal revenue; and, having made in the year 1755 a calculation of the expenses which these piracies werecausing to his Majesty and his vassals (both Spaniards and Indians) from the ravages made by the Moros and infidels during the eight years preceding, it amounted to about eighty millions of reals vellon,” not to mention the killing of priests and native Christians. Of course, if peace is secured with the Moros, the progress and extension of the missions in the islands is assured. The writer again declares his devotion to the service of God and the king, his readiness to explain his plans further to those who desire more information, and his confidence that they will command the confidence of men of understanding, judgment, and patriotism.]Although through experience (tempus edrax rerum) one can come to know the utility and advantage which will accrue from the execution of this so vast enterprise, I trust that I have demonstrated it quite sufficiently to render it worthy of the consideration of his Majesty; nevertheless, seeing how much is involved, it is fitting for my honor to furnish proofs, the most detailed and circumstantial. This induces me to quote part of the lading which came in seventeen ships of the Company of Olanda, as published in theGazetteof Amsterdam, dated on July 3 of this present year, one thousand seven hundred and fifty-nine—products which are and may be those of the very islands in question; and in order to show how very important it is to give attention to what is herein proposed, each commodity is valued at the regular price which it can bring in the ports of Cadiz, Alicante, etc.PricesLibras[Commodities]Reals vellon per librareals vellon Total,4,672,746of pepper732,709,22250,000of nutmeg391,950,00060,000of mace704,200,000360,000of cloves5018,000,000375,840of cinnamon5821,198,7203,000of candied nutmeg60180,0002,398of candied cloves70167,860883,142of sugar3.9411[3,424,000]40,490of camphor16649,8406,582of benzoin22134,93610,500of borax15157,50012,146of gum-lac12145,7523,000of gum myrrh1236,0003,514of gamboge1656,22420,049of indigo, superior30601,470[Total,] eighty-three millions, six hundred and eleven thousand, five hundred and twenty-four reals vellon.83,611,524I have taken into consideration the objections which may be brought forward by persons who are little acquainted with trade, and these are reduced, substantially, to the following: That the consumption of these commodities in the dominions of his Majesty cannot be regulated by the above calculation.They speak glibly; but, in order not to lose time with these persons, I answer them, that one is compelled to encounter ignorance, but the only concern of great souls is to serve faithfully their kings and nations, and endure the calumnies which are uttered against honest men—imitating the stars, which, no matter how much the dogs bark, do not cease to shine down upon them and to follow their own courses. Accordingly, let us proceed to truths which are plain:First: that the Dutch carry these commodities in large quantities, as is above stated—a proof that there is a consumption for that amount, and that this is a profitable trade. Second: that the calculation which I have made cannot be defective, since the [amounts of the] commodities agree with the figures published by the Dutch themselves; and the prices are obtained from the Company of Druggists, in accordance with what they pay for the goods at the ports. Third: that the greater part [of these commodities], and the most important ones, if not [all], can be the products of the Philipinas Islands. Fourth: that these commodities must cost much less than in Olanda, or in any other country, is manifest and undeniable for this reason, that the Dutch are obliged to incur enormous expenses—for governors, members of council, lesser servants without number, and many troops—in order to maintain their establishments; and these expenses increase just so much the prices of their spices, so that, if they buy these from the [Eastern] nations at ten, the goods are worth to them twenty-five. This would not occur with us, because the king does not need to increase the expenses in order to secure the advancement of the islands. It would be entirely different; for, ifthese plantations are established, thousands of Indians who now are suffering the utmost poverty without having any opportunity to work, and for the same reason cannot pay their tributes, would have a means of gaining their living and of paying their tributes, and on this very account it would serve much for the increase of the royal revenue.As these Indians are not paid for their labor at higher rates than are those among whom the Dutch reside, we must reckon, for the reasons here stated, that those same commodities would cost much less, and that the Spaniards could sell them at lower prices than do the Dutch; and, as the merchant in every country buys where he will find his greatest advantage, España would be the fair for these commodities which have already enriched so many nations. But let us proceed to reveal the cunning of the Dutch, who furnish only three millions, seven hundred and fifty thousand, eight hundred and forty libras of cinnamon—which, at the rate of sixteen onzas a libra, make six12millions, thirteen thousand, four hundred and forty onzas. The rule for making chocolate is to take ten libras of cacao, ten of sugar, and eight onzas of cinnamon, or even less, and on account of the waste13it is computed that the result will betwenty libras net; consequently, from the three millions, seven hundred and fifty thousand, eight hundred and forty libras of cinnamon could be madefifteen millions, thirty-three thousand, six hundred libras of chocolate.Although it is folly to make such a proposition, I ask whether there are not in España,14all America,the Philipinas Islands, and, in short, all the so various domains of his Majesty, counting all these together, four millions of persons who drink chocolate sixty-four times in the year, in accordance with the rule of one onza for each time. Even the most ignorant or malicious person will not deny my proposition; this makes, then, the consumption of chocolate sixteen millions of libras, and for making it there will be needed four hundred thousand libras of cinnamon.Hence are drawn two conclusions. One is, the extreme craftiness of the Dutch, in not furnishing more than the said quantity in order to supply the Spaniards, and in making them believe that they will be left without chocolate; and thus they succeed in obliging the Spaniards to pay for the cinnamon at the very high prices which the Dutch have fixed in these recent years—for it is a hundred per cent more costly, and fifty per cent worse in quality; therefore there is an increase of a hundred and fifty per cent in favor of the Dutch, and of three hundred per cent to the injury of España, who without reason endures this tyranny. Therefore, if the Dutch are not mistaken in the estimate of cinnamon which they published in theGazette, and as the consumption [of that spice] in España is as I have made evident, there will not be cinnamon to supply all the nations; nevertheless, there will be no lack of it in any of them.15Second: since it is so evident that in the dominions of his Majesty there is consumed in [the beverageof] chocolate alone (without counting the numerous kinds of food in which use is made of it) sixteen millions of libras, and in order to make it there are needed four hundred thousand of cinnamon, at the rate of fifty-eight reals vellon that quantity will cost twenty-three millions, three hundred thousand reals vellon, which is the least that España could advance for the execution of the project. Moreover, I do not know any reason for not admitting the commodity of pepper—which not only is so exceedingly abundant in the islands, but I persuade myself that, since it is so excellent in its crude state, it would with skilful treatment be better than that of any [other] country. It is also plain to us that the Dutch bring [to Europa] four millions, six hundred and seventy-two thousand, seven hundred and forty-six libras of it; they assure me that only because of the great abundance of garlic16in España the pepper brings no more than seven reals vellon a libra—[at which rate] the above quantity will amount to thirty-two millions, seven [hundred] and nine thousand, two hundred and twenty-two reals vellon. This added to the twenty-three millions, three hundred thousand reals [for cinnamon] will make fifty-six millions, nine thousand, two hundred and twenty-two reals vellon.People will say, “Where would we consume so much pepper?” Then where does Olanda consume it, I would like to know? “[And there are] Francia and Inglaterra; do they bring much less [to Europa]?” Do not those who ask such questionsknow how much the king is paying to Norbega [i.e., Norway] and the northern countries for lumber, cordage, etc., for the construction in his royal navy? and that, if it happens that care is not given in time to the planting of oak groves, he will need much more [from those countries]?—At present these commodities are paid for in ready money, which would not be the case if we could give the merchants there the pepper, etc., so cheaply (or at less expense than [if purchased from] another country), on account of the great consumption of pepper which there is in those countries, and because this would be a [form of] trade that is mutually advantageous, as I have already said, for the day-laborer and the shepherd. It would be permanent, and many millions of reals which now leave España would remain here, to the greatest advantage not only of his Majesty, but of his vassals. I say, then, that no one is able to deny these two propositions, of which his Majesty will be best able to judge. Have I heard some one argue that España has17need of preventing thus the exportation of silver? Such arguments are foolish, and one should laugh at them.Do we not know that Olanda commands that a very large part of the spice product be burned and destroyed, in order that a commodity which brings her so enormous a profit should not, through its excessive abundance, contribute to her loss? I say, then, that if España reaches an excessive abundance of silver, it would be far better for the king to command that the mines be closed, or to fling the silver into the sea, than to let it pass into the hands of those whotomorrow can avail themselves of it to carry on war [against España]. Others I have heard talk [on this subject], so frivolously that I was astounded, hinting at the resentment of this other nation if España should profit by what is her own—that is, the execution of the proposition [that I have made]. That is the same as to say that Inglaterra or any other nation could declare that España shall not cultivate the ground or sow the wheat, because it suited that nation to supply it; it is to talk very heedlessly, without knowing that España can limit the commerce of Francia, Inglaterra, and Olanda whenever she desires, without cannon-ball or gunpowder, by the prohibition of silver alone. If she chooses to deprive any one of those countries of this advantage, she has only to calculate what she owes to the other two for the net balance of their trade, and then not allow any more silver to go out to those countries; and these, needing it for themselves, will not be able to supply the other one. I can assert that España, if she would avail herself of the rights which God has given her, would make herself more worthy of respect by depriving the [other] nations of what is essential, not only for their commerce, but for waging war to advantage.I believe that no one will dispute the advantages and benefit which can accrue from the Philipinas Islands, and it is this which from the outset I have attempted to demonstrate, although I omit, for the sake of brevity, the explanation of many things.Keeping in mind how much I owe to the infinite mercy and goodness of supreme Providence, in the second part of the work alluded to, which I presume to present to his Majesty, I have treated at lengthof the ravages which the Moros have committed during very many years in those islands, and of the exceeding damage which they thus cause to our holy Roman Catholic and apostolic faith, for I cannot do less. Indeed, it is evident that God has assisted me with His divine Grace; and therefore I certainly ought to defend and, if it should be necessary, die for His cause. Accordingly, in whatever concerns the subjection of the Moros, and consequently the protection and advancement of the holy faith in those islands, I hope to deserve that his Majesty will do me the honor of appointing six lieutenant-commanders—three from his royal navy, and three from his army—in order that they may examine with the utmost care the plan upon which I have based my proposition, giving their opinions in writing for presentation to his Majesty, in two copies, one for his Majesty’s royal Council of the Indias, the other for myself.When this examination shall be made, and the plan approved by the king if such be his royal will, I will immediately proceed to furnish the plan of the whole matter which I have drawn up for the execution of the project—from which, after further investigations (which are very just, and perhaps will be quite unprecedented) his Majesty can more easily decide what shall be most expedient in this matter, as also the selection of persons for the said purpose.As for what pertains to the commerce, for greater certainty I deemed it expedient to communicate my intention to Don Antonio Butlert [sic], formerly a merchant of Cadiz—since he is distinguished not only for his great success in business and his genuine friendship to this nation, but by his long experience in and thorough knowledge of the commerce of thesedominions—asking him to give me his disinterested opinion on the subject, in which he should consider with the utmost attention the general welfare of these dominions; and this opinion I have, in writing, and signed with the name of his firm, which reads “Butlert and Matheos.”Some persons who are little acquainted with affairs so vast, and who have still less ability to make ready for the great things which remain to be done, will suppose that the execution [of this plan] is easy, to one who has the writings which I have already furnished; nevertheless, if they engaged in the undertaking they would find themselves much mistaken, and the result would be greatly to the detriment of the nation.Warned by what I have passed through, and dreading [the effects of] ignorance and malice, I have reached the decision to supplicate the king to grant me the honor of this examination—desiring, whatever may fall to my lot, to prove that I have no other purpose than to serve faithfully both Majesties and their vassals, and entreating them for this end to dispose of my life and person, of which I will gladly make sacrifice in proof of my loyalty and sincere devotion.Extracts from the proposition of Don Nicolas Norton Nicols; the conditions which he requires; the benefits and advantages which will accrue to his Majesty and his vassals, on whose account his Majesty was pleased to issue a decree on the twenty-third of February last.The aim of the said proponent is, to establish in the Philipinas Islands plantations of cinnamon, pepper, other spices, etc., and to open a direct commercebetween the said islands and Cadiz, by way of the Cape of Good Hope.Conditions.—That he shall be permitted to undertake the said route from Cadiz, or may go to the said islands and make the voyage from there to Cadiz, as he shall find most convenient. If he shall set out from Cadiz, on account of not having time to build ships he shall be permitted to buy whatever vessels [he may need], without excepting those of foreigners. The cargo from Cadiz must consist of different fruits, liquids,18and commodities that are products of España and of her commerce, as on the return voyage it must be from the various products and commodities of the said islands and of their commerce. That his Majesty remit the duties for the first voyage, and that the proponent be permitted to embark freely at Cadiz the silver that he needs to defray the purchase of his return cargo. On the second voyage he shall pay at Cadiz not only the five per cent duties but the three per cent of the silver which he shall thereafter embark, as is done with the [traders of foreign] nations. In order to obviate any objection, he will not enter any port belonging to his Majesty or to any power of Europa; he shall, however, be permitted to enter and anchor at any one of the Indian ports, whether in these or in those seas, and therein buy, sell, exchange, or lade the goods which shall be offered to him.The advantages, etc., will be the following: His Majesty will not subject his royal revenue to any expense, nor will it be exposed to the evil designs of men, or to the doubtful patriots who pretend tohave knowledge. There is no treaty that can be set against him, as he can prove. By the most moderate computation, the Dutch annually export four millions of pesos for the spice-trade; this, therefore, is to make them powerful, to the injury of España. Norvega, St. Petersbourgh, and other countries demand a great amount of cash for lumber, pitch, cordage, sails, etc., for the royal shipbuilding, the greater part of which would be paid for in spices, as these are greatly liked in those countries. Equivalent injury to España, as is stated above.19The commodities and products of España would have a much larger market. A strong stimulus to the cultivation of the soil. His Majesty would experience much relief in the expenses of transportation for the missions. This navigation would serve as a nursery for the navy, as is found by experience in other countries. The direct communication would serve as a check on a thousand abuses, not only in the government of the islands, but in other matters. If his Majesty should grant this privilege to the said islands, it would be most just that the commonwealth of Manila should carry on its commerce with Acapulco at its own cost, without laying the burden of it on his Majesty. By not possessing this commerce when she can have it, España is maintaining thousands of strangers in place of a like number of her own vassals; [the latter would] redound to the increase of the royal revenue, and in the course of years to the propagation of the holy faith. The Moros, who now are by their wars destroying the felicitous progress ofthe Christian religion, when they found by experience how much more it suited their own interests to maintain peace and commerce with the Spaniards than to wage war against them, would inviolably observe their treaties; for, notwithstanding the cruelties which the Dutch practice against their Indians, the latter tolerate them on account of the advantages of their commerce. The people of Manila will, when they have a market for their products, cultivate the land; they will establish family estates, and enrich themselves; and their riches, like those of the Americans, will finally come to España. The duties which your Majesty would receive from this new commerce would in a very few years amount to very considerable sums. It would be a stimulus to other new commercial undertakings, which would be beneficial to his Majesty and his vassals.The whole matter in small compassHis Majesty, without risking anything, is going to gain infinitely more than what has been [here] stated. The method of securing these vast benefits is the easiest and safest which can be put into practice, and itself makes plain the useful and salutary design of the proponent.Don Nicolas Norton Nicols1“By the marriage with Elizabeth Farnese (ancestry normal), Philip V had, as an heir, Charles III, of Spain, who was the best of the more modern sovereigns of that country—in fact, the only normal one since before the days of the Emperor Charles V, now seven generations in the background. Not that Charles III inherited any of the ancient genius, for that had gone, never to appear again. He was, however, ([to cite] Hume), ‘an enlightened, generous, and just king and a noble and magnanimous man,’ and (Rose’sBiographical Dictionary) ‘possessed abilities as a monarch, and virtues as a private citizen, ... was a popular sovereign and a great economist of time, scrupulously methodical in all his operations.’” Thus writes Dr. F. A. Woods, in hisHeredity in Royalty(New York, 1906), pp. 155, 156—a book which endeavors, on scientific lines, to ascertain the influence of heredity as displayed in the royal families of Europe. The chapter on the rulers of Spain is found at pp. 124–171. He says (p. 138): “The origin of the well-known insanity in the Spanish and Austrian houses, perpetuated over thirteen generations and involving more than a score of individuals, is a very interesting question. It cannot be traced with certainty prior to Isabella, the Queen of John II, of Castile. This Isabella was out and out insane, according to the English alienist, W. W. Ireland; and from her, onward, the insanity passed along in one form or another by the very intermarriages which their pride and political motives caused them to arrange, with the intended idea of making permanent their world power, but with the inevitable result of losing that same prestige by placing it in the hands of the unfortunate children whose inheritance was necessarily mental weakness as the result of such unwise wedlocks.”For account of Carlos III’s reign, see Manuel Danvila y Collado’sReinado de Carlos III(Madrid, 1894). An interesting description of this monarch’s character and mode of life may be found in theDublin Magazinefor April, 1763, pp. 238, 239; it is written by a clergyman named Clark, “chaplain to the Earl of Bristol, late ambassador at the court of Madrid.” He says, among other things: “He is the greatest Nimrod of his time: he sacrifices everything to this favorite pleasure; he was disgusted at his public entry, because ithinderedhim of four days sport. He stayed three days at Toledo, and killed six wild mountain-cats, which, as I was well informed by those who had calculated the expence of that expedition, cost him exactly 1000 l. a cat.” “It has been imagined that he is a very weak prince, and of little or no understanding: Ir is a great mistake; he has some parts, but is mulish and obstinate to the last degree; and, by being constantly flattered, he imagines that he has more understanding than he really possesses. He is reserved beyond the common reserve of princes, has no confidant, and communicates his will only by his orders to put into execution. He can neither be led nor driven; all must come from himself.” “He allows no minister to remonstrate or argue with him.” “He arrested and banished the inquisitor-general, and sent him prisoner to a convent. He engaged in the present war with England, contrary to the sentiments of his ministers, and in direct opposition to the voice of the whole nation.”↑2A copy of the naturalization papers of Nicolas Norton y Nicols as a Spaniard exists in the Archivo general de Indias at Sevilla; its pressmark is, “Est. 105, caj. 2, leg. 13, libro 12, fol. 226b-229b,” and the document is dated at Aranjuez, August 3, 1758. Norton became a Catholic, and was allowed to trade in the Philippines. The allusion to “192 years” is somewhat incorrect, if he refers to the first discovery of the islands, which occurred in 1565; or else he may have begun to write out this proposal to the king as early as 1757, which would tally with the above numbers.↑3In the text,Bisarjas, evidently a clerical error. This, and a few similar discrepancies in the MS., strengthen the conjecture that it is not written by Norton’s own hand; it was probably dictated by him to an amanuensis.↑4See articles describing the cocoanut, its uses, culture, etc., inCensus of the Philippine Islands, iv, pp. 53–76; its uses are thus characterized (p. 72): “Briefly summed up, its timber can be employed in every form of house construction; its foliage in making mats, sacks, and thatches; its fruit in curry and sweet-meats; its oil for medicine, cookery, and illumination; its various uses in the manufacture of wines, spirits, sugar, and vinegar.” See also various scientific articles regarding the culture of the cocoanut palm, its enemies, and the qualities of its oil, in thePhilippine Journal of Science, Manila, 1906 (published by the Philippine government).↑5Spanish,cañas, which (as sometimes elsewhere) indicates that this name was bestowed indifferently on the bamboo and the rattan; but the latter is here meant, of course, as being namedbichuca(forbejuco).↑6Spanish,clauos; apparently meaning that the natives used in their housebuilding wedges made from the wood of the cocoanut tree as a substitute for iron nails.↑7Probably alluding to a document which is preserved in the Archivo de Indias at Sevilla, by Norton y Nicols, dated at Madrid, September 2, 1757; it will be mentioned in the bibliographical section of this series (VOL. LIII).↑8The context would imply that sugar is here referred to; but the writer does not mention it again, and seems to have abandoned his attempt to export it.↑9Spanish,estas ayudas de, followed by a blank space, doubtless intended to be filled bycostas.↑10Concepción mentions this stone (Hist. de Philipinas, xii, p. 25), found on a site selected by the Dutch; they had marked “a stone with the letter T, which, as it was interpreted, signified, ‘annexed to Terrenate.’ This same token they had placed in other uninhabited islands in the vicinity. This marked stone was dug up by the sultan of Mindanao, who sent it to the governor of Samboangan, Don Pedro Zacharias. Two Dutch chalupas went to call the Mindanaos to account for this act, intending to obtain satisfaction for it by placing the marked stone in the locality of Silangan, on the mainland of Mindanao; but Radiamura courageously drove back the Dutch who made a landing—who, in retreating, swore to return with adequate forces for that enterprise.”↑11There is some confusion or error in these figures, which read, in the MS., “35 = 3.94 @ 2,82:600.” Without them, the totals amount to 80,187,524; subtracting this from the entire total, there remains a balance of 3,424,000, apparently indicating the value of the sugar—save that the total for benzoin is erroneously figured in the MS.; it should be 144,804. The MS. is also uncertain on some of the other totals.↑12The writer (or more probably his amanuensis) has made an error in transcribing these sums; “six millions” should read “sixty millions,” and at the end of the paragraph the amount of chocolate should be “one hundred and fifty” instead of “fifteen” millions. The remaining figures are correct.↑13“In 1618, according to the testimony of Dr. Marradón, of Marchena, to one hundred cacao-beans must be added a pound and a half of sugar, two onzas of cinnamon, fourteen grains of Mexican pepper, a half-onza of cloves, and two reals’ weight of anise and annotto; and one might add almonds, nuts, and orange-flower water. Years afterward Dr. Colmenero of Ledesma modified this formula, making the paste in the proportion of one hundred cacao-beans, one-half libra of sugar, two granos of pepper, anise, cloves, Alexandrian [i.e., white] roses, logwood, cinnamon, almonds, nuts, and a sufficient quantity of annotto to give it color.”Until the end of the eighteenth century chocolate was prepared mainly by hand-labor. “In the seventeenth century, the preparation of the chocolate was made by artisans, who received twelve reals and anazumbre[i.e., about half a gallon] of wine for preparing each day the portion of chocolate from sixteen libras of clear cacao. The chocolate, thus prepared and sold under the name of ‘health chocolate,’ often contained special ingredients, chosen on account of the fashion, or of the taste of the consumers; and if in those times great praise was given to the chocolate which contained aromatic essences—vanilla, amber, and orange—certainly not less famous on that account was the chocolate of Madrid with its doradilla [i.e., ceterach], that of Ávila with its pimentón [i.e., a large variety of pepper], and that of Pamplona with its pepper and ginger. Fray Manuel Ordoñez says, referring to the paste which we are considering, that ‘in the past century it was sold only in the apothecary shops, like physicians’ prescriptions, for our cure;’ and from this citation we may infer not only that chocolate was regarded as a special medicine, but that it was considered as a therapeutic agent, worthy of being kept by the pharmacists of the seventeenth century. Later, in the eighteenth century, the preparation of chocolate began to be made by the guild of spice-dealers, its ingredients being reduced to the cacao, cinnamon or vanilla, and sugar; and the custom became somewhat general of adding to the paste some biscuit-dough, in order to make it thicker when it was diluted with water. At the same time when the ‘health chocolate’ was sold in the spice-shops, a medicinal chocolate was prepared in the apothecary shops, in which the principal products of the pharmacopeia entered as ingredients. As the preparation of chocolate had become general in the convents, in attempting to compete with the spice-dealers the friars did not think of making it of better quality; but, in order to sell it more cheaply, they subtracted from cacao and cinnamon what they added in ingredients that were not always harmless for the parishioner’s health. In order that the importance of this adulteration may be estimated, it is sufficient to cite some of the additions most used, as wheat flour, rice flour; ground lentils, peas, beans, and maize; starch, potato starch, and dextrine; olive oil, sweet almond oil, yolk of egg, tallow of veal and mutton; storax, chestnut [flour], gum tragacanth; cinnabar, red oxide of mercury, red lead, carbonate of lime, etc.” The manufacture of chocolate has been conducted almost entirely by machinery during the past century, and has accordingly thrown out the majority of the artisans who made it by hand. (José del Carmenal, cited in Gräfenberg’sSpanisches Lesebuch, Frankfurt, 1899, pp. 7–11.)↑14At the end of the atlas volume in Raynal’sÉtablissemens et commerce des Européensis a tabular “Enumeration of the population of Spain, prepared in 1768 by order of his Lordship Conde de Aranda, president of the Council of Castilla.” The population is given separately for each of the eight archbishoprics (which contain 48 bishoprics, 2 of them “exempt”). The lay population was thus classed: married persons, 1,724,567 men and 1,714,505 women; unmarried (presumably including children), 2,809,069 boys and 2,911,858 girls; total, 9,159,999. Add the number of the clergy (both regular and secular), which was 147,805, and the entire population numbered 9,307,804. Two curious discrepancies may be noted: the number of married men is greater than that of the married women by 10,062, and the girls exceed the boys by 102,789 (this latter an excess of about 3⅔ per cent). The only region in which the number of married men is practically the same as that of married women is the archdiocese of Valencia, and the only one where the same thing is true of the boys and girls is the archdiocese of Zaragoza. The greatest discrepancy in the numbers of both these classes is found in the archdiocese of Burgos, where there were 197,064 married men, and only 185,997 married women; and it had 330,428 girls and only 310,545 boys. Highly significant is the enumeration of the privileged classes, of whom in the total population there were 846,657, thus classified: those enjoying royal privileges, 89,393; in the department of finances, 27,577; in that of the Crusade, 4,248; in that of the Inquisition, 2,645; in the nobility, 722,794. It is to be observed that three-fourths of all the privileged class are found in the archdiocese of Burgos and the two exempt bishoprics—in the former, 324,661; in the latter, 306,378. Not less interesting are the statistics of the ecclesiastical estate. In the 16,427 cities and villages were 18,106 parishes, which were served by 15,641 curas. There were 2,004 monasteries, containing 55,453 religious; and 1,026 convents with 26,465 nuns. All these religious orders employed also 8,552 persons as procurators and treasurers, and with the orders were affiliated 26,294 laymen. In the service of the churches were 25,248 laymen; and besides the curas there were 50,246 chaplains and beneficed priests. The total of all these items is 147,805, the number above given.↑15A literal translation of the text; but there seems to be some omission or confusion in the statement. Possibly the writer intended to make it contingent on the success of his project for making cinnamon plantations.↑16In the text,aljoresesite; there is no such word in the lexicons, and it probably is an error (perhaps of an amanuensis) forajo aceite, the name of a pungent preparation of garlic, oil, etc., which is used in the southern countries of Europe as a condiment.↑17Thus in original, but the context would indicate that “no” was omitted here.↑18Spanish,caldos: a term applied to the wine, oil, and brandy that are transported by sea (Dominguez).↑19The somewhat fragmentary nature of these statements indicates the probability that they are but memoranda, and the whole MS. a rough draft, which was to be presented to the king in revised and improved form.↑

COMMERCE OF THE PHILIPINAS ISLANDS,AND ADVANTAGES WHICH THEY CAN YIELD TO HIS MAJESTY CARLOS IIITo the king our sovereign Carlos III:1Sire: The pressing obligation which rests upon all good vassals to render some service which shall be profitable to their sovereigns encourages my faint-heartednessto lay at the royal feet of your Majesty this work, which I offer with the utmost submission, with the assurance of my most loyal desires that your Majesty may enjoy the most prosperous and glorious reign over these dominions. [I am also urged on by] my own practical knowledge [of the subject], and the demand of the entire nation, especially of the mercantile interests—although little do they suspect that I have undertaken the enterprise with so much energy from persuading myself that my good fortune would gain for this act your Majesty’s kindly regard, which, coming to the knowledge of your loyal vassals, will be received with the utmost satisfaction,and as a proof of your paternal affection and your sincere desire for their advancement.I entreat our Lord that He will grant you all success and prosperity, and a long life, in order that these realms may enjoy for very many years the felicitous rule which the nation ought to expect from the distinguished qualifications possessed by your Majesty, from which it hopes to become more glorious than ever.Prologue to the ReaderCommerce is contemporaneous with human society, from whose necessities it was born. [The author here sketches the origin and development of commerce among civilized nations, and states how in his undertaking this work he received the approval of the late king of Spain Fernando VI.]Commerce of the Philipinas Islands; the benefit and advantages which the said islands ought to yield to his Majesty (whom may God preserve).[This will seem] a strange statement when it is considered that the Philipinas Islands since the year 1565 have caused to España every year a very great expense, without affording the least temporal advantage; and when I now try to demonstrate the advantage and benefit of them to the crown of España some will say that it is already time to stop; and others will ask, “Who is this newcomer2who soboldly tries to persuade us that the Spaniards have neglected their duty for one hundred and ninety-two years?” But so it is, and now is the time to warn them of this neglect; and, although ignorance attempts to prevent this, it shall not make me desist from the undertaking. I desire that his Majesty (whom may God preserve) may have positive knowledge of the treasure which he possesses in the Philipinas Islands; and I am undertaking to place before his Majesty plain and clear evidence that they can and ought to furnish very great profit, and maintain themselves from their own products.I make no pretensions as an author, nor do I claim to have the ability for that; therefore let us lay aside panegyrics, which are so unprofitable; for, even if this little work deserves them, that does not comport with my purpose, which is simply the service of his Majesty and the advancement of his realms.As regards all that I shall be able to state of the products of commodities which the said islands yield, in order that every one may know that I do not advocate something that is not so, I recommend (although various persons have written on the subject) to the curious the two books of the reverend master Father Pedro Murillo Velarde, of the Society of Jesus, entitledHistoria de las Islas PhilipinasandHistoria geograficaof the same Philipinas Islands.These are worthy of attention, and in regard to what is theoretical can furnish much light; as for what concerns the practical, and the experiencewhich I have acquired at the cost of much money, labor, and application, I must make evident all the following.First: We must consider what commodities or products these islands contain or produce, as well as the fact that we do not have to build castles in the air or proceed on fanciful assumptions; all that I assert shall be from my own knowledge.Second: Whether the products or commodities can be used, and to explain and demonstrate how we can avail ourselves of them; and all that I shall say on this subject will proceed from the long experience which I have had.Third: The advantages and benefits which will redound to his Majesty, to the Spaniards settled in those regions, and to the Indians themselves.The first point: As the products of the Philipinas Islands are enumerated by the reverend Father Murillo (whom may God keep in Paradise), whom I have cited, and those of each island separately, in order not to extend this little work needlessly I will state the most important ones, which are the following: Rice, sugar, cotton (of choice quality and very fine), indigo, sulphur, siguey, balate, wax, pepper, coffee, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl; gold, mines of iron, and mines of copper (like that of Japon); tobacco, brazil-wood [sibucao], and pearl-fisheries; oil, cacao, birds’-nests, and ebony wood; lead (I believe that, as for the soil in some parts of Bisayas,3it melts into lead, just as in the island of Mauricius, which belongs to the French, it melts into iron);cocoanuts, which produce abundance of oil;4horses; deer and buffaloes, from which the people make what they calltapa[i.e., dried beef], and also use the sinews; and bichuca, or rattans.5The above-mentioned products are very abundant, and exceedingly easy to collect. I do not, however, wish to include the following, for the reasons which I have mentioned: Lead, [of which] I have not personally actual experience, although I regard it as being as sure as all the others; coffee, which, as it is not cultivated, is not abundant, and its consumption is small for exportation, less than it would be for España or Europa; iron, [the working of] which, although it is very abundant, they have not yet succeeded in perfecting; the pearl-fisheries, which are not operated; copper, the mines of which are not worked; and cocoanuts, which are little used outside [the islands] except for oil and nails.6The second: The commodities that I have mentioned are exported to the places that are enumerated as follows, and sell at prices that are very profitable—although commerce has, as in all regions, its ups and downs [sus altos y bajos]. To various ports of China: rice, sugar, cotton, indigo, bichuca or rattan, balate, pepper, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl, brazil-wood, ebony,tapa, the sinews of cattle, birds’-nests, and lead when they have it. To the Malabar coast and Persia: sugar in large quantities, which is sold for money. To the Coromandel coast and Bengala: sugar, indigo, brazil-wood, sulphur, pepper, siguey, birds’-nests, cotton, and often rice.The third: The advantages and benefit which will accrue to his Majesty from the commerce and exportation of the commodities and products of those same islands are various, to wit: The more that the commodities which they need from outside can be supplied from the native products of the islands themselves, the more silver remains in the [Spanish] dominions. The more commodities or fruits are exported, so much more land will be cultivated, and many more people employed; and consequently the tributes imposed by his Majesty can be all the more easily collected, and from that time the royal exchequer will be better filled; and the vassals, by being kept busy, become more obedient and more loyal. The Spanish traders who are established there are favored [by such policy]; for they obtain their profits on both the exportation and the importation, and if one of these fail, the other will be able to supply the deficiency; but the advantage will be the greater if it can be obtained from both sources of gain. When commerce is flourishing, his Majesty will obtain greater profits from the customs duties, for which reason it is highly expedient that his Majesty encourage the cultivation of the land and the increase of its products—a thing which I do notconsider difficult of accomplishment, as I have already demonstrated in another little work, which I have placed in the hands of the ministers.7In order to demonstrate clearly how much the people of Manila could avail themselves of the products of the land, I will relate what occurred with myself (and it is a circumstance which proves what I advanced in the second point), to wit: When I was at Manila the exportation of sugar was rigorously prohibited, so that hardly could a ship carry away enough for its own supply, [the authorities] telling the vessel-owners that it was against the ordinances of his Majesty. I remained for some time under this delusion, until I had carefully examined the said ordinances, from which it was clear to me that his Majesty had decreed everything in favor of his Indian vassals, and that his royal will was, not to oppress them therein. It caused me, then, much pain to see that this thing was so entirely misunderstood, since this prohibition was diametrically opposed to it; for it forbade the people to enjoy the benefits of the country which God had given them, which the king never had intended to take away from them—especially as this [commerce] is the only means that they possess by which they can pay their tributes. Finally I undertook to establish generally the exportation of sugar. Having been warned of the difficulties, I went to the province where it8greatly abounds (which is called Pampanga),and did what I could; it was agreed that I should make an experiment, in order to please his Lordship. I consented, on the condition that a certain Don Francisco Salgado, a careful and industrious man, should be appointed my assistant; as I had not the time to execute this plan, I only gave him all [necessary] information and instructions. At last we succeeded in making indigo so good that it stood every test, the severest and most certain that are known being those of water and of fire. I sent specimens of that quality to China, the Coromandel coast, Persia, and Londres [i.e., London]; in the first three places they were anxious to obtain it, and offered good prices, and in the last-named one the indigo that had cost 500 reals vellon was sold for 2,600 reals. They will be able to manufacture every year such quantity as they desire.I believe that I have succeeded in what I undertook to demonstrate, which is as follows: First, to make known the abundance of the products of the Philipinas Islands; second, to prove from my own experience that it is easy to secure the benefit of these; third, to set forth the advantage and benefit which will accrue to his Majesty, to the Spaniards settled in those regions, and to the Indian vassals generally.I can say that charity has induced me to make known what I have already related from my own experience, seeing that all that has hitherto been written [on this subject] is very superficial; nor can the most intelligent man form from those books a stable opinion of what these islands are capable of yielding from their so abundant products.This little work is condensed, but those who are capable of comprehending it will see that it is [so]on account of being written out of thorough understanding and knowledge of what I write about, and not for lack of a very broad field in which I might descant, for it cannot be denied that there is material for filling a volume.Nevertheless, I do not claim to lay down the law, nor do I presume to change any system; my intention is only to depict things as they are, in order that his Majesty may have actual knowledge of the treasure which he possesses in these islands. No advantage results to me, nor do I expect more than to be a man ready to communicate [what he knows], and desirous to do what shall depend on a limited ability, for the greater benefit of his Majesty and the advancement of his realms. But it is already time that we show in what consists the advantage and benefit which will accrue to his Majesty from the Philipinas Islands.What precedes this serves only to demonstrate that the Spaniards settled in Manila have a broad field for carrying on a flourishing commerce, and even it would redound much to the advantage of his Majesty. But what I am earnestly advocating is cinnamon, and it is of great importance to his Majesty and worthy of his royal attention; and if I say that no one has hitherto, or since España conquered the Philipinas, made a proposition so certain, so well founded, and so advantageous to his Majesty, and to all his dominions and his vassals, it is not much to say. For it is no exaggeration when I say that it is more than the conquistador accomplished; he succeeded, with honor and glory, in conquering the islands, but they have always cost España most dearly for their maintenance. For not only do Iaim to relieve those expenses, which are so large, but those islands can in a few years become a benefit to his Majesty, and to his vassals, both Spaniards and Indians. I do not ask these gratuities,9nor that the king should spend one maravedi; my chief object and desire is, that a stable commerce be allowed from those countries to these kingdoms by the most direct route.No one is ignorant of the vast amount of silver which goes every year from España to the Dutch for the supply of cinnamon, for it is not less than many millions of pesos duros each year, as they have estimated; but I affirm that this is because they [i.e., the Spaniards] are willing to let the silver go out [of the country]. España might with as good reason send to Olanda to buy her wine as her cinnamon. I will not undertake to argue whence it comes, although I know it very well. What I am trying to do, without offending any one, is to remedy this lack which España suffers, that the Spaniards may use their good judgment and their reason and become true patriots. What a pity it is that his Majesty, possessing so noble a commodity, and being able to place it on the market—with as good success as that of Ceylán, and even at less than half of the price—should permit so many millions of silver to pass every year from his dominions to the Dutch! which is to furnish that people with arms for carrying on war when opportunity may offer. It is well known that España consumes more cinnamon than all the other nations; can there, then, be greater folly? In order (as I suppose) to humor the Dutch, Españaleaves unused the cinnamon which she has in her own house, in order to buy it from those enemies and the destroyers of the holy faith in those countries; I say that this is opposed to the Christian religion, and I prove it in a few words: if España would avail herself of this product which she could so easily dispose of, the Dutch could not maintain [their establishments in] the island of Ceylon, and then España could even introduce missions in that island. But what foolish talk! The Dutch maintain Ceilon? The Spaniards support it; they pay for its ships, its fortresses, and its garrisons which the Dutch have there—although in order to destroy these the Spaniards need neither balls, nor gunpowder, nor war. If any one thinks that this is a sweeping statement [es adelantar mucho], we are of differing opinions, because to me it seems a moderate one.I am known as a man who has accomplished much, who has traveled in many lands, and who has not passed through them heedlessly; nor have I stopped to consider the expenditure of money, or the risk to health, in order to satisfy my curiosity and obtain well grounded knowledge of all things wherever I have traveled. To the point: Samboanga, the capital of the island of Mindanao, is the place which could produce cinnamon as good as that of Ceylon, if our people knew how to cultivate it; I have already made the experiment, and it will yield the amount that I shall require. The Dutch are well aware of this, [as appears] by evidence which can be verified by me; for they, with their trained and accustomed cunning, placed in the said island a stone with the initial letters of [the name of] their companyengraved on it, like those which they are wont to place in their bales of goods, etc., by way of manifesting that these belong to the said company. The said stone was brought to Manila while I was there, and was delivered to the Marques de Obando; and his Lordship, knowing that I understood the tricks and policy of those gentlemen, sent to call me, and, showing me the stone, he said, “What is the meaning of this stone, which they have brought to me under such-and-such circumstances?” I replied to his Lordship, “It is nothing; it is a mark which the Dutch are wont to set up in order to have a pretext, when opportunity offers, for laying claim to the lands in which they have placed the said stones.”10No one, then, who understands that people—keen, mercenary, and always on the watch—will fail to agree with me, that they do not set up these stones in barren islands, unless it is evident that, on account of the location of these islands, it will not suit the Dutch to have [other people there as] close neighbors. When they abandoned the island of Maurisius, considering it uninhabitable on account of its sterility, they left no engraved stone in it. It is a circumstance which deserves attention, and is evenworthy of coming to his Majesty’s knowledge; and likewise those who have or have had practical knowledge of these matters regard them in this way. Finally, I have compared the quality of the soil at Samboanga with that of Ceylon, also the leaves of the cinnamon tree; still more, I have gathered the bark of this tree at Samboanga and made certain experiments with it, and when I compared it with that from Ceylon they were of equal value. I consider, then, [from] the manner of making these experiments with the cultivation of the soil and the culture of the cinnamon, [that] it will prove to be equal [to that of Ceylon]. Finally, in commencing the experiments which I have made—with the greatest application and industry, and enormous expenses—they are quite sufficient to prove that it will be possible, in the term of five or six years, to produce a large part of the best cinnamon which comes to Europa. This I have learned from the experiment with a quantity of chocolate which I ordered to be made in my own house at Manila; this product has been greatly liked by the ladies, and by people of taste and understanding, in the said city.In view of these proofs, which I have from actual knowledge of the method of cultivating and preparing this product, it causes me surprise that his Majesty is losing a source of profit so extensive and lucrative; and I am persuaded that if full knowledge of them could have reached the officials who might have authority to examine the subject, they would have taken suitable measures to secure this benefit—although it is certain that it would not be considered that no one hitherto has attained it [i.e., such knowledge] except that which is here explainedby myself, which is the simple truth. And as for what concerns my part, I can serve, if desirable, in carrying out a work so national and so advantageous to his Majesty—in which honor and fame spur me to place myself at the disposal of his Majesty, without causing him the expenditure of one real of silver; for, thanks to God, I have the means for travel. Nevertheless, I shall never weary in the acquisition of the precious treasures of honor and truth; for God only knows the exceeding satisfaction which I feel in being the first and only person who has had the good fortune to furnish this information, so clear and plain that, if it were published to the world, I am sure that the rest of the nations would conspire against me; for they know its great usefulness, and the little difficulty which I would find in carrying out the plan.I have been assured that the clove is found in Mindanao. I have made every possible effort to investigate this, and I believe that it is certainly so, although I cannot assert more than what experience has taught me. But I can affirm with more certainty that the nutmeg grows there, and needs only to be cultivated; also pepper of the best quality, and most delicious, can be had in abundance. At present the only thing left for us is to reflect upon the many advantages and incredible benefits which will accrue to his Majesty, and to his dominions and vassals, both Spaniards and Indians, without costing him a real vellon to establish this commerce. The English and Dutch, on the other hand, will spend millions to prevent the success of this great project, for which reason it is evidently necessary to maintain the utmost secrecy regarding it.Recapitulation of the advantages and benefits of this commerceFirst: The millions of pesos duros which now pass out of the domains of his Majesty, with which the Dutch are enriching themselves and promoting their main commerce, that of the cinnamon; they will have so much less for hostilities against España, the more that this matter of the cinnamon is pushed in that country, thus rendering it impossible for them to carry away the silver thence.Second: Great numbers of Indians would be employed who now have no way in which to make a living or to pay their tributes; by this means not only would they be relieved [from their burdens], but it would be with great increase to the royal exchequer; and through their application and gains they would consequently be more faithful and constant vassals, while now idleness and vices prevent them from being such.Third: The Philipinas Islands are suffering severely from the lack of communication by a direct route with España; this could be easily secured by arming the ships there, which need from España more people than a few officers; and it would be very desirable to transport for those islands some artisans whom they will need for promoting and cultivating the various products of the land.Fourth: The more that the lands are cultivated and their products made available, the greater will be the number of men and of infidel Indians that will be needed; and consequently they will submit [to Spanish authority], and be converted into loyal vassals and friends, and Christianity will be increasedin those regions, without any fear that the Moro and infidel enemies can disturb them.Fifth: It will be possible to equip every year three or four ships of six hundred to a thousand toneladas each, and despatch them for Europa with cinnamon, pepper, and other spices which will be produced there; and in return they will go back with various commodities and fruits, the products of España, which the people of Manila always find themselves compelled to buy from the English and Dutch, carrying away the money for them. In this manner not only will these gains remain within the dominions of his Majesty, without the other nations being able to draw thence the money with which they carry on war, [to the] injury of the commerce of España, but by this means the [Spanish] dominions that are so remote will come to be to a large extent dependent one upon another; and as the intercourse between them would be mutual and friendly, the Indians consequently would have occasion to see and experience the greatness [of the Spanish power]. Thus they would come to be more faithful and loyal vassals, and returning to their own lands, would influence their countrymen to be the same.Sixth: No one will deny my statement that the cinnamon would [thus] be obtained at a much less cost [by the Spaniards] than that at which the Dutch can sell it, unless [they encounter] less risk and danger—[which are] so manifest that for the preservation of this commerce they find themselves compelled to maintain a great number of troops and keep up many forts and garrisons, solely to defend themselves. Let to all this be added the governors, and the enormous number of people whom they have intheir service, with some very large expenses which arise from the various opinions of the companies—the costs of which, so ill applied, render the cinnamon more expensive (although in reality its cost is low), and it is certain that their commerce in spices does not prove to be so profitable as the nations assert. Very differently, then, will it be in favor of España when she reaches the cultivation of the cinnamon; for in place of the great expenses which his Majesty has had ever since he took possession of the said island, without its producing any benefit, he will obtain the greatest advantages without spending a real vellon more than at present. Especially, labor will be found as cheap, and the cultivation of the soil as easy, as in Ceylon; and the navigation can be made with the same advantages that [other] nations [possess], or even greater. For this reason the cinnamon will cost the merchants forty or fifty per cent less than they have actually paid hitherto. It is certain that it is a very serious damage which España generally suffers in her commerce, from paying, through this negligence, the freight charges of the Dutch ships, and the cost of their officers and seamen; and they even maintain their fortifications, etc., with the money which they obtain from España for this product of cinnamon.Seventh: Likewise, there would be great advantage to España in the ships which would come from the Philipinas, as I have said (in the fifth point); for they would return laden with many fruits and products of these kingdoms of España.Eighth: The Americans would likewise share in this great benefit; for the cinnamon, for which they are today paying so exorbitant a price, they wouldobtain at very nearly the same price at which it is usually sold in Cadiz.Ninth: If the cinnamon should become cheap, much chocolate would be consumed by the poor; and consequently the duties would amount to much more, to the advantage of his Majesty.Notwithstanding that the greatness of the enterprise is clearly demonstrated, and no additional information is needed, two things ought to be noted. First, that no damage or expense can result to his Majesty. Second, that from this arrangement, it is evident and positive, not the least injury or disadvantage ensues to España or to America; rather, it is a triple benefit, and indispensable—which, [however,] without general experience and practical knowledge it would be impossible to bring about without each dominion injuring the other; for in this consists the superiority of a man who is an expert.[The writer then proceeds to mention the spiritual advantages which would result from the temporal; but his argument becomes somewhat lame here, reducing itself to the “hope that, with the help of our Lord, a firm and permanent peace with the Moros may be secured” He makes an interesting statement regarding the extent of the ravages committed by the Mindanao pirates: “I am certain, from accurate information, that during the government of the Marqués de Obando he cost the king eight millions of reals vellon [for this purpose], although he proceeded with the utmost economy and care in the manner in which he used the royal revenue; and, having made in the year 1755 a calculation of the expenses which these piracies werecausing to his Majesty and his vassals (both Spaniards and Indians) from the ravages made by the Moros and infidels during the eight years preceding, it amounted to about eighty millions of reals vellon,” not to mention the killing of priests and native Christians. Of course, if peace is secured with the Moros, the progress and extension of the missions in the islands is assured. The writer again declares his devotion to the service of God and the king, his readiness to explain his plans further to those who desire more information, and his confidence that they will command the confidence of men of understanding, judgment, and patriotism.]Although through experience (tempus edrax rerum) one can come to know the utility and advantage which will accrue from the execution of this so vast enterprise, I trust that I have demonstrated it quite sufficiently to render it worthy of the consideration of his Majesty; nevertheless, seeing how much is involved, it is fitting for my honor to furnish proofs, the most detailed and circumstantial. This induces me to quote part of the lading which came in seventeen ships of the Company of Olanda, as published in theGazetteof Amsterdam, dated on July 3 of this present year, one thousand seven hundred and fifty-nine—products which are and may be those of the very islands in question; and in order to show how very important it is to give attention to what is herein proposed, each commodity is valued at the regular price which it can bring in the ports of Cadiz, Alicante, etc.PricesLibras[Commodities]Reals vellon per librareals vellon Total,4,672,746of pepper732,709,22250,000of nutmeg391,950,00060,000of mace704,200,000360,000of cloves5018,000,000375,840of cinnamon5821,198,7203,000of candied nutmeg60180,0002,398of candied cloves70167,860883,142of sugar3.9411[3,424,000]40,490of camphor16649,8406,582of benzoin22134,93610,500of borax15157,50012,146of gum-lac12145,7523,000of gum myrrh1236,0003,514of gamboge1656,22420,049of indigo, superior30601,470[Total,] eighty-three millions, six hundred and eleven thousand, five hundred and twenty-four reals vellon.83,611,524I have taken into consideration the objections which may be brought forward by persons who are little acquainted with trade, and these are reduced, substantially, to the following: That the consumption of these commodities in the dominions of his Majesty cannot be regulated by the above calculation.They speak glibly; but, in order not to lose time with these persons, I answer them, that one is compelled to encounter ignorance, but the only concern of great souls is to serve faithfully their kings and nations, and endure the calumnies which are uttered against honest men—imitating the stars, which, no matter how much the dogs bark, do not cease to shine down upon them and to follow their own courses. Accordingly, let us proceed to truths which are plain:First: that the Dutch carry these commodities in large quantities, as is above stated—a proof that there is a consumption for that amount, and that this is a profitable trade. Second: that the calculation which I have made cannot be defective, since the [amounts of the] commodities agree with the figures published by the Dutch themselves; and the prices are obtained from the Company of Druggists, in accordance with what they pay for the goods at the ports. Third: that the greater part [of these commodities], and the most important ones, if not [all], can be the products of the Philipinas Islands. Fourth: that these commodities must cost much less than in Olanda, or in any other country, is manifest and undeniable for this reason, that the Dutch are obliged to incur enormous expenses—for governors, members of council, lesser servants without number, and many troops—in order to maintain their establishments; and these expenses increase just so much the prices of their spices, so that, if they buy these from the [Eastern] nations at ten, the goods are worth to them twenty-five. This would not occur with us, because the king does not need to increase the expenses in order to secure the advancement of the islands. It would be entirely different; for, ifthese plantations are established, thousands of Indians who now are suffering the utmost poverty without having any opportunity to work, and for the same reason cannot pay their tributes, would have a means of gaining their living and of paying their tributes, and on this very account it would serve much for the increase of the royal revenue.As these Indians are not paid for their labor at higher rates than are those among whom the Dutch reside, we must reckon, for the reasons here stated, that those same commodities would cost much less, and that the Spaniards could sell them at lower prices than do the Dutch; and, as the merchant in every country buys where he will find his greatest advantage, España would be the fair for these commodities which have already enriched so many nations. But let us proceed to reveal the cunning of the Dutch, who furnish only three millions, seven hundred and fifty thousand, eight hundred and forty libras of cinnamon—which, at the rate of sixteen onzas a libra, make six12millions, thirteen thousand, four hundred and forty onzas. The rule for making chocolate is to take ten libras of cacao, ten of sugar, and eight onzas of cinnamon, or even less, and on account of the waste13it is computed that the result will betwenty libras net; consequently, from the three millions, seven hundred and fifty thousand, eight hundred and forty libras of cinnamon could be madefifteen millions, thirty-three thousand, six hundred libras of chocolate.Although it is folly to make such a proposition, I ask whether there are not in España,14all America,the Philipinas Islands, and, in short, all the so various domains of his Majesty, counting all these together, four millions of persons who drink chocolate sixty-four times in the year, in accordance with the rule of one onza for each time. Even the most ignorant or malicious person will not deny my proposition; this makes, then, the consumption of chocolate sixteen millions of libras, and for making it there will be needed four hundred thousand libras of cinnamon.Hence are drawn two conclusions. One is, the extreme craftiness of the Dutch, in not furnishing more than the said quantity in order to supply the Spaniards, and in making them believe that they will be left without chocolate; and thus they succeed in obliging the Spaniards to pay for the cinnamon at the very high prices which the Dutch have fixed in these recent years—for it is a hundred per cent more costly, and fifty per cent worse in quality; therefore there is an increase of a hundred and fifty per cent in favor of the Dutch, and of three hundred per cent to the injury of España, who without reason endures this tyranny. Therefore, if the Dutch are not mistaken in the estimate of cinnamon which they published in theGazette, and as the consumption [of that spice] in España is as I have made evident, there will not be cinnamon to supply all the nations; nevertheless, there will be no lack of it in any of them.15Second: since it is so evident that in the dominions of his Majesty there is consumed in [the beverageof] chocolate alone (without counting the numerous kinds of food in which use is made of it) sixteen millions of libras, and in order to make it there are needed four hundred thousand of cinnamon, at the rate of fifty-eight reals vellon that quantity will cost twenty-three millions, three hundred thousand reals vellon, which is the least that España could advance for the execution of the project. Moreover, I do not know any reason for not admitting the commodity of pepper—which not only is so exceedingly abundant in the islands, but I persuade myself that, since it is so excellent in its crude state, it would with skilful treatment be better than that of any [other] country. It is also plain to us that the Dutch bring [to Europa] four millions, six hundred and seventy-two thousand, seven hundred and forty-six libras of it; they assure me that only because of the great abundance of garlic16in España the pepper brings no more than seven reals vellon a libra—[at which rate] the above quantity will amount to thirty-two millions, seven [hundred] and nine thousand, two hundred and twenty-two reals vellon. This added to the twenty-three millions, three hundred thousand reals [for cinnamon] will make fifty-six millions, nine thousand, two hundred and twenty-two reals vellon.People will say, “Where would we consume so much pepper?” Then where does Olanda consume it, I would like to know? “[And there are] Francia and Inglaterra; do they bring much less [to Europa]?” Do not those who ask such questionsknow how much the king is paying to Norbega [i.e., Norway] and the northern countries for lumber, cordage, etc., for the construction in his royal navy? and that, if it happens that care is not given in time to the planting of oak groves, he will need much more [from those countries]?—At present these commodities are paid for in ready money, which would not be the case if we could give the merchants there the pepper, etc., so cheaply (or at less expense than [if purchased from] another country), on account of the great consumption of pepper which there is in those countries, and because this would be a [form of] trade that is mutually advantageous, as I have already said, for the day-laborer and the shepherd. It would be permanent, and many millions of reals which now leave España would remain here, to the greatest advantage not only of his Majesty, but of his vassals. I say, then, that no one is able to deny these two propositions, of which his Majesty will be best able to judge. Have I heard some one argue that España has17need of preventing thus the exportation of silver? Such arguments are foolish, and one should laugh at them.Do we not know that Olanda commands that a very large part of the spice product be burned and destroyed, in order that a commodity which brings her so enormous a profit should not, through its excessive abundance, contribute to her loss? I say, then, that if España reaches an excessive abundance of silver, it would be far better for the king to command that the mines be closed, or to fling the silver into the sea, than to let it pass into the hands of those whotomorrow can avail themselves of it to carry on war [against España]. Others I have heard talk [on this subject], so frivolously that I was astounded, hinting at the resentment of this other nation if España should profit by what is her own—that is, the execution of the proposition [that I have made]. That is the same as to say that Inglaterra or any other nation could declare that España shall not cultivate the ground or sow the wheat, because it suited that nation to supply it; it is to talk very heedlessly, without knowing that España can limit the commerce of Francia, Inglaterra, and Olanda whenever she desires, without cannon-ball or gunpowder, by the prohibition of silver alone. If she chooses to deprive any one of those countries of this advantage, she has only to calculate what she owes to the other two for the net balance of their trade, and then not allow any more silver to go out to those countries; and these, needing it for themselves, will not be able to supply the other one. I can assert that España, if she would avail herself of the rights which God has given her, would make herself more worthy of respect by depriving the [other] nations of what is essential, not only for their commerce, but for waging war to advantage.I believe that no one will dispute the advantages and benefit which can accrue from the Philipinas Islands, and it is this which from the outset I have attempted to demonstrate, although I omit, for the sake of brevity, the explanation of many things.Keeping in mind how much I owe to the infinite mercy and goodness of supreme Providence, in the second part of the work alluded to, which I presume to present to his Majesty, I have treated at lengthof the ravages which the Moros have committed during very many years in those islands, and of the exceeding damage which they thus cause to our holy Roman Catholic and apostolic faith, for I cannot do less. Indeed, it is evident that God has assisted me with His divine Grace; and therefore I certainly ought to defend and, if it should be necessary, die for His cause. Accordingly, in whatever concerns the subjection of the Moros, and consequently the protection and advancement of the holy faith in those islands, I hope to deserve that his Majesty will do me the honor of appointing six lieutenant-commanders—three from his royal navy, and three from his army—in order that they may examine with the utmost care the plan upon which I have based my proposition, giving their opinions in writing for presentation to his Majesty, in two copies, one for his Majesty’s royal Council of the Indias, the other for myself.When this examination shall be made, and the plan approved by the king if such be his royal will, I will immediately proceed to furnish the plan of the whole matter which I have drawn up for the execution of the project—from which, after further investigations (which are very just, and perhaps will be quite unprecedented) his Majesty can more easily decide what shall be most expedient in this matter, as also the selection of persons for the said purpose.As for what pertains to the commerce, for greater certainty I deemed it expedient to communicate my intention to Don Antonio Butlert [sic], formerly a merchant of Cadiz—since he is distinguished not only for his great success in business and his genuine friendship to this nation, but by his long experience in and thorough knowledge of the commerce of thesedominions—asking him to give me his disinterested opinion on the subject, in which he should consider with the utmost attention the general welfare of these dominions; and this opinion I have, in writing, and signed with the name of his firm, which reads “Butlert and Matheos.”Some persons who are little acquainted with affairs so vast, and who have still less ability to make ready for the great things which remain to be done, will suppose that the execution [of this plan] is easy, to one who has the writings which I have already furnished; nevertheless, if they engaged in the undertaking they would find themselves much mistaken, and the result would be greatly to the detriment of the nation.Warned by what I have passed through, and dreading [the effects of] ignorance and malice, I have reached the decision to supplicate the king to grant me the honor of this examination—desiring, whatever may fall to my lot, to prove that I have no other purpose than to serve faithfully both Majesties and their vassals, and entreating them for this end to dispose of my life and person, of which I will gladly make sacrifice in proof of my loyalty and sincere devotion.Extracts from the proposition of Don Nicolas Norton Nicols; the conditions which he requires; the benefits and advantages which will accrue to his Majesty and his vassals, on whose account his Majesty was pleased to issue a decree on the twenty-third of February last.The aim of the said proponent is, to establish in the Philipinas Islands plantations of cinnamon, pepper, other spices, etc., and to open a direct commercebetween the said islands and Cadiz, by way of the Cape of Good Hope.Conditions.—That he shall be permitted to undertake the said route from Cadiz, or may go to the said islands and make the voyage from there to Cadiz, as he shall find most convenient. If he shall set out from Cadiz, on account of not having time to build ships he shall be permitted to buy whatever vessels [he may need], without excepting those of foreigners. The cargo from Cadiz must consist of different fruits, liquids,18and commodities that are products of España and of her commerce, as on the return voyage it must be from the various products and commodities of the said islands and of their commerce. That his Majesty remit the duties for the first voyage, and that the proponent be permitted to embark freely at Cadiz the silver that he needs to defray the purchase of his return cargo. On the second voyage he shall pay at Cadiz not only the five per cent duties but the three per cent of the silver which he shall thereafter embark, as is done with the [traders of foreign] nations. In order to obviate any objection, he will not enter any port belonging to his Majesty or to any power of Europa; he shall, however, be permitted to enter and anchor at any one of the Indian ports, whether in these or in those seas, and therein buy, sell, exchange, or lade the goods which shall be offered to him.The advantages, etc., will be the following: His Majesty will not subject his royal revenue to any expense, nor will it be exposed to the evil designs of men, or to the doubtful patriots who pretend tohave knowledge. There is no treaty that can be set against him, as he can prove. By the most moderate computation, the Dutch annually export four millions of pesos for the spice-trade; this, therefore, is to make them powerful, to the injury of España. Norvega, St. Petersbourgh, and other countries demand a great amount of cash for lumber, pitch, cordage, sails, etc., for the royal shipbuilding, the greater part of which would be paid for in spices, as these are greatly liked in those countries. Equivalent injury to España, as is stated above.19The commodities and products of España would have a much larger market. A strong stimulus to the cultivation of the soil. His Majesty would experience much relief in the expenses of transportation for the missions. This navigation would serve as a nursery for the navy, as is found by experience in other countries. The direct communication would serve as a check on a thousand abuses, not only in the government of the islands, but in other matters. If his Majesty should grant this privilege to the said islands, it would be most just that the commonwealth of Manila should carry on its commerce with Acapulco at its own cost, without laying the burden of it on his Majesty. By not possessing this commerce when she can have it, España is maintaining thousands of strangers in place of a like number of her own vassals; [the latter would] redound to the increase of the royal revenue, and in the course of years to the propagation of the holy faith. The Moros, who now are by their wars destroying the felicitous progress ofthe Christian religion, when they found by experience how much more it suited their own interests to maintain peace and commerce with the Spaniards than to wage war against them, would inviolably observe their treaties; for, notwithstanding the cruelties which the Dutch practice against their Indians, the latter tolerate them on account of the advantages of their commerce. The people of Manila will, when they have a market for their products, cultivate the land; they will establish family estates, and enrich themselves; and their riches, like those of the Americans, will finally come to España. The duties which your Majesty would receive from this new commerce would in a very few years amount to very considerable sums. It would be a stimulus to other new commercial undertakings, which would be beneficial to his Majesty and his vassals.The whole matter in small compassHis Majesty, without risking anything, is going to gain infinitely more than what has been [here] stated. The method of securing these vast benefits is the easiest and safest which can be put into practice, and itself makes plain the useful and salutary design of the proponent.Don Nicolas Norton Nicols1“By the marriage with Elizabeth Farnese (ancestry normal), Philip V had, as an heir, Charles III, of Spain, who was the best of the more modern sovereigns of that country—in fact, the only normal one since before the days of the Emperor Charles V, now seven generations in the background. Not that Charles III inherited any of the ancient genius, for that had gone, never to appear again. He was, however, ([to cite] Hume), ‘an enlightened, generous, and just king and a noble and magnanimous man,’ and (Rose’sBiographical Dictionary) ‘possessed abilities as a monarch, and virtues as a private citizen, ... was a popular sovereign and a great economist of time, scrupulously methodical in all his operations.’” Thus writes Dr. F. A. Woods, in hisHeredity in Royalty(New York, 1906), pp. 155, 156—a book which endeavors, on scientific lines, to ascertain the influence of heredity as displayed in the royal families of Europe. The chapter on the rulers of Spain is found at pp. 124–171. He says (p. 138): “The origin of the well-known insanity in the Spanish and Austrian houses, perpetuated over thirteen generations and involving more than a score of individuals, is a very interesting question. It cannot be traced with certainty prior to Isabella, the Queen of John II, of Castile. This Isabella was out and out insane, according to the English alienist, W. W. Ireland; and from her, onward, the insanity passed along in one form or another by the very intermarriages which their pride and political motives caused them to arrange, with the intended idea of making permanent their world power, but with the inevitable result of losing that same prestige by placing it in the hands of the unfortunate children whose inheritance was necessarily mental weakness as the result of such unwise wedlocks.”For account of Carlos III’s reign, see Manuel Danvila y Collado’sReinado de Carlos III(Madrid, 1894). An interesting description of this monarch’s character and mode of life may be found in theDublin Magazinefor April, 1763, pp. 238, 239; it is written by a clergyman named Clark, “chaplain to the Earl of Bristol, late ambassador at the court of Madrid.” He says, among other things: “He is the greatest Nimrod of his time: he sacrifices everything to this favorite pleasure; he was disgusted at his public entry, because ithinderedhim of four days sport. He stayed three days at Toledo, and killed six wild mountain-cats, which, as I was well informed by those who had calculated the expence of that expedition, cost him exactly 1000 l. a cat.” “It has been imagined that he is a very weak prince, and of little or no understanding: Ir is a great mistake; he has some parts, but is mulish and obstinate to the last degree; and, by being constantly flattered, he imagines that he has more understanding than he really possesses. He is reserved beyond the common reserve of princes, has no confidant, and communicates his will only by his orders to put into execution. He can neither be led nor driven; all must come from himself.” “He allows no minister to remonstrate or argue with him.” “He arrested and banished the inquisitor-general, and sent him prisoner to a convent. He engaged in the present war with England, contrary to the sentiments of his ministers, and in direct opposition to the voice of the whole nation.”↑2A copy of the naturalization papers of Nicolas Norton y Nicols as a Spaniard exists in the Archivo general de Indias at Sevilla; its pressmark is, “Est. 105, caj. 2, leg. 13, libro 12, fol. 226b-229b,” and the document is dated at Aranjuez, August 3, 1758. Norton became a Catholic, and was allowed to trade in the Philippines. The allusion to “192 years” is somewhat incorrect, if he refers to the first discovery of the islands, which occurred in 1565; or else he may have begun to write out this proposal to the king as early as 1757, which would tally with the above numbers.↑3In the text,Bisarjas, evidently a clerical error. This, and a few similar discrepancies in the MS., strengthen the conjecture that it is not written by Norton’s own hand; it was probably dictated by him to an amanuensis.↑4See articles describing the cocoanut, its uses, culture, etc., inCensus of the Philippine Islands, iv, pp. 53–76; its uses are thus characterized (p. 72): “Briefly summed up, its timber can be employed in every form of house construction; its foliage in making mats, sacks, and thatches; its fruit in curry and sweet-meats; its oil for medicine, cookery, and illumination; its various uses in the manufacture of wines, spirits, sugar, and vinegar.” See also various scientific articles regarding the culture of the cocoanut palm, its enemies, and the qualities of its oil, in thePhilippine Journal of Science, Manila, 1906 (published by the Philippine government).↑5Spanish,cañas, which (as sometimes elsewhere) indicates that this name was bestowed indifferently on the bamboo and the rattan; but the latter is here meant, of course, as being namedbichuca(forbejuco).↑6Spanish,clauos; apparently meaning that the natives used in their housebuilding wedges made from the wood of the cocoanut tree as a substitute for iron nails.↑7Probably alluding to a document which is preserved in the Archivo de Indias at Sevilla, by Norton y Nicols, dated at Madrid, September 2, 1757; it will be mentioned in the bibliographical section of this series (VOL. LIII).↑8The context would imply that sugar is here referred to; but the writer does not mention it again, and seems to have abandoned his attempt to export it.↑9Spanish,estas ayudas de, followed by a blank space, doubtless intended to be filled bycostas.↑10Concepción mentions this stone (Hist. de Philipinas, xii, p. 25), found on a site selected by the Dutch; they had marked “a stone with the letter T, which, as it was interpreted, signified, ‘annexed to Terrenate.’ This same token they had placed in other uninhabited islands in the vicinity. This marked stone was dug up by the sultan of Mindanao, who sent it to the governor of Samboangan, Don Pedro Zacharias. Two Dutch chalupas went to call the Mindanaos to account for this act, intending to obtain satisfaction for it by placing the marked stone in the locality of Silangan, on the mainland of Mindanao; but Radiamura courageously drove back the Dutch who made a landing—who, in retreating, swore to return with adequate forces for that enterprise.”↑11There is some confusion or error in these figures, which read, in the MS., “35 = 3.94 @ 2,82:600.” Without them, the totals amount to 80,187,524; subtracting this from the entire total, there remains a balance of 3,424,000, apparently indicating the value of the sugar—save that the total for benzoin is erroneously figured in the MS.; it should be 144,804. The MS. is also uncertain on some of the other totals.↑12The writer (or more probably his amanuensis) has made an error in transcribing these sums; “six millions” should read “sixty millions,” and at the end of the paragraph the amount of chocolate should be “one hundred and fifty” instead of “fifteen” millions. The remaining figures are correct.↑13“In 1618, according to the testimony of Dr. Marradón, of Marchena, to one hundred cacao-beans must be added a pound and a half of sugar, two onzas of cinnamon, fourteen grains of Mexican pepper, a half-onza of cloves, and two reals’ weight of anise and annotto; and one might add almonds, nuts, and orange-flower water. Years afterward Dr. Colmenero of Ledesma modified this formula, making the paste in the proportion of one hundred cacao-beans, one-half libra of sugar, two granos of pepper, anise, cloves, Alexandrian [i.e., white] roses, logwood, cinnamon, almonds, nuts, and a sufficient quantity of annotto to give it color.”Until the end of the eighteenth century chocolate was prepared mainly by hand-labor. “In the seventeenth century, the preparation of the chocolate was made by artisans, who received twelve reals and anazumbre[i.e., about half a gallon] of wine for preparing each day the portion of chocolate from sixteen libras of clear cacao. The chocolate, thus prepared and sold under the name of ‘health chocolate,’ often contained special ingredients, chosen on account of the fashion, or of the taste of the consumers; and if in those times great praise was given to the chocolate which contained aromatic essences—vanilla, amber, and orange—certainly not less famous on that account was the chocolate of Madrid with its doradilla [i.e., ceterach], that of Ávila with its pimentón [i.e., a large variety of pepper], and that of Pamplona with its pepper and ginger. Fray Manuel Ordoñez says, referring to the paste which we are considering, that ‘in the past century it was sold only in the apothecary shops, like physicians’ prescriptions, for our cure;’ and from this citation we may infer not only that chocolate was regarded as a special medicine, but that it was considered as a therapeutic agent, worthy of being kept by the pharmacists of the seventeenth century. Later, in the eighteenth century, the preparation of chocolate began to be made by the guild of spice-dealers, its ingredients being reduced to the cacao, cinnamon or vanilla, and sugar; and the custom became somewhat general of adding to the paste some biscuit-dough, in order to make it thicker when it was diluted with water. At the same time when the ‘health chocolate’ was sold in the spice-shops, a medicinal chocolate was prepared in the apothecary shops, in which the principal products of the pharmacopeia entered as ingredients. As the preparation of chocolate had become general in the convents, in attempting to compete with the spice-dealers the friars did not think of making it of better quality; but, in order to sell it more cheaply, they subtracted from cacao and cinnamon what they added in ingredients that were not always harmless for the parishioner’s health. In order that the importance of this adulteration may be estimated, it is sufficient to cite some of the additions most used, as wheat flour, rice flour; ground lentils, peas, beans, and maize; starch, potato starch, and dextrine; olive oil, sweet almond oil, yolk of egg, tallow of veal and mutton; storax, chestnut [flour], gum tragacanth; cinnabar, red oxide of mercury, red lead, carbonate of lime, etc.” The manufacture of chocolate has been conducted almost entirely by machinery during the past century, and has accordingly thrown out the majority of the artisans who made it by hand. (José del Carmenal, cited in Gräfenberg’sSpanisches Lesebuch, Frankfurt, 1899, pp. 7–11.)↑14At the end of the atlas volume in Raynal’sÉtablissemens et commerce des Européensis a tabular “Enumeration of the population of Spain, prepared in 1768 by order of his Lordship Conde de Aranda, president of the Council of Castilla.” The population is given separately for each of the eight archbishoprics (which contain 48 bishoprics, 2 of them “exempt”). The lay population was thus classed: married persons, 1,724,567 men and 1,714,505 women; unmarried (presumably including children), 2,809,069 boys and 2,911,858 girls; total, 9,159,999. Add the number of the clergy (both regular and secular), which was 147,805, and the entire population numbered 9,307,804. Two curious discrepancies may be noted: the number of married men is greater than that of the married women by 10,062, and the girls exceed the boys by 102,789 (this latter an excess of about 3⅔ per cent). The only region in which the number of married men is practically the same as that of married women is the archdiocese of Valencia, and the only one where the same thing is true of the boys and girls is the archdiocese of Zaragoza. The greatest discrepancy in the numbers of both these classes is found in the archdiocese of Burgos, where there were 197,064 married men, and only 185,997 married women; and it had 330,428 girls and only 310,545 boys. Highly significant is the enumeration of the privileged classes, of whom in the total population there were 846,657, thus classified: those enjoying royal privileges, 89,393; in the department of finances, 27,577; in that of the Crusade, 4,248; in that of the Inquisition, 2,645; in the nobility, 722,794. It is to be observed that three-fourths of all the privileged class are found in the archdiocese of Burgos and the two exempt bishoprics—in the former, 324,661; in the latter, 306,378. Not less interesting are the statistics of the ecclesiastical estate. In the 16,427 cities and villages were 18,106 parishes, which were served by 15,641 curas. There were 2,004 monasteries, containing 55,453 religious; and 1,026 convents with 26,465 nuns. All these religious orders employed also 8,552 persons as procurators and treasurers, and with the orders were affiliated 26,294 laymen. In the service of the churches were 25,248 laymen; and besides the curas there were 50,246 chaplains and beneficed priests. The total of all these items is 147,805, the number above given.↑15A literal translation of the text; but there seems to be some omission or confusion in the statement. Possibly the writer intended to make it contingent on the success of his project for making cinnamon plantations.↑16In the text,aljoresesite; there is no such word in the lexicons, and it probably is an error (perhaps of an amanuensis) forajo aceite, the name of a pungent preparation of garlic, oil, etc., which is used in the southern countries of Europe as a condiment.↑17Thus in original, but the context would indicate that “no” was omitted here.↑18Spanish,caldos: a term applied to the wine, oil, and brandy that are transported by sea (Dominguez).↑19The somewhat fragmentary nature of these statements indicates the probability that they are but memoranda, and the whole MS. a rough draft, which was to be presented to the king in revised and improved form.↑

COMMERCE OF THE PHILIPINAS ISLANDS,AND ADVANTAGES WHICH THEY CAN YIELD TO HIS MAJESTY CARLOS III

To the king our sovereign Carlos III:1Sire: The pressing obligation which rests upon all good vassals to render some service which shall be profitable to their sovereigns encourages my faint-heartednessto lay at the royal feet of your Majesty this work, which I offer with the utmost submission, with the assurance of my most loyal desires that your Majesty may enjoy the most prosperous and glorious reign over these dominions. [I am also urged on by] my own practical knowledge [of the subject], and the demand of the entire nation, especially of the mercantile interests—although little do they suspect that I have undertaken the enterprise with so much energy from persuading myself that my good fortune would gain for this act your Majesty’s kindly regard, which, coming to the knowledge of your loyal vassals, will be received with the utmost satisfaction,and as a proof of your paternal affection and your sincere desire for their advancement.I entreat our Lord that He will grant you all success and prosperity, and a long life, in order that these realms may enjoy for very many years the felicitous rule which the nation ought to expect from the distinguished qualifications possessed by your Majesty, from which it hopes to become more glorious than ever.Prologue to the ReaderCommerce is contemporaneous with human society, from whose necessities it was born. [The author here sketches the origin and development of commerce among civilized nations, and states how in his undertaking this work he received the approval of the late king of Spain Fernando VI.]Commerce of the Philipinas Islands; the benefit and advantages which the said islands ought to yield to his Majesty (whom may God preserve).[This will seem] a strange statement when it is considered that the Philipinas Islands since the year 1565 have caused to España every year a very great expense, without affording the least temporal advantage; and when I now try to demonstrate the advantage and benefit of them to the crown of España some will say that it is already time to stop; and others will ask, “Who is this newcomer2who soboldly tries to persuade us that the Spaniards have neglected their duty for one hundred and ninety-two years?” But so it is, and now is the time to warn them of this neglect; and, although ignorance attempts to prevent this, it shall not make me desist from the undertaking. I desire that his Majesty (whom may God preserve) may have positive knowledge of the treasure which he possesses in the Philipinas Islands; and I am undertaking to place before his Majesty plain and clear evidence that they can and ought to furnish very great profit, and maintain themselves from their own products.I make no pretensions as an author, nor do I claim to have the ability for that; therefore let us lay aside panegyrics, which are so unprofitable; for, even if this little work deserves them, that does not comport with my purpose, which is simply the service of his Majesty and the advancement of his realms.As regards all that I shall be able to state of the products of commodities which the said islands yield, in order that every one may know that I do not advocate something that is not so, I recommend (although various persons have written on the subject) to the curious the two books of the reverend master Father Pedro Murillo Velarde, of the Society of Jesus, entitledHistoria de las Islas PhilipinasandHistoria geograficaof the same Philipinas Islands.These are worthy of attention, and in regard to what is theoretical can furnish much light; as for what concerns the practical, and the experiencewhich I have acquired at the cost of much money, labor, and application, I must make evident all the following.First: We must consider what commodities or products these islands contain or produce, as well as the fact that we do not have to build castles in the air or proceed on fanciful assumptions; all that I assert shall be from my own knowledge.Second: Whether the products or commodities can be used, and to explain and demonstrate how we can avail ourselves of them; and all that I shall say on this subject will proceed from the long experience which I have had.Third: The advantages and benefits which will redound to his Majesty, to the Spaniards settled in those regions, and to the Indians themselves.The first point: As the products of the Philipinas Islands are enumerated by the reverend Father Murillo (whom may God keep in Paradise), whom I have cited, and those of each island separately, in order not to extend this little work needlessly I will state the most important ones, which are the following: Rice, sugar, cotton (of choice quality and very fine), indigo, sulphur, siguey, balate, wax, pepper, coffee, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl; gold, mines of iron, and mines of copper (like that of Japon); tobacco, brazil-wood [sibucao], and pearl-fisheries; oil, cacao, birds’-nests, and ebony wood; lead (I believe that, as for the soil in some parts of Bisayas,3it melts into lead, just as in the island of Mauricius, which belongs to the French, it melts into iron);cocoanuts, which produce abundance of oil;4horses; deer and buffaloes, from which the people make what they calltapa[i.e., dried beef], and also use the sinews; and bichuca, or rattans.5The above-mentioned products are very abundant, and exceedingly easy to collect. I do not, however, wish to include the following, for the reasons which I have mentioned: Lead, [of which] I have not personally actual experience, although I regard it as being as sure as all the others; coffee, which, as it is not cultivated, is not abundant, and its consumption is small for exportation, less than it would be for España or Europa; iron, [the working of] which, although it is very abundant, they have not yet succeeded in perfecting; the pearl-fisheries, which are not operated; copper, the mines of which are not worked; and cocoanuts, which are little used outside [the islands] except for oil and nails.6The second: The commodities that I have mentioned are exported to the places that are enumerated as follows, and sell at prices that are very profitable—although commerce has, as in all regions, its ups and downs [sus altos y bajos]. To various ports of China: rice, sugar, cotton, indigo, bichuca or rattan, balate, pepper, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl, brazil-wood, ebony,tapa, the sinews of cattle, birds’-nests, and lead when they have it. To the Malabar coast and Persia: sugar in large quantities, which is sold for money. To the Coromandel coast and Bengala: sugar, indigo, brazil-wood, sulphur, pepper, siguey, birds’-nests, cotton, and often rice.The third: The advantages and benefit which will accrue to his Majesty from the commerce and exportation of the commodities and products of those same islands are various, to wit: The more that the commodities which they need from outside can be supplied from the native products of the islands themselves, the more silver remains in the [Spanish] dominions. The more commodities or fruits are exported, so much more land will be cultivated, and many more people employed; and consequently the tributes imposed by his Majesty can be all the more easily collected, and from that time the royal exchequer will be better filled; and the vassals, by being kept busy, become more obedient and more loyal. The Spanish traders who are established there are favored [by such policy]; for they obtain their profits on both the exportation and the importation, and if one of these fail, the other will be able to supply the deficiency; but the advantage will be the greater if it can be obtained from both sources of gain. When commerce is flourishing, his Majesty will obtain greater profits from the customs duties, for which reason it is highly expedient that his Majesty encourage the cultivation of the land and the increase of its products—a thing which I do notconsider difficult of accomplishment, as I have already demonstrated in another little work, which I have placed in the hands of the ministers.7In order to demonstrate clearly how much the people of Manila could avail themselves of the products of the land, I will relate what occurred with myself (and it is a circumstance which proves what I advanced in the second point), to wit: When I was at Manila the exportation of sugar was rigorously prohibited, so that hardly could a ship carry away enough for its own supply, [the authorities] telling the vessel-owners that it was against the ordinances of his Majesty. I remained for some time under this delusion, until I had carefully examined the said ordinances, from which it was clear to me that his Majesty had decreed everything in favor of his Indian vassals, and that his royal will was, not to oppress them therein. It caused me, then, much pain to see that this thing was so entirely misunderstood, since this prohibition was diametrically opposed to it; for it forbade the people to enjoy the benefits of the country which God had given them, which the king never had intended to take away from them—especially as this [commerce] is the only means that they possess by which they can pay their tributes. Finally I undertook to establish generally the exportation of sugar. Having been warned of the difficulties, I went to the province where it8greatly abounds (which is called Pampanga),and did what I could; it was agreed that I should make an experiment, in order to please his Lordship. I consented, on the condition that a certain Don Francisco Salgado, a careful and industrious man, should be appointed my assistant; as I had not the time to execute this plan, I only gave him all [necessary] information and instructions. At last we succeeded in making indigo so good that it stood every test, the severest and most certain that are known being those of water and of fire. I sent specimens of that quality to China, the Coromandel coast, Persia, and Londres [i.e., London]; in the first three places they were anxious to obtain it, and offered good prices, and in the last-named one the indigo that had cost 500 reals vellon was sold for 2,600 reals. They will be able to manufacture every year such quantity as they desire.I believe that I have succeeded in what I undertook to demonstrate, which is as follows: First, to make known the abundance of the products of the Philipinas Islands; second, to prove from my own experience that it is easy to secure the benefit of these; third, to set forth the advantage and benefit which will accrue to his Majesty, to the Spaniards settled in those regions, and to the Indian vassals generally.I can say that charity has induced me to make known what I have already related from my own experience, seeing that all that has hitherto been written [on this subject] is very superficial; nor can the most intelligent man form from those books a stable opinion of what these islands are capable of yielding from their so abundant products.This little work is condensed, but those who are capable of comprehending it will see that it is [so]on account of being written out of thorough understanding and knowledge of what I write about, and not for lack of a very broad field in which I might descant, for it cannot be denied that there is material for filling a volume.Nevertheless, I do not claim to lay down the law, nor do I presume to change any system; my intention is only to depict things as they are, in order that his Majesty may have actual knowledge of the treasure which he possesses in these islands. No advantage results to me, nor do I expect more than to be a man ready to communicate [what he knows], and desirous to do what shall depend on a limited ability, for the greater benefit of his Majesty and the advancement of his realms. But it is already time that we show in what consists the advantage and benefit which will accrue to his Majesty from the Philipinas Islands.What precedes this serves only to demonstrate that the Spaniards settled in Manila have a broad field for carrying on a flourishing commerce, and even it would redound much to the advantage of his Majesty. But what I am earnestly advocating is cinnamon, and it is of great importance to his Majesty and worthy of his royal attention; and if I say that no one has hitherto, or since España conquered the Philipinas, made a proposition so certain, so well founded, and so advantageous to his Majesty, and to all his dominions and his vassals, it is not much to say. For it is no exaggeration when I say that it is more than the conquistador accomplished; he succeeded, with honor and glory, in conquering the islands, but they have always cost España most dearly for their maintenance. For not only do Iaim to relieve those expenses, which are so large, but those islands can in a few years become a benefit to his Majesty, and to his vassals, both Spaniards and Indians. I do not ask these gratuities,9nor that the king should spend one maravedi; my chief object and desire is, that a stable commerce be allowed from those countries to these kingdoms by the most direct route.No one is ignorant of the vast amount of silver which goes every year from España to the Dutch for the supply of cinnamon, for it is not less than many millions of pesos duros each year, as they have estimated; but I affirm that this is because they [i.e., the Spaniards] are willing to let the silver go out [of the country]. España might with as good reason send to Olanda to buy her wine as her cinnamon. I will not undertake to argue whence it comes, although I know it very well. What I am trying to do, without offending any one, is to remedy this lack which España suffers, that the Spaniards may use their good judgment and their reason and become true patriots. What a pity it is that his Majesty, possessing so noble a commodity, and being able to place it on the market—with as good success as that of Ceylán, and even at less than half of the price—should permit so many millions of silver to pass every year from his dominions to the Dutch! which is to furnish that people with arms for carrying on war when opportunity may offer. It is well known that España consumes more cinnamon than all the other nations; can there, then, be greater folly? In order (as I suppose) to humor the Dutch, Españaleaves unused the cinnamon which she has in her own house, in order to buy it from those enemies and the destroyers of the holy faith in those countries; I say that this is opposed to the Christian religion, and I prove it in a few words: if España would avail herself of this product which she could so easily dispose of, the Dutch could not maintain [their establishments in] the island of Ceylon, and then España could even introduce missions in that island. But what foolish talk! The Dutch maintain Ceilon? The Spaniards support it; they pay for its ships, its fortresses, and its garrisons which the Dutch have there—although in order to destroy these the Spaniards need neither balls, nor gunpowder, nor war. If any one thinks that this is a sweeping statement [es adelantar mucho], we are of differing opinions, because to me it seems a moderate one.I am known as a man who has accomplished much, who has traveled in many lands, and who has not passed through them heedlessly; nor have I stopped to consider the expenditure of money, or the risk to health, in order to satisfy my curiosity and obtain well grounded knowledge of all things wherever I have traveled. To the point: Samboanga, the capital of the island of Mindanao, is the place which could produce cinnamon as good as that of Ceylon, if our people knew how to cultivate it; I have already made the experiment, and it will yield the amount that I shall require. The Dutch are well aware of this, [as appears] by evidence which can be verified by me; for they, with their trained and accustomed cunning, placed in the said island a stone with the initial letters of [the name of] their companyengraved on it, like those which they are wont to place in their bales of goods, etc., by way of manifesting that these belong to the said company. The said stone was brought to Manila while I was there, and was delivered to the Marques de Obando; and his Lordship, knowing that I understood the tricks and policy of those gentlemen, sent to call me, and, showing me the stone, he said, “What is the meaning of this stone, which they have brought to me under such-and-such circumstances?” I replied to his Lordship, “It is nothing; it is a mark which the Dutch are wont to set up in order to have a pretext, when opportunity offers, for laying claim to the lands in which they have placed the said stones.”10No one, then, who understands that people—keen, mercenary, and always on the watch—will fail to agree with me, that they do not set up these stones in barren islands, unless it is evident that, on account of the location of these islands, it will not suit the Dutch to have [other people there as] close neighbors. When they abandoned the island of Maurisius, considering it uninhabitable on account of its sterility, they left no engraved stone in it. It is a circumstance which deserves attention, and is evenworthy of coming to his Majesty’s knowledge; and likewise those who have or have had practical knowledge of these matters regard them in this way. Finally, I have compared the quality of the soil at Samboanga with that of Ceylon, also the leaves of the cinnamon tree; still more, I have gathered the bark of this tree at Samboanga and made certain experiments with it, and when I compared it with that from Ceylon they were of equal value. I consider, then, [from] the manner of making these experiments with the cultivation of the soil and the culture of the cinnamon, [that] it will prove to be equal [to that of Ceylon]. Finally, in commencing the experiments which I have made—with the greatest application and industry, and enormous expenses—they are quite sufficient to prove that it will be possible, in the term of five or six years, to produce a large part of the best cinnamon which comes to Europa. This I have learned from the experiment with a quantity of chocolate which I ordered to be made in my own house at Manila; this product has been greatly liked by the ladies, and by people of taste and understanding, in the said city.In view of these proofs, which I have from actual knowledge of the method of cultivating and preparing this product, it causes me surprise that his Majesty is losing a source of profit so extensive and lucrative; and I am persuaded that if full knowledge of them could have reached the officials who might have authority to examine the subject, they would have taken suitable measures to secure this benefit—although it is certain that it would not be considered that no one hitherto has attained it [i.e., such knowledge] except that which is here explainedby myself, which is the simple truth. And as for what concerns my part, I can serve, if desirable, in carrying out a work so national and so advantageous to his Majesty—in which honor and fame spur me to place myself at the disposal of his Majesty, without causing him the expenditure of one real of silver; for, thanks to God, I have the means for travel. Nevertheless, I shall never weary in the acquisition of the precious treasures of honor and truth; for God only knows the exceeding satisfaction which I feel in being the first and only person who has had the good fortune to furnish this information, so clear and plain that, if it were published to the world, I am sure that the rest of the nations would conspire against me; for they know its great usefulness, and the little difficulty which I would find in carrying out the plan.I have been assured that the clove is found in Mindanao. I have made every possible effort to investigate this, and I believe that it is certainly so, although I cannot assert more than what experience has taught me. But I can affirm with more certainty that the nutmeg grows there, and needs only to be cultivated; also pepper of the best quality, and most delicious, can be had in abundance. At present the only thing left for us is to reflect upon the many advantages and incredible benefits which will accrue to his Majesty, and to his dominions and vassals, both Spaniards and Indians, without costing him a real vellon to establish this commerce. The English and Dutch, on the other hand, will spend millions to prevent the success of this great project, for which reason it is evidently necessary to maintain the utmost secrecy regarding it.Recapitulation of the advantages and benefits of this commerceFirst: The millions of pesos duros which now pass out of the domains of his Majesty, with which the Dutch are enriching themselves and promoting their main commerce, that of the cinnamon; they will have so much less for hostilities against España, the more that this matter of the cinnamon is pushed in that country, thus rendering it impossible for them to carry away the silver thence.Second: Great numbers of Indians would be employed who now have no way in which to make a living or to pay their tributes; by this means not only would they be relieved [from their burdens], but it would be with great increase to the royal exchequer; and through their application and gains they would consequently be more faithful and constant vassals, while now idleness and vices prevent them from being such.Third: The Philipinas Islands are suffering severely from the lack of communication by a direct route with España; this could be easily secured by arming the ships there, which need from España more people than a few officers; and it would be very desirable to transport for those islands some artisans whom they will need for promoting and cultivating the various products of the land.Fourth: The more that the lands are cultivated and their products made available, the greater will be the number of men and of infidel Indians that will be needed; and consequently they will submit [to Spanish authority], and be converted into loyal vassals and friends, and Christianity will be increasedin those regions, without any fear that the Moro and infidel enemies can disturb them.Fifth: It will be possible to equip every year three or four ships of six hundred to a thousand toneladas each, and despatch them for Europa with cinnamon, pepper, and other spices which will be produced there; and in return they will go back with various commodities and fruits, the products of España, which the people of Manila always find themselves compelled to buy from the English and Dutch, carrying away the money for them. In this manner not only will these gains remain within the dominions of his Majesty, without the other nations being able to draw thence the money with which they carry on war, [to the] injury of the commerce of España, but by this means the [Spanish] dominions that are so remote will come to be to a large extent dependent one upon another; and as the intercourse between them would be mutual and friendly, the Indians consequently would have occasion to see and experience the greatness [of the Spanish power]. Thus they would come to be more faithful and loyal vassals, and returning to their own lands, would influence their countrymen to be the same.Sixth: No one will deny my statement that the cinnamon would [thus] be obtained at a much less cost [by the Spaniards] than that at which the Dutch can sell it, unless [they encounter] less risk and danger—[which are] so manifest that for the preservation of this commerce they find themselves compelled to maintain a great number of troops and keep up many forts and garrisons, solely to defend themselves. Let to all this be added the governors, and the enormous number of people whom they have intheir service, with some very large expenses which arise from the various opinions of the companies—the costs of which, so ill applied, render the cinnamon more expensive (although in reality its cost is low), and it is certain that their commerce in spices does not prove to be so profitable as the nations assert. Very differently, then, will it be in favor of España when she reaches the cultivation of the cinnamon; for in place of the great expenses which his Majesty has had ever since he took possession of the said island, without its producing any benefit, he will obtain the greatest advantages without spending a real vellon more than at present. Especially, labor will be found as cheap, and the cultivation of the soil as easy, as in Ceylon; and the navigation can be made with the same advantages that [other] nations [possess], or even greater. For this reason the cinnamon will cost the merchants forty or fifty per cent less than they have actually paid hitherto. It is certain that it is a very serious damage which España generally suffers in her commerce, from paying, through this negligence, the freight charges of the Dutch ships, and the cost of their officers and seamen; and they even maintain their fortifications, etc., with the money which they obtain from España for this product of cinnamon.Seventh: Likewise, there would be great advantage to España in the ships which would come from the Philipinas, as I have said (in the fifth point); for they would return laden with many fruits and products of these kingdoms of España.Eighth: The Americans would likewise share in this great benefit; for the cinnamon, for which they are today paying so exorbitant a price, they wouldobtain at very nearly the same price at which it is usually sold in Cadiz.Ninth: If the cinnamon should become cheap, much chocolate would be consumed by the poor; and consequently the duties would amount to much more, to the advantage of his Majesty.Notwithstanding that the greatness of the enterprise is clearly demonstrated, and no additional information is needed, two things ought to be noted. First, that no damage or expense can result to his Majesty. Second, that from this arrangement, it is evident and positive, not the least injury or disadvantage ensues to España or to America; rather, it is a triple benefit, and indispensable—which, [however,] without general experience and practical knowledge it would be impossible to bring about without each dominion injuring the other; for in this consists the superiority of a man who is an expert.[The writer then proceeds to mention the spiritual advantages which would result from the temporal; but his argument becomes somewhat lame here, reducing itself to the “hope that, with the help of our Lord, a firm and permanent peace with the Moros may be secured” He makes an interesting statement regarding the extent of the ravages committed by the Mindanao pirates: “I am certain, from accurate information, that during the government of the Marqués de Obando he cost the king eight millions of reals vellon [for this purpose], although he proceeded with the utmost economy and care in the manner in which he used the royal revenue; and, having made in the year 1755 a calculation of the expenses which these piracies werecausing to his Majesty and his vassals (both Spaniards and Indians) from the ravages made by the Moros and infidels during the eight years preceding, it amounted to about eighty millions of reals vellon,” not to mention the killing of priests and native Christians. Of course, if peace is secured with the Moros, the progress and extension of the missions in the islands is assured. The writer again declares his devotion to the service of God and the king, his readiness to explain his plans further to those who desire more information, and his confidence that they will command the confidence of men of understanding, judgment, and patriotism.]Although through experience (tempus edrax rerum) one can come to know the utility and advantage which will accrue from the execution of this so vast enterprise, I trust that I have demonstrated it quite sufficiently to render it worthy of the consideration of his Majesty; nevertheless, seeing how much is involved, it is fitting for my honor to furnish proofs, the most detailed and circumstantial. This induces me to quote part of the lading which came in seventeen ships of the Company of Olanda, as published in theGazetteof Amsterdam, dated on July 3 of this present year, one thousand seven hundred and fifty-nine—products which are and may be those of the very islands in question; and in order to show how very important it is to give attention to what is herein proposed, each commodity is valued at the regular price which it can bring in the ports of Cadiz, Alicante, etc.PricesLibras[Commodities]Reals vellon per librareals vellon Total,4,672,746of pepper732,709,22250,000of nutmeg391,950,00060,000of mace704,200,000360,000of cloves5018,000,000375,840of cinnamon5821,198,7203,000of candied nutmeg60180,0002,398of candied cloves70167,860883,142of sugar3.9411[3,424,000]40,490of camphor16649,8406,582of benzoin22134,93610,500of borax15157,50012,146of gum-lac12145,7523,000of gum myrrh1236,0003,514of gamboge1656,22420,049of indigo, superior30601,470[Total,] eighty-three millions, six hundred and eleven thousand, five hundred and twenty-four reals vellon.83,611,524I have taken into consideration the objections which may be brought forward by persons who are little acquainted with trade, and these are reduced, substantially, to the following: That the consumption of these commodities in the dominions of his Majesty cannot be regulated by the above calculation.They speak glibly; but, in order not to lose time with these persons, I answer them, that one is compelled to encounter ignorance, but the only concern of great souls is to serve faithfully their kings and nations, and endure the calumnies which are uttered against honest men—imitating the stars, which, no matter how much the dogs bark, do not cease to shine down upon them and to follow their own courses. Accordingly, let us proceed to truths which are plain:First: that the Dutch carry these commodities in large quantities, as is above stated—a proof that there is a consumption for that amount, and that this is a profitable trade. Second: that the calculation which I have made cannot be defective, since the [amounts of the] commodities agree with the figures published by the Dutch themselves; and the prices are obtained from the Company of Druggists, in accordance with what they pay for the goods at the ports. Third: that the greater part [of these commodities], and the most important ones, if not [all], can be the products of the Philipinas Islands. Fourth: that these commodities must cost much less than in Olanda, or in any other country, is manifest and undeniable for this reason, that the Dutch are obliged to incur enormous expenses—for governors, members of council, lesser servants without number, and many troops—in order to maintain their establishments; and these expenses increase just so much the prices of their spices, so that, if they buy these from the [Eastern] nations at ten, the goods are worth to them twenty-five. This would not occur with us, because the king does not need to increase the expenses in order to secure the advancement of the islands. It would be entirely different; for, ifthese plantations are established, thousands of Indians who now are suffering the utmost poverty without having any opportunity to work, and for the same reason cannot pay their tributes, would have a means of gaining their living and of paying their tributes, and on this very account it would serve much for the increase of the royal revenue.As these Indians are not paid for their labor at higher rates than are those among whom the Dutch reside, we must reckon, for the reasons here stated, that those same commodities would cost much less, and that the Spaniards could sell them at lower prices than do the Dutch; and, as the merchant in every country buys where he will find his greatest advantage, España would be the fair for these commodities which have already enriched so many nations. But let us proceed to reveal the cunning of the Dutch, who furnish only three millions, seven hundred and fifty thousand, eight hundred and forty libras of cinnamon—which, at the rate of sixteen onzas a libra, make six12millions, thirteen thousand, four hundred and forty onzas. The rule for making chocolate is to take ten libras of cacao, ten of sugar, and eight onzas of cinnamon, or even less, and on account of the waste13it is computed that the result will betwenty libras net; consequently, from the three millions, seven hundred and fifty thousand, eight hundred and forty libras of cinnamon could be madefifteen millions, thirty-three thousand, six hundred libras of chocolate.Although it is folly to make such a proposition, I ask whether there are not in España,14all America,the Philipinas Islands, and, in short, all the so various domains of his Majesty, counting all these together, four millions of persons who drink chocolate sixty-four times in the year, in accordance with the rule of one onza for each time. Even the most ignorant or malicious person will not deny my proposition; this makes, then, the consumption of chocolate sixteen millions of libras, and for making it there will be needed four hundred thousand libras of cinnamon.Hence are drawn two conclusions. One is, the extreme craftiness of the Dutch, in not furnishing more than the said quantity in order to supply the Spaniards, and in making them believe that they will be left without chocolate; and thus they succeed in obliging the Spaniards to pay for the cinnamon at the very high prices which the Dutch have fixed in these recent years—for it is a hundred per cent more costly, and fifty per cent worse in quality; therefore there is an increase of a hundred and fifty per cent in favor of the Dutch, and of three hundred per cent to the injury of España, who without reason endures this tyranny. Therefore, if the Dutch are not mistaken in the estimate of cinnamon which they published in theGazette, and as the consumption [of that spice] in España is as I have made evident, there will not be cinnamon to supply all the nations; nevertheless, there will be no lack of it in any of them.15Second: since it is so evident that in the dominions of his Majesty there is consumed in [the beverageof] chocolate alone (without counting the numerous kinds of food in which use is made of it) sixteen millions of libras, and in order to make it there are needed four hundred thousand of cinnamon, at the rate of fifty-eight reals vellon that quantity will cost twenty-three millions, three hundred thousand reals vellon, which is the least that España could advance for the execution of the project. Moreover, I do not know any reason for not admitting the commodity of pepper—which not only is so exceedingly abundant in the islands, but I persuade myself that, since it is so excellent in its crude state, it would with skilful treatment be better than that of any [other] country. It is also plain to us that the Dutch bring [to Europa] four millions, six hundred and seventy-two thousand, seven hundred and forty-six libras of it; they assure me that only because of the great abundance of garlic16in España the pepper brings no more than seven reals vellon a libra—[at which rate] the above quantity will amount to thirty-two millions, seven [hundred] and nine thousand, two hundred and twenty-two reals vellon. This added to the twenty-three millions, three hundred thousand reals [for cinnamon] will make fifty-six millions, nine thousand, two hundred and twenty-two reals vellon.People will say, “Where would we consume so much pepper?” Then where does Olanda consume it, I would like to know? “[And there are] Francia and Inglaterra; do they bring much less [to Europa]?” Do not those who ask such questionsknow how much the king is paying to Norbega [i.e., Norway] and the northern countries for lumber, cordage, etc., for the construction in his royal navy? and that, if it happens that care is not given in time to the planting of oak groves, he will need much more [from those countries]?—At present these commodities are paid for in ready money, which would not be the case if we could give the merchants there the pepper, etc., so cheaply (or at less expense than [if purchased from] another country), on account of the great consumption of pepper which there is in those countries, and because this would be a [form of] trade that is mutually advantageous, as I have already said, for the day-laborer and the shepherd. It would be permanent, and many millions of reals which now leave España would remain here, to the greatest advantage not only of his Majesty, but of his vassals. I say, then, that no one is able to deny these two propositions, of which his Majesty will be best able to judge. Have I heard some one argue that España has17need of preventing thus the exportation of silver? Such arguments are foolish, and one should laugh at them.Do we not know that Olanda commands that a very large part of the spice product be burned and destroyed, in order that a commodity which brings her so enormous a profit should not, through its excessive abundance, contribute to her loss? I say, then, that if España reaches an excessive abundance of silver, it would be far better for the king to command that the mines be closed, or to fling the silver into the sea, than to let it pass into the hands of those whotomorrow can avail themselves of it to carry on war [against España]. Others I have heard talk [on this subject], so frivolously that I was astounded, hinting at the resentment of this other nation if España should profit by what is her own—that is, the execution of the proposition [that I have made]. That is the same as to say that Inglaterra or any other nation could declare that España shall not cultivate the ground or sow the wheat, because it suited that nation to supply it; it is to talk very heedlessly, without knowing that España can limit the commerce of Francia, Inglaterra, and Olanda whenever she desires, without cannon-ball or gunpowder, by the prohibition of silver alone. If she chooses to deprive any one of those countries of this advantage, she has only to calculate what she owes to the other two for the net balance of their trade, and then not allow any more silver to go out to those countries; and these, needing it for themselves, will not be able to supply the other one. I can assert that España, if she would avail herself of the rights which God has given her, would make herself more worthy of respect by depriving the [other] nations of what is essential, not only for their commerce, but for waging war to advantage.I believe that no one will dispute the advantages and benefit which can accrue from the Philipinas Islands, and it is this which from the outset I have attempted to demonstrate, although I omit, for the sake of brevity, the explanation of many things.Keeping in mind how much I owe to the infinite mercy and goodness of supreme Providence, in the second part of the work alluded to, which I presume to present to his Majesty, I have treated at lengthof the ravages which the Moros have committed during very many years in those islands, and of the exceeding damage which they thus cause to our holy Roman Catholic and apostolic faith, for I cannot do less. Indeed, it is evident that God has assisted me with His divine Grace; and therefore I certainly ought to defend and, if it should be necessary, die for His cause. Accordingly, in whatever concerns the subjection of the Moros, and consequently the protection and advancement of the holy faith in those islands, I hope to deserve that his Majesty will do me the honor of appointing six lieutenant-commanders—three from his royal navy, and three from his army—in order that they may examine with the utmost care the plan upon which I have based my proposition, giving their opinions in writing for presentation to his Majesty, in two copies, one for his Majesty’s royal Council of the Indias, the other for myself.When this examination shall be made, and the plan approved by the king if such be his royal will, I will immediately proceed to furnish the plan of the whole matter which I have drawn up for the execution of the project—from which, after further investigations (which are very just, and perhaps will be quite unprecedented) his Majesty can more easily decide what shall be most expedient in this matter, as also the selection of persons for the said purpose.As for what pertains to the commerce, for greater certainty I deemed it expedient to communicate my intention to Don Antonio Butlert [sic], formerly a merchant of Cadiz—since he is distinguished not only for his great success in business and his genuine friendship to this nation, but by his long experience in and thorough knowledge of the commerce of thesedominions—asking him to give me his disinterested opinion on the subject, in which he should consider with the utmost attention the general welfare of these dominions; and this opinion I have, in writing, and signed with the name of his firm, which reads “Butlert and Matheos.”Some persons who are little acquainted with affairs so vast, and who have still less ability to make ready for the great things which remain to be done, will suppose that the execution [of this plan] is easy, to one who has the writings which I have already furnished; nevertheless, if they engaged in the undertaking they would find themselves much mistaken, and the result would be greatly to the detriment of the nation.Warned by what I have passed through, and dreading [the effects of] ignorance and malice, I have reached the decision to supplicate the king to grant me the honor of this examination—desiring, whatever may fall to my lot, to prove that I have no other purpose than to serve faithfully both Majesties and their vassals, and entreating them for this end to dispose of my life and person, of which I will gladly make sacrifice in proof of my loyalty and sincere devotion.Extracts from the proposition of Don Nicolas Norton Nicols; the conditions which he requires; the benefits and advantages which will accrue to his Majesty and his vassals, on whose account his Majesty was pleased to issue a decree on the twenty-third of February last.The aim of the said proponent is, to establish in the Philipinas Islands plantations of cinnamon, pepper, other spices, etc., and to open a direct commercebetween the said islands and Cadiz, by way of the Cape of Good Hope.Conditions.—That he shall be permitted to undertake the said route from Cadiz, or may go to the said islands and make the voyage from there to Cadiz, as he shall find most convenient. If he shall set out from Cadiz, on account of not having time to build ships he shall be permitted to buy whatever vessels [he may need], without excepting those of foreigners. The cargo from Cadiz must consist of different fruits, liquids,18and commodities that are products of España and of her commerce, as on the return voyage it must be from the various products and commodities of the said islands and of their commerce. That his Majesty remit the duties for the first voyage, and that the proponent be permitted to embark freely at Cadiz the silver that he needs to defray the purchase of his return cargo. On the second voyage he shall pay at Cadiz not only the five per cent duties but the three per cent of the silver which he shall thereafter embark, as is done with the [traders of foreign] nations. In order to obviate any objection, he will not enter any port belonging to his Majesty or to any power of Europa; he shall, however, be permitted to enter and anchor at any one of the Indian ports, whether in these or in those seas, and therein buy, sell, exchange, or lade the goods which shall be offered to him.The advantages, etc., will be the following: His Majesty will not subject his royal revenue to any expense, nor will it be exposed to the evil designs of men, or to the doubtful patriots who pretend tohave knowledge. There is no treaty that can be set against him, as he can prove. By the most moderate computation, the Dutch annually export four millions of pesos for the spice-trade; this, therefore, is to make them powerful, to the injury of España. Norvega, St. Petersbourgh, and other countries demand a great amount of cash for lumber, pitch, cordage, sails, etc., for the royal shipbuilding, the greater part of which would be paid for in spices, as these are greatly liked in those countries. Equivalent injury to España, as is stated above.19The commodities and products of España would have a much larger market. A strong stimulus to the cultivation of the soil. His Majesty would experience much relief in the expenses of transportation for the missions. This navigation would serve as a nursery for the navy, as is found by experience in other countries. The direct communication would serve as a check on a thousand abuses, not only in the government of the islands, but in other matters. If his Majesty should grant this privilege to the said islands, it would be most just that the commonwealth of Manila should carry on its commerce with Acapulco at its own cost, without laying the burden of it on his Majesty. By not possessing this commerce when she can have it, España is maintaining thousands of strangers in place of a like number of her own vassals; [the latter would] redound to the increase of the royal revenue, and in the course of years to the propagation of the holy faith. The Moros, who now are by their wars destroying the felicitous progress ofthe Christian religion, when they found by experience how much more it suited their own interests to maintain peace and commerce with the Spaniards than to wage war against them, would inviolably observe their treaties; for, notwithstanding the cruelties which the Dutch practice against their Indians, the latter tolerate them on account of the advantages of their commerce. The people of Manila will, when they have a market for their products, cultivate the land; they will establish family estates, and enrich themselves; and their riches, like those of the Americans, will finally come to España. The duties which your Majesty would receive from this new commerce would in a very few years amount to very considerable sums. It would be a stimulus to other new commercial undertakings, which would be beneficial to his Majesty and his vassals.The whole matter in small compassHis Majesty, without risking anything, is going to gain infinitely more than what has been [here] stated. The method of securing these vast benefits is the easiest and safest which can be put into practice, and itself makes plain the useful and salutary design of the proponent.Don Nicolas Norton Nicols

To the king our sovereign Carlos III:1

Sire: The pressing obligation which rests upon all good vassals to render some service which shall be profitable to their sovereigns encourages my faint-heartednessto lay at the royal feet of your Majesty this work, which I offer with the utmost submission, with the assurance of my most loyal desires that your Majesty may enjoy the most prosperous and glorious reign over these dominions. [I am also urged on by] my own practical knowledge [of the subject], and the demand of the entire nation, especially of the mercantile interests—although little do they suspect that I have undertaken the enterprise with so much energy from persuading myself that my good fortune would gain for this act your Majesty’s kindly regard, which, coming to the knowledge of your loyal vassals, will be received with the utmost satisfaction,and as a proof of your paternal affection and your sincere desire for their advancement.

I entreat our Lord that He will grant you all success and prosperity, and a long life, in order that these realms may enjoy for very many years the felicitous rule which the nation ought to expect from the distinguished qualifications possessed by your Majesty, from which it hopes to become more glorious than ever.

Prologue to the ReaderCommerce is contemporaneous with human society, from whose necessities it was born. [The author here sketches the origin and development of commerce among civilized nations, and states how in his undertaking this work he received the approval of the late king of Spain Fernando VI.]

Prologue to the Reader

Commerce is contemporaneous with human society, from whose necessities it was born. [The author here sketches the origin and development of commerce among civilized nations, and states how in his undertaking this work he received the approval of the late king of Spain Fernando VI.]

Commerce is contemporaneous with human society, from whose necessities it was born. [The author here sketches the origin and development of commerce among civilized nations, and states how in his undertaking this work he received the approval of the late king of Spain Fernando VI.]

Commerce of the Philipinas Islands; the benefit and advantages which the said islands ought to yield to his Majesty (whom may God preserve).[This will seem] a strange statement when it is considered that the Philipinas Islands since the year 1565 have caused to España every year a very great expense, without affording the least temporal advantage; and when I now try to demonstrate the advantage and benefit of them to the crown of España some will say that it is already time to stop; and others will ask, “Who is this newcomer2who soboldly tries to persuade us that the Spaniards have neglected their duty for one hundred and ninety-two years?” But so it is, and now is the time to warn them of this neglect; and, although ignorance attempts to prevent this, it shall not make me desist from the undertaking. I desire that his Majesty (whom may God preserve) may have positive knowledge of the treasure which he possesses in the Philipinas Islands; and I am undertaking to place before his Majesty plain and clear evidence that they can and ought to furnish very great profit, and maintain themselves from their own products.I make no pretensions as an author, nor do I claim to have the ability for that; therefore let us lay aside panegyrics, which are so unprofitable; for, even if this little work deserves them, that does not comport with my purpose, which is simply the service of his Majesty and the advancement of his realms.As regards all that I shall be able to state of the products of commodities which the said islands yield, in order that every one may know that I do not advocate something that is not so, I recommend (although various persons have written on the subject) to the curious the two books of the reverend master Father Pedro Murillo Velarde, of the Society of Jesus, entitledHistoria de las Islas PhilipinasandHistoria geograficaof the same Philipinas Islands.These are worthy of attention, and in regard to what is theoretical can furnish much light; as for what concerns the practical, and the experiencewhich I have acquired at the cost of much money, labor, and application, I must make evident all the following.First: We must consider what commodities or products these islands contain or produce, as well as the fact that we do not have to build castles in the air or proceed on fanciful assumptions; all that I assert shall be from my own knowledge.Second: Whether the products or commodities can be used, and to explain and demonstrate how we can avail ourselves of them; and all that I shall say on this subject will proceed from the long experience which I have had.Third: The advantages and benefits which will redound to his Majesty, to the Spaniards settled in those regions, and to the Indians themselves.The first point: As the products of the Philipinas Islands are enumerated by the reverend Father Murillo (whom may God keep in Paradise), whom I have cited, and those of each island separately, in order not to extend this little work needlessly I will state the most important ones, which are the following: Rice, sugar, cotton (of choice quality and very fine), indigo, sulphur, siguey, balate, wax, pepper, coffee, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl; gold, mines of iron, and mines of copper (like that of Japon); tobacco, brazil-wood [sibucao], and pearl-fisheries; oil, cacao, birds’-nests, and ebony wood; lead (I believe that, as for the soil in some parts of Bisayas,3it melts into lead, just as in the island of Mauricius, which belongs to the French, it melts into iron);cocoanuts, which produce abundance of oil;4horses; deer and buffaloes, from which the people make what they calltapa[i.e., dried beef], and also use the sinews; and bichuca, or rattans.5The above-mentioned products are very abundant, and exceedingly easy to collect. I do not, however, wish to include the following, for the reasons which I have mentioned: Lead, [of which] I have not personally actual experience, although I regard it as being as sure as all the others; coffee, which, as it is not cultivated, is not abundant, and its consumption is small for exportation, less than it would be for España or Europa; iron, [the working of] which, although it is very abundant, they have not yet succeeded in perfecting; the pearl-fisheries, which are not operated; copper, the mines of which are not worked; and cocoanuts, which are little used outside [the islands] except for oil and nails.6The second: The commodities that I have mentioned are exported to the places that are enumerated as follows, and sell at prices that are very profitable—although commerce has, as in all regions, its ups and downs [sus altos y bajos]. To various ports of China: rice, sugar, cotton, indigo, bichuca or rattan, balate, pepper, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl, brazil-wood, ebony,tapa, the sinews of cattle, birds’-nests, and lead when they have it. To the Malabar coast and Persia: sugar in large quantities, which is sold for money. To the Coromandel coast and Bengala: sugar, indigo, brazil-wood, sulphur, pepper, siguey, birds’-nests, cotton, and often rice.The third: The advantages and benefit which will accrue to his Majesty from the commerce and exportation of the commodities and products of those same islands are various, to wit: The more that the commodities which they need from outside can be supplied from the native products of the islands themselves, the more silver remains in the [Spanish] dominions. The more commodities or fruits are exported, so much more land will be cultivated, and many more people employed; and consequently the tributes imposed by his Majesty can be all the more easily collected, and from that time the royal exchequer will be better filled; and the vassals, by being kept busy, become more obedient and more loyal. The Spanish traders who are established there are favored [by such policy]; for they obtain their profits on both the exportation and the importation, and if one of these fail, the other will be able to supply the deficiency; but the advantage will be the greater if it can be obtained from both sources of gain. When commerce is flourishing, his Majesty will obtain greater profits from the customs duties, for which reason it is highly expedient that his Majesty encourage the cultivation of the land and the increase of its products—a thing which I do notconsider difficult of accomplishment, as I have already demonstrated in another little work, which I have placed in the hands of the ministers.7In order to demonstrate clearly how much the people of Manila could avail themselves of the products of the land, I will relate what occurred with myself (and it is a circumstance which proves what I advanced in the second point), to wit: When I was at Manila the exportation of sugar was rigorously prohibited, so that hardly could a ship carry away enough for its own supply, [the authorities] telling the vessel-owners that it was against the ordinances of his Majesty. I remained for some time under this delusion, until I had carefully examined the said ordinances, from which it was clear to me that his Majesty had decreed everything in favor of his Indian vassals, and that his royal will was, not to oppress them therein. It caused me, then, much pain to see that this thing was so entirely misunderstood, since this prohibition was diametrically opposed to it; for it forbade the people to enjoy the benefits of the country which God had given them, which the king never had intended to take away from them—especially as this [commerce] is the only means that they possess by which they can pay their tributes. Finally I undertook to establish generally the exportation of sugar. Having been warned of the difficulties, I went to the province where it8greatly abounds (which is called Pampanga),and did what I could; it was agreed that I should make an experiment, in order to please his Lordship. I consented, on the condition that a certain Don Francisco Salgado, a careful and industrious man, should be appointed my assistant; as I had not the time to execute this plan, I only gave him all [necessary] information and instructions. At last we succeeded in making indigo so good that it stood every test, the severest and most certain that are known being those of water and of fire. I sent specimens of that quality to China, the Coromandel coast, Persia, and Londres [i.e., London]; in the first three places they were anxious to obtain it, and offered good prices, and in the last-named one the indigo that had cost 500 reals vellon was sold for 2,600 reals. They will be able to manufacture every year such quantity as they desire.I believe that I have succeeded in what I undertook to demonstrate, which is as follows: First, to make known the abundance of the products of the Philipinas Islands; second, to prove from my own experience that it is easy to secure the benefit of these; third, to set forth the advantage and benefit which will accrue to his Majesty, to the Spaniards settled in those regions, and to the Indian vassals generally.I can say that charity has induced me to make known what I have already related from my own experience, seeing that all that has hitherto been written [on this subject] is very superficial; nor can the most intelligent man form from those books a stable opinion of what these islands are capable of yielding from their so abundant products.This little work is condensed, but those who are capable of comprehending it will see that it is [so]on account of being written out of thorough understanding and knowledge of what I write about, and not for lack of a very broad field in which I might descant, for it cannot be denied that there is material for filling a volume.Nevertheless, I do not claim to lay down the law, nor do I presume to change any system; my intention is only to depict things as they are, in order that his Majesty may have actual knowledge of the treasure which he possesses in these islands. No advantage results to me, nor do I expect more than to be a man ready to communicate [what he knows], and desirous to do what shall depend on a limited ability, for the greater benefit of his Majesty and the advancement of his realms. But it is already time that we show in what consists the advantage and benefit which will accrue to his Majesty from the Philipinas Islands.What precedes this serves only to demonstrate that the Spaniards settled in Manila have a broad field for carrying on a flourishing commerce, and even it would redound much to the advantage of his Majesty. But what I am earnestly advocating is cinnamon, and it is of great importance to his Majesty and worthy of his royal attention; and if I say that no one has hitherto, or since España conquered the Philipinas, made a proposition so certain, so well founded, and so advantageous to his Majesty, and to all his dominions and his vassals, it is not much to say. For it is no exaggeration when I say that it is more than the conquistador accomplished; he succeeded, with honor and glory, in conquering the islands, but they have always cost España most dearly for their maintenance. For not only do Iaim to relieve those expenses, which are so large, but those islands can in a few years become a benefit to his Majesty, and to his vassals, both Spaniards and Indians. I do not ask these gratuities,9nor that the king should spend one maravedi; my chief object and desire is, that a stable commerce be allowed from those countries to these kingdoms by the most direct route.No one is ignorant of the vast amount of silver which goes every year from España to the Dutch for the supply of cinnamon, for it is not less than many millions of pesos duros each year, as they have estimated; but I affirm that this is because they [i.e., the Spaniards] are willing to let the silver go out [of the country]. España might with as good reason send to Olanda to buy her wine as her cinnamon. I will not undertake to argue whence it comes, although I know it very well. What I am trying to do, without offending any one, is to remedy this lack which España suffers, that the Spaniards may use their good judgment and their reason and become true patriots. What a pity it is that his Majesty, possessing so noble a commodity, and being able to place it on the market—with as good success as that of Ceylán, and even at less than half of the price—should permit so many millions of silver to pass every year from his dominions to the Dutch! which is to furnish that people with arms for carrying on war when opportunity may offer. It is well known that España consumes more cinnamon than all the other nations; can there, then, be greater folly? In order (as I suppose) to humor the Dutch, Españaleaves unused the cinnamon which she has in her own house, in order to buy it from those enemies and the destroyers of the holy faith in those countries; I say that this is opposed to the Christian religion, and I prove it in a few words: if España would avail herself of this product which she could so easily dispose of, the Dutch could not maintain [their establishments in] the island of Ceylon, and then España could even introduce missions in that island. But what foolish talk! The Dutch maintain Ceilon? The Spaniards support it; they pay for its ships, its fortresses, and its garrisons which the Dutch have there—although in order to destroy these the Spaniards need neither balls, nor gunpowder, nor war. If any one thinks that this is a sweeping statement [es adelantar mucho], we are of differing opinions, because to me it seems a moderate one.I am known as a man who has accomplished much, who has traveled in many lands, and who has not passed through them heedlessly; nor have I stopped to consider the expenditure of money, or the risk to health, in order to satisfy my curiosity and obtain well grounded knowledge of all things wherever I have traveled. To the point: Samboanga, the capital of the island of Mindanao, is the place which could produce cinnamon as good as that of Ceylon, if our people knew how to cultivate it; I have already made the experiment, and it will yield the amount that I shall require. The Dutch are well aware of this, [as appears] by evidence which can be verified by me; for they, with their trained and accustomed cunning, placed in the said island a stone with the initial letters of [the name of] their companyengraved on it, like those which they are wont to place in their bales of goods, etc., by way of manifesting that these belong to the said company. The said stone was brought to Manila while I was there, and was delivered to the Marques de Obando; and his Lordship, knowing that I understood the tricks and policy of those gentlemen, sent to call me, and, showing me the stone, he said, “What is the meaning of this stone, which they have brought to me under such-and-such circumstances?” I replied to his Lordship, “It is nothing; it is a mark which the Dutch are wont to set up in order to have a pretext, when opportunity offers, for laying claim to the lands in which they have placed the said stones.”10No one, then, who understands that people—keen, mercenary, and always on the watch—will fail to agree with me, that they do not set up these stones in barren islands, unless it is evident that, on account of the location of these islands, it will not suit the Dutch to have [other people there as] close neighbors. When they abandoned the island of Maurisius, considering it uninhabitable on account of its sterility, they left no engraved stone in it. It is a circumstance which deserves attention, and is evenworthy of coming to his Majesty’s knowledge; and likewise those who have or have had practical knowledge of these matters regard them in this way. Finally, I have compared the quality of the soil at Samboanga with that of Ceylon, also the leaves of the cinnamon tree; still more, I have gathered the bark of this tree at Samboanga and made certain experiments with it, and when I compared it with that from Ceylon they were of equal value. I consider, then, [from] the manner of making these experiments with the cultivation of the soil and the culture of the cinnamon, [that] it will prove to be equal [to that of Ceylon]. Finally, in commencing the experiments which I have made—with the greatest application and industry, and enormous expenses—they are quite sufficient to prove that it will be possible, in the term of five or six years, to produce a large part of the best cinnamon which comes to Europa. This I have learned from the experiment with a quantity of chocolate which I ordered to be made in my own house at Manila; this product has been greatly liked by the ladies, and by people of taste and understanding, in the said city.In view of these proofs, which I have from actual knowledge of the method of cultivating and preparing this product, it causes me surprise that his Majesty is losing a source of profit so extensive and lucrative; and I am persuaded that if full knowledge of them could have reached the officials who might have authority to examine the subject, they would have taken suitable measures to secure this benefit—although it is certain that it would not be considered that no one hitherto has attained it [i.e., such knowledge] except that which is here explainedby myself, which is the simple truth. And as for what concerns my part, I can serve, if desirable, in carrying out a work so national and so advantageous to his Majesty—in which honor and fame spur me to place myself at the disposal of his Majesty, without causing him the expenditure of one real of silver; for, thanks to God, I have the means for travel. Nevertheless, I shall never weary in the acquisition of the precious treasures of honor and truth; for God only knows the exceeding satisfaction which I feel in being the first and only person who has had the good fortune to furnish this information, so clear and plain that, if it were published to the world, I am sure that the rest of the nations would conspire against me; for they know its great usefulness, and the little difficulty which I would find in carrying out the plan.I have been assured that the clove is found in Mindanao. I have made every possible effort to investigate this, and I believe that it is certainly so, although I cannot assert more than what experience has taught me. But I can affirm with more certainty that the nutmeg grows there, and needs only to be cultivated; also pepper of the best quality, and most delicious, can be had in abundance. At present the only thing left for us is to reflect upon the many advantages and incredible benefits which will accrue to his Majesty, and to his dominions and vassals, both Spaniards and Indians, without costing him a real vellon to establish this commerce. The English and Dutch, on the other hand, will spend millions to prevent the success of this great project, for which reason it is evidently necessary to maintain the utmost secrecy regarding it.Recapitulation of the advantages and benefits of this commerceFirst: The millions of pesos duros which now pass out of the domains of his Majesty, with which the Dutch are enriching themselves and promoting their main commerce, that of the cinnamon; they will have so much less for hostilities against España, the more that this matter of the cinnamon is pushed in that country, thus rendering it impossible for them to carry away the silver thence.Second: Great numbers of Indians would be employed who now have no way in which to make a living or to pay their tributes; by this means not only would they be relieved [from their burdens], but it would be with great increase to the royal exchequer; and through their application and gains they would consequently be more faithful and constant vassals, while now idleness and vices prevent them from being such.Third: The Philipinas Islands are suffering severely from the lack of communication by a direct route with España; this could be easily secured by arming the ships there, which need from España more people than a few officers; and it would be very desirable to transport for those islands some artisans whom they will need for promoting and cultivating the various products of the land.Fourth: The more that the lands are cultivated and their products made available, the greater will be the number of men and of infidel Indians that will be needed; and consequently they will submit [to Spanish authority], and be converted into loyal vassals and friends, and Christianity will be increasedin those regions, without any fear that the Moro and infidel enemies can disturb them.Fifth: It will be possible to equip every year three or four ships of six hundred to a thousand toneladas each, and despatch them for Europa with cinnamon, pepper, and other spices which will be produced there; and in return they will go back with various commodities and fruits, the products of España, which the people of Manila always find themselves compelled to buy from the English and Dutch, carrying away the money for them. In this manner not only will these gains remain within the dominions of his Majesty, without the other nations being able to draw thence the money with which they carry on war, [to the] injury of the commerce of España, but by this means the [Spanish] dominions that are so remote will come to be to a large extent dependent one upon another; and as the intercourse between them would be mutual and friendly, the Indians consequently would have occasion to see and experience the greatness [of the Spanish power]. Thus they would come to be more faithful and loyal vassals, and returning to their own lands, would influence their countrymen to be the same.Sixth: No one will deny my statement that the cinnamon would [thus] be obtained at a much less cost [by the Spaniards] than that at which the Dutch can sell it, unless [they encounter] less risk and danger—[which are] so manifest that for the preservation of this commerce they find themselves compelled to maintain a great number of troops and keep up many forts and garrisons, solely to defend themselves. Let to all this be added the governors, and the enormous number of people whom they have intheir service, with some very large expenses which arise from the various opinions of the companies—the costs of which, so ill applied, render the cinnamon more expensive (although in reality its cost is low), and it is certain that their commerce in spices does not prove to be so profitable as the nations assert. Very differently, then, will it be in favor of España when she reaches the cultivation of the cinnamon; for in place of the great expenses which his Majesty has had ever since he took possession of the said island, without its producing any benefit, he will obtain the greatest advantages without spending a real vellon more than at present. Especially, labor will be found as cheap, and the cultivation of the soil as easy, as in Ceylon; and the navigation can be made with the same advantages that [other] nations [possess], or even greater. For this reason the cinnamon will cost the merchants forty or fifty per cent less than they have actually paid hitherto. It is certain that it is a very serious damage which España generally suffers in her commerce, from paying, through this negligence, the freight charges of the Dutch ships, and the cost of their officers and seamen; and they even maintain their fortifications, etc., with the money which they obtain from España for this product of cinnamon.Seventh: Likewise, there would be great advantage to España in the ships which would come from the Philipinas, as I have said (in the fifth point); for they would return laden with many fruits and products of these kingdoms of España.Eighth: The Americans would likewise share in this great benefit; for the cinnamon, for which they are today paying so exorbitant a price, they wouldobtain at very nearly the same price at which it is usually sold in Cadiz.Ninth: If the cinnamon should become cheap, much chocolate would be consumed by the poor; and consequently the duties would amount to much more, to the advantage of his Majesty.Notwithstanding that the greatness of the enterprise is clearly demonstrated, and no additional information is needed, two things ought to be noted. First, that no damage or expense can result to his Majesty. Second, that from this arrangement, it is evident and positive, not the least injury or disadvantage ensues to España or to America; rather, it is a triple benefit, and indispensable—which, [however,] without general experience and practical knowledge it would be impossible to bring about without each dominion injuring the other; for in this consists the superiority of a man who is an expert.[The writer then proceeds to mention the spiritual advantages which would result from the temporal; but his argument becomes somewhat lame here, reducing itself to the “hope that, with the help of our Lord, a firm and permanent peace with the Moros may be secured” He makes an interesting statement regarding the extent of the ravages committed by the Mindanao pirates: “I am certain, from accurate information, that during the government of the Marqués de Obando he cost the king eight millions of reals vellon [for this purpose], although he proceeded with the utmost economy and care in the manner in which he used the royal revenue; and, having made in the year 1755 a calculation of the expenses which these piracies werecausing to his Majesty and his vassals (both Spaniards and Indians) from the ravages made by the Moros and infidels during the eight years preceding, it amounted to about eighty millions of reals vellon,” not to mention the killing of priests and native Christians. Of course, if peace is secured with the Moros, the progress and extension of the missions in the islands is assured. The writer again declares his devotion to the service of God and the king, his readiness to explain his plans further to those who desire more information, and his confidence that they will command the confidence of men of understanding, judgment, and patriotism.]Although through experience (tempus edrax rerum) one can come to know the utility and advantage which will accrue from the execution of this so vast enterprise, I trust that I have demonstrated it quite sufficiently to render it worthy of the consideration of his Majesty; nevertheless, seeing how much is involved, it is fitting for my honor to furnish proofs, the most detailed and circumstantial. This induces me to quote part of the lading which came in seventeen ships of the Company of Olanda, as published in theGazetteof Amsterdam, dated on July 3 of this present year, one thousand seven hundred and fifty-nine—products which are and may be those of the very islands in question; and in order to show how very important it is to give attention to what is herein proposed, each commodity is valued at the regular price which it can bring in the ports of Cadiz, Alicante, etc.PricesLibras[Commodities]Reals vellon per librareals vellon Total,4,672,746of pepper732,709,22250,000of nutmeg391,950,00060,000of mace704,200,000360,000of cloves5018,000,000375,840of cinnamon5821,198,7203,000of candied nutmeg60180,0002,398of candied cloves70167,860883,142of sugar3.9411[3,424,000]40,490of camphor16649,8406,582of benzoin22134,93610,500of borax15157,50012,146of gum-lac12145,7523,000of gum myrrh1236,0003,514of gamboge1656,22420,049of indigo, superior30601,470[Total,] eighty-three millions, six hundred and eleven thousand, five hundred and twenty-four reals vellon.83,611,524I have taken into consideration the objections which may be brought forward by persons who are little acquainted with trade, and these are reduced, substantially, to the following: That the consumption of these commodities in the dominions of his Majesty cannot be regulated by the above calculation.They speak glibly; but, in order not to lose time with these persons, I answer them, that one is compelled to encounter ignorance, but the only concern of great souls is to serve faithfully their kings and nations, and endure the calumnies which are uttered against honest men—imitating the stars, which, no matter how much the dogs bark, do not cease to shine down upon them and to follow their own courses. Accordingly, let us proceed to truths which are plain:First: that the Dutch carry these commodities in large quantities, as is above stated—a proof that there is a consumption for that amount, and that this is a profitable trade. Second: that the calculation which I have made cannot be defective, since the [amounts of the] commodities agree with the figures published by the Dutch themselves; and the prices are obtained from the Company of Druggists, in accordance with what they pay for the goods at the ports. Third: that the greater part [of these commodities], and the most important ones, if not [all], can be the products of the Philipinas Islands. Fourth: that these commodities must cost much less than in Olanda, or in any other country, is manifest and undeniable for this reason, that the Dutch are obliged to incur enormous expenses—for governors, members of council, lesser servants without number, and many troops—in order to maintain their establishments; and these expenses increase just so much the prices of their spices, so that, if they buy these from the [Eastern] nations at ten, the goods are worth to them twenty-five. This would not occur with us, because the king does not need to increase the expenses in order to secure the advancement of the islands. It would be entirely different; for, ifthese plantations are established, thousands of Indians who now are suffering the utmost poverty without having any opportunity to work, and for the same reason cannot pay their tributes, would have a means of gaining their living and of paying their tributes, and on this very account it would serve much for the increase of the royal revenue.As these Indians are not paid for their labor at higher rates than are those among whom the Dutch reside, we must reckon, for the reasons here stated, that those same commodities would cost much less, and that the Spaniards could sell them at lower prices than do the Dutch; and, as the merchant in every country buys where he will find his greatest advantage, España would be the fair for these commodities which have already enriched so many nations. But let us proceed to reveal the cunning of the Dutch, who furnish only three millions, seven hundred and fifty thousand, eight hundred and forty libras of cinnamon—which, at the rate of sixteen onzas a libra, make six12millions, thirteen thousand, four hundred and forty onzas. The rule for making chocolate is to take ten libras of cacao, ten of sugar, and eight onzas of cinnamon, or even less, and on account of the waste13it is computed that the result will betwenty libras net; consequently, from the three millions, seven hundred and fifty thousand, eight hundred and forty libras of cinnamon could be madefifteen millions, thirty-three thousand, six hundred libras of chocolate.Although it is folly to make such a proposition, I ask whether there are not in España,14all America,the Philipinas Islands, and, in short, all the so various domains of his Majesty, counting all these together, four millions of persons who drink chocolate sixty-four times in the year, in accordance with the rule of one onza for each time. Even the most ignorant or malicious person will not deny my proposition; this makes, then, the consumption of chocolate sixteen millions of libras, and for making it there will be needed four hundred thousand libras of cinnamon.Hence are drawn two conclusions. One is, the extreme craftiness of the Dutch, in not furnishing more than the said quantity in order to supply the Spaniards, and in making them believe that they will be left without chocolate; and thus they succeed in obliging the Spaniards to pay for the cinnamon at the very high prices which the Dutch have fixed in these recent years—for it is a hundred per cent more costly, and fifty per cent worse in quality; therefore there is an increase of a hundred and fifty per cent in favor of the Dutch, and of three hundred per cent to the injury of España, who without reason endures this tyranny. Therefore, if the Dutch are not mistaken in the estimate of cinnamon which they published in theGazette, and as the consumption [of that spice] in España is as I have made evident, there will not be cinnamon to supply all the nations; nevertheless, there will be no lack of it in any of them.15Second: since it is so evident that in the dominions of his Majesty there is consumed in [the beverageof] chocolate alone (without counting the numerous kinds of food in which use is made of it) sixteen millions of libras, and in order to make it there are needed four hundred thousand of cinnamon, at the rate of fifty-eight reals vellon that quantity will cost twenty-three millions, three hundred thousand reals vellon, which is the least that España could advance for the execution of the project. Moreover, I do not know any reason for not admitting the commodity of pepper—which not only is so exceedingly abundant in the islands, but I persuade myself that, since it is so excellent in its crude state, it would with skilful treatment be better than that of any [other] country. It is also plain to us that the Dutch bring [to Europa] four millions, six hundred and seventy-two thousand, seven hundred and forty-six libras of it; they assure me that only because of the great abundance of garlic16in España the pepper brings no more than seven reals vellon a libra—[at which rate] the above quantity will amount to thirty-two millions, seven [hundred] and nine thousand, two hundred and twenty-two reals vellon. This added to the twenty-three millions, three hundred thousand reals [for cinnamon] will make fifty-six millions, nine thousand, two hundred and twenty-two reals vellon.People will say, “Where would we consume so much pepper?” Then where does Olanda consume it, I would like to know? “[And there are] Francia and Inglaterra; do they bring much less [to Europa]?” Do not those who ask such questionsknow how much the king is paying to Norbega [i.e., Norway] and the northern countries for lumber, cordage, etc., for the construction in his royal navy? and that, if it happens that care is not given in time to the planting of oak groves, he will need much more [from those countries]?—At present these commodities are paid for in ready money, which would not be the case if we could give the merchants there the pepper, etc., so cheaply (or at less expense than [if purchased from] another country), on account of the great consumption of pepper which there is in those countries, and because this would be a [form of] trade that is mutually advantageous, as I have already said, for the day-laborer and the shepherd. It would be permanent, and many millions of reals which now leave España would remain here, to the greatest advantage not only of his Majesty, but of his vassals. I say, then, that no one is able to deny these two propositions, of which his Majesty will be best able to judge. Have I heard some one argue that España has17need of preventing thus the exportation of silver? Such arguments are foolish, and one should laugh at them.Do we not know that Olanda commands that a very large part of the spice product be burned and destroyed, in order that a commodity which brings her so enormous a profit should not, through its excessive abundance, contribute to her loss? I say, then, that if España reaches an excessive abundance of silver, it would be far better for the king to command that the mines be closed, or to fling the silver into the sea, than to let it pass into the hands of those whotomorrow can avail themselves of it to carry on war [against España]. Others I have heard talk [on this subject], so frivolously that I was astounded, hinting at the resentment of this other nation if España should profit by what is her own—that is, the execution of the proposition [that I have made]. That is the same as to say that Inglaterra or any other nation could declare that España shall not cultivate the ground or sow the wheat, because it suited that nation to supply it; it is to talk very heedlessly, without knowing that España can limit the commerce of Francia, Inglaterra, and Olanda whenever she desires, without cannon-ball or gunpowder, by the prohibition of silver alone. If she chooses to deprive any one of those countries of this advantage, she has only to calculate what she owes to the other two for the net balance of their trade, and then not allow any more silver to go out to those countries; and these, needing it for themselves, will not be able to supply the other one. I can assert that España, if she would avail herself of the rights which God has given her, would make herself more worthy of respect by depriving the [other] nations of what is essential, not only for their commerce, but for waging war to advantage.I believe that no one will dispute the advantages and benefit which can accrue from the Philipinas Islands, and it is this which from the outset I have attempted to demonstrate, although I omit, for the sake of brevity, the explanation of many things.Keeping in mind how much I owe to the infinite mercy and goodness of supreme Providence, in the second part of the work alluded to, which I presume to present to his Majesty, I have treated at lengthof the ravages which the Moros have committed during very many years in those islands, and of the exceeding damage which they thus cause to our holy Roman Catholic and apostolic faith, for I cannot do less. Indeed, it is evident that God has assisted me with His divine Grace; and therefore I certainly ought to defend and, if it should be necessary, die for His cause. Accordingly, in whatever concerns the subjection of the Moros, and consequently the protection and advancement of the holy faith in those islands, I hope to deserve that his Majesty will do me the honor of appointing six lieutenant-commanders—three from his royal navy, and three from his army—in order that they may examine with the utmost care the plan upon which I have based my proposition, giving their opinions in writing for presentation to his Majesty, in two copies, one for his Majesty’s royal Council of the Indias, the other for myself.When this examination shall be made, and the plan approved by the king if such be his royal will, I will immediately proceed to furnish the plan of the whole matter which I have drawn up for the execution of the project—from which, after further investigations (which are very just, and perhaps will be quite unprecedented) his Majesty can more easily decide what shall be most expedient in this matter, as also the selection of persons for the said purpose.As for what pertains to the commerce, for greater certainty I deemed it expedient to communicate my intention to Don Antonio Butlert [sic], formerly a merchant of Cadiz—since he is distinguished not only for his great success in business and his genuine friendship to this nation, but by his long experience in and thorough knowledge of the commerce of thesedominions—asking him to give me his disinterested opinion on the subject, in which he should consider with the utmost attention the general welfare of these dominions; and this opinion I have, in writing, and signed with the name of his firm, which reads “Butlert and Matheos.”Some persons who are little acquainted with affairs so vast, and who have still less ability to make ready for the great things which remain to be done, will suppose that the execution [of this plan] is easy, to one who has the writings which I have already furnished; nevertheless, if they engaged in the undertaking they would find themselves much mistaken, and the result would be greatly to the detriment of the nation.Warned by what I have passed through, and dreading [the effects of] ignorance and malice, I have reached the decision to supplicate the king to grant me the honor of this examination—desiring, whatever may fall to my lot, to prove that I have no other purpose than to serve faithfully both Majesties and their vassals, and entreating them for this end to dispose of my life and person, of which I will gladly make sacrifice in proof of my loyalty and sincere devotion.Extracts from the proposition of Don Nicolas Norton Nicols; the conditions which he requires; the benefits and advantages which will accrue to his Majesty and his vassals, on whose account his Majesty was pleased to issue a decree on the twenty-third of February last.The aim of the said proponent is, to establish in the Philipinas Islands plantations of cinnamon, pepper, other spices, etc., and to open a direct commercebetween the said islands and Cadiz, by way of the Cape of Good Hope.Conditions.—That he shall be permitted to undertake the said route from Cadiz, or may go to the said islands and make the voyage from there to Cadiz, as he shall find most convenient. If he shall set out from Cadiz, on account of not having time to build ships he shall be permitted to buy whatever vessels [he may need], without excepting those of foreigners. The cargo from Cadiz must consist of different fruits, liquids,18and commodities that are products of España and of her commerce, as on the return voyage it must be from the various products and commodities of the said islands and of their commerce. That his Majesty remit the duties for the first voyage, and that the proponent be permitted to embark freely at Cadiz the silver that he needs to defray the purchase of his return cargo. On the second voyage he shall pay at Cadiz not only the five per cent duties but the three per cent of the silver which he shall thereafter embark, as is done with the [traders of foreign] nations. In order to obviate any objection, he will not enter any port belonging to his Majesty or to any power of Europa; he shall, however, be permitted to enter and anchor at any one of the Indian ports, whether in these or in those seas, and therein buy, sell, exchange, or lade the goods which shall be offered to him.The advantages, etc., will be the following: His Majesty will not subject his royal revenue to any expense, nor will it be exposed to the evil designs of men, or to the doubtful patriots who pretend tohave knowledge. There is no treaty that can be set against him, as he can prove. By the most moderate computation, the Dutch annually export four millions of pesos for the spice-trade; this, therefore, is to make them powerful, to the injury of España. Norvega, St. Petersbourgh, and other countries demand a great amount of cash for lumber, pitch, cordage, sails, etc., for the royal shipbuilding, the greater part of which would be paid for in spices, as these are greatly liked in those countries. Equivalent injury to España, as is stated above.19The commodities and products of España would have a much larger market. A strong stimulus to the cultivation of the soil. His Majesty would experience much relief in the expenses of transportation for the missions. This navigation would serve as a nursery for the navy, as is found by experience in other countries. The direct communication would serve as a check on a thousand abuses, not only in the government of the islands, but in other matters. If his Majesty should grant this privilege to the said islands, it would be most just that the commonwealth of Manila should carry on its commerce with Acapulco at its own cost, without laying the burden of it on his Majesty. By not possessing this commerce when she can have it, España is maintaining thousands of strangers in place of a like number of her own vassals; [the latter would] redound to the increase of the royal revenue, and in the course of years to the propagation of the holy faith. The Moros, who now are by their wars destroying the felicitous progress ofthe Christian religion, when they found by experience how much more it suited their own interests to maintain peace and commerce with the Spaniards than to wage war against them, would inviolably observe their treaties; for, notwithstanding the cruelties which the Dutch practice against their Indians, the latter tolerate them on account of the advantages of their commerce. The people of Manila will, when they have a market for their products, cultivate the land; they will establish family estates, and enrich themselves; and their riches, like those of the Americans, will finally come to España. The duties which your Majesty would receive from this new commerce would in a very few years amount to very considerable sums. It would be a stimulus to other new commercial undertakings, which would be beneficial to his Majesty and his vassals.The whole matter in small compassHis Majesty, without risking anything, is going to gain infinitely more than what has been [here] stated. The method of securing these vast benefits is the easiest and safest which can be put into practice, and itself makes plain the useful and salutary design of the proponent.Don Nicolas Norton Nicols

Commerce of the Philipinas Islands; the benefit and advantages which the said islands ought to yield to his Majesty (whom may God preserve).

[This will seem] a strange statement when it is considered that the Philipinas Islands since the year 1565 have caused to España every year a very great expense, without affording the least temporal advantage; and when I now try to demonstrate the advantage and benefit of them to the crown of España some will say that it is already time to stop; and others will ask, “Who is this newcomer2who soboldly tries to persuade us that the Spaniards have neglected their duty for one hundred and ninety-two years?” But so it is, and now is the time to warn them of this neglect; and, although ignorance attempts to prevent this, it shall not make me desist from the undertaking. I desire that his Majesty (whom may God preserve) may have positive knowledge of the treasure which he possesses in the Philipinas Islands; and I am undertaking to place before his Majesty plain and clear evidence that they can and ought to furnish very great profit, and maintain themselves from their own products.I make no pretensions as an author, nor do I claim to have the ability for that; therefore let us lay aside panegyrics, which are so unprofitable; for, even if this little work deserves them, that does not comport with my purpose, which is simply the service of his Majesty and the advancement of his realms.As regards all that I shall be able to state of the products of commodities which the said islands yield, in order that every one may know that I do not advocate something that is not so, I recommend (although various persons have written on the subject) to the curious the two books of the reverend master Father Pedro Murillo Velarde, of the Society of Jesus, entitledHistoria de las Islas PhilipinasandHistoria geograficaof the same Philipinas Islands.These are worthy of attention, and in regard to what is theoretical can furnish much light; as for what concerns the practical, and the experiencewhich I have acquired at the cost of much money, labor, and application, I must make evident all the following.First: We must consider what commodities or products these islands contain or produce, as well as the fact that we do not have to build castles in the air or proceed on fanciful assumptions; all that I assert shall be from my own knowledge.Second: Whether the products or commodities can be used, and to explain and demonstrate how we can avail ourselves of them; and all that I shall say on this subject will proceed from the long experience which I have had.Third: The advantages and benefits which will redound to his Majesty, to the Spaniards settled in those regions, and to the Indians themselves.The first point: As the products of the Philipinas Islands are enumerated by the reverend Father Murillo (whom may God keep in Paradise), whom I have cited, and those of each island separately, in order not to extend this little work needlessly I will state the most important ones, which are the following: Rice, sugar, cotton (of choice quality and very fine), indigo, sulphur, siguey, balate, wax, pepper, coffee, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl; gold, mines of iron, and mines of copper (like that of Japon); tobacco, brazil-wood [sibucao], and pearl-fisheries; oil, cacao, birds’-nests, and ebony wood; lead (I believe that, as for the soil in some parts of Bisayas,3it melts into lead, just as in the island of Mauricius, which belongs to the French, it melts into iron);cocoanuts, which produce abundance of oil;4horses; deer and buffaloes, from which the people make what they calltapa[i.e., dried beef], and also use the sinews; and bichuca, or rattans.5The above-mentioned products are very abundant, and exceedingly easy to collect. I do not, however, wish to include the following, for the reasons which I have mentioned: Lead, [of which] I have not personally actual experience, although I regard it as being as sure as all the others; coffee, which, as it is not cultivated, is not abundant, and its consumption is small for exportation, less than it would be for España or Europa; iron, [the working of] which, although it is very abundant, they have not yet succeeded in perfecting; the pearl-fisheries, which are not operated; copper, the mines of which are not worked; and cocoanuts, which are little used outside [the islands] except for oil and nails.6The second: The commodities that I have mentioned are exported to the places that are enumerated as follows, and sell at prices that are very profitable—although commerce has, as in all regions, its ups and downs [sus altos y bajos]. To various ports of China: rice, sugar, cotton, indigo, bichuca or rattan, balate, pepper, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl, brazil-wood, ebony,tapa, the sinews of cattle, birds’-nests, and lead when they have it. To the Malabar coast and Persia: sugar in large quantities, which is sold for money. To the Coromandel coast and Bengala: sugar, indigo, brazil-wood, sulphur, pepper, siguey, birds’-nests, cotton, and often rice.The third: The advantages and benefit which will accrue to his Majesty from the commerce and exportation of the commodities and products of those same islands are various, to wit: The more that the commodities which they need from outside can be supplied from the native products of the islands themselves, the more silver remains in the [Spanish] dominions. The more commodities or fruits are exported, so much more land will be cultivated, and many more people employed; and consequently the tributes imposed by his Majesty can be all the more easily collected, and from that time the royal exchequer will be better filled; and the vassals, by being kept busy, become more obedient and more loyal. The Spanish traders who are established there are favored [by such policy]; for they obtain their profits on both the exportation and the importation, and if one of these fail, the other will be able to supply the deficiency; but the advantage will be the greater if it can be obtained from both sources of gain. When commerce is flourishing, his Majesty will obtain greater profits from the customs duties, for which reason it is highly expedient that his Majesty encourage the cultivation of the land and the increase of its products—a thing which I do notconsider difficult of accomplishment, as I have already demonstrated in another little work, which I have placed in the hands of the ministers.7In order to demonstrate clearly how much the people of Manila could avail themselves of the products of the land, I will relate what occurred with myself (and it is a circumstance which proves what I advanced in the second point), to wit: When I was at Manila the exportation of sugar was rigorously prohibited, so that hardly could a ship carry away enough for its own supply, [the authorities] telling the vessel-owners that it was against the ordinances of his Majesty. I remained for some time under this delusion, until I had carefully examined the said ordinances, from which it was clear to me that his Majesty had decreed everything in favor of his Indian vassals, and that his royal will was, not to oppress them therein. It caused me, then, much pain to see that this thing was so entirely misunderstood, since this prohibition was diametrically opposed to it; for it forbade the people to enjoy the benefits of the country which God had given them, which the king never had intended to take away from them—especially as this [commerce] is the only means that they possess by which they can pay their tributes. Finally I undertook to establish generally the exportation of sugar. Having been warned of the difficulties, I went to the province where it8greatly abounds (which is called Pampanga),and did what I could; it was agreed that I should make an experiment, in order to please his Lordship. I consented, on the condition that a certain Don Francisco Salgado, a careful and industrious man, should be appointed my assistant; as I had not the time to execute this plan, I only gave him all [necessary] information and instructions. At last we succeeded in making indigo so good that it stood every test, the severest and most certain that are known being those of water and of fire. I sent specimens of that quality to China, the Coromandel coast, Persia, and Londres [i.e., London]; in the first three places they were anxious to obtain it, and offered good prices, and in the last-named one the indigo that had cost 500 reals vellon was sold for 2,600 reals. They will be able to manufacture every year such quantity as they desire.I believe that I have succeeded in what I undertook to demonstrate, which is as follows: First, to make known the abundance of the products of the Philipinas Islands; second, to prove from my own experience that it is easy to secure the benefit of these; third, to set forth the advantage and benefit which will accrue to his Majesty, to the Spaniards settled in those regions, and to the Indian vassals generally.I can say that charity has induced me to make known what I have already related from my own experience, seeing that all that has hitherto been written [on this subject] is very superficial; nor can the most intelligent man form from those books a stable opinion of what these islands are capable of yielding from their so abundant products.This little work is condensed, but those who are capable of comprehending it will see that it is [so]on account of being written out of thorough understanding and knowledge of what I write about, and not for lack of a very broad field in which I might descant, for it cannot be denied that there is material for filling a volume.Nevertheless, I do not claim to lay down the law, nor do I presume to change any system; my intention is only to depict things as they are, in order that his Majesty may have actual knowledge of the treasure which he possesses in these islands. No advantage results to me, nor do I expect more than to be a man ready to communicate [what he knows], and desirous to do what shall depend on a limited ability, for the greater benefit of his Majesty and the advancement of his realms. But it is already time that we show in what consists the advantage and benefit which will accrue to his Majesty from the Philipinas Islands.What precedes this serves only to demonstrate that the Spaniards settled in Manila have a broad field for carrying on a flourishing commerce, and even it would redound much to the advantage of his Majesty. But what I am earnestly advocating is cinnamon, and it is of great importance to his Majesty and worthy of his royal attention; and if I say that no one has hitherto, or since España conquered the Philipinas, made a proposition so certain, so well founded, and so advantageous to his Majesty, and to all his dominions and his vassals, it is not much to say. For it is no exaggeration when I say that it is more than the conquistador accomplished; he succeeded, with honor and glory, in conquering the islands, but they have always cost España most dearly for their maintenance. For not only do Iaim to relieve those expenses, which are so large, but those islands can in a few years become a benefit to his Majesty, and to his vassals, both Spaniards and Indians. I do not ask these gratuities,9nor that the king should spend one maravedi; my chief object and desire is, that a stable commerce be allowed from those countries to these kingdoms by the most direct route.No one is ignorant of the vast amount of silver which goes every year from España to the Dutch for the supply of cinnamon, for it is not less than many millions of pesos duros each year, as they have estimated; but I affirm that this is because they [i.e., the Spaniards] are willing to let the silver go out [of the country]. España might with as good reason send to Olanda to buy her wine as her cinnamon. I will not undertake to argue whence it comes, although I know it very well. What I am trying to do, without offending any one, is to remedy this lack which España suffers, that the Spaniards may use their good judgment and their reason and become true patriots. What a pity it is that his Majesty, possessing so noble a commodity, and being able to place it on the market—with as good success as that of Ceylán, and even at less than half of the price—should permit so many millions of silver to pass every year from his dominions to the Dutch! which is to furnish that people with arms for carrying on war when opportunity may offer. It is well known that España consumes more cinnamon than all the other nations; can there, then, be greater folly? In order (as I suppose) to humor the Dutch, Españaleaves unused the cinnamon which she has in her own house, in order to buy it from those enemies and the destroyers of the holy faith in those countries; I say that this is opposed to the Christian religion, and I prove it in a few words: if España would avail herself of this product which she could so easily dispose of, the Dutch could not maintain [their establishments in] the island of Ceylon, and then España could even introduce missions in that island. But what foolish talk! The Dutch maintain Ceilon? The Spaniards support it; they pay for its ships, its fortresses, and its garrisons which the Dutch have there—although in order to destroy these the Spaniards need neither balls, nor gunpowder, nor war. If any one thinks that this is a sweeping statement [es adelantar mucho], we are of differing opinions, because to me it seems a moderate one.I am known as a man who has accomplished much, who has traveled in many lands, and who has not passed through them heedlessly; nor have I stopped to consider the expenditure of money, or the risk to health, in order to satisfy my curiosity and obtain well grounded knowledge of all things wherever I have traveled. To the point: Samboanga, the capital of the island of Mindanao, is the place which could produce cinnamon as good as that of Ceylon, if our people knew how to cultivate it; I have already made the experiment, and it will yield the amount that I shall require. The Dutch are well aware of this, [as appears] by evidence which can be verified by me; for they, with their trained and accustomed cunning, placed in the said island a stone with the initial letters of [the name of] their companyengraved on it, like those which they are wont to place in their bales of goods, etc., by way of manifesting that these belong to the said company. The said stone was brought to Manila while I was there, and was delivered to the Marques de Obando; and his Lordship, knowing that I understood the tricks and policy of those gentlemen, sent to call me, and, showing me the stone, he said, “What is the meaning of this stone, which they have brought to me under such-and-such circumstances?” I replied to his Lordship, “It is nothing; it is a mark which the Dutch are wont to set up in order to have a pretext, when opportunity offers, for laying claim to the lands in which they have placed the said stones.”10No one, then, who understands that people—keen, mercenary, and always on the watch—will fail to agree with me, that they do not set up these stones in barren islands, unless it is evident that, on account of the location of these islands, it will not suit the Dutch to have [other people there as] close neighbors. When they abandoned the island of Maurisius, considering it uninhabitable on account of its sterility, they left no engraved stone in it. It is a circumstance which deserves attention, and is evenworthy of coming to his Majesty’s knowledge; and likewise those who have or have had practical knowledge of these matters regard them in this way. Finally, I have compared the quality of the soil at Samboanga with that of Ceylon, also the leaves of the cinnamon tree; still more, I have gathered the bark of this tree at Samboanga and made certain experiments with it, and when I compared it with that from Ceylon they were of equal value. I consider, then, [from] the manner of making these experiments with the cultivation of the soil and the culture of the cinnamon, [that] it will prove to be equal [to that of Ceylon]. Finally, in commencing the experiments which I have made—with the greatest application and industry, and enormous expenses—they are quite sufficient to prove that it will be possible, in the term of five or six years, to produce a large part of the best cinnamon which comes to Europa. This I have learned from the experiment with a quantity of chocolate which I ordered to be made in my own house at Manila; this product has been greatly liked by the ladies, and by people of taste and understanding, in the said city.In view of these proofs, which I have from actual knowledge of the method of cultivating and preparing this product, it causes me surprise that his Majesty is losing a source of profit so extensive and lucrative; and I am persuaded that if full knowledge of them could have reached the officials who might have authority to examine the subject, they would have taken suitable measures to secure this benefit—although it is certain that it would not be considered that no one hitherto has attained it [i.e., such knowledge] except that which is here explainedby myself, which is the simple truth. And as for what concerns my part, I can serve, if desirable, in carrying out a work so national and so advantageous to his Majesty—in which honor and fame spur me to place myself at the disposal of his Majesty, without causing him the expenditure of one real of silver; for, thanks to God, I have the means for travel. Nevertheless, I shall never weary in the acquisition of the precious treasures of honor and truth; for God only knows the exceeding satisfaction which I feel in being the first and only person who has had the good fortune to furnish this information, so clear and plain that, if it were published to the world, I am sure that the rest of the nations would conspire against me; for they know its great usefulness, and the little difficulty which I would find in carrying out the plan.I have been assured that the clove is found in Mindanao. I have made every possible effort to investigate this, and I believe that it is certainly so, although I cannot assert more than what experience has taught me. But I can affirm with more certainty that the nutmeg grows there, and needs only to be cultivated; also pepper of the best quality, and most delicious, can be had in abundance. At present the only thing left for us is to reflect upon the many advantages and incredible benefits which will accrue to his Majesty, and to his dominions and vassals, both Spaniards and Indians, without costing him a real vellon to establish this commerce. The English and Dutch, on the other hand, will spend millions to prevent the success of this great project, for which reason it is evidently necessary to maintain the utmost secrecy regarding it.Recapitulation of the advantages and benefits of this commerceFirst: The millions of pesos duros which now pass out of the domains of his Majesty, with which the Dutch are enriching themselves and promoting their main commerce, that of the cinnamon; they will have so much less for hostilities against España, the more that this matter of the cinnamon is pushed in that country, thus rendering it impossible for them to carry away the silver thence.Second: Great numbers of Indians would be employed who now have no way in which to make a living or to pay their tributes; by this means not only would they be relieved [from their burdens], but it would be with great increase to the royal exchequer; and through their application and gains they would consequently be more faithful and constant vassals, while now idleness and vices prevent them from being such.Third: The Philipinas Islands are suffering severely from the lack of communication by a direct route with España; this could be easily secured by arming the ships there, which need from España more people than a few officers; and it would be very desirable to transport for those islands some artisans whom they will need for promoting and cultivating the various products of the land.Fourth: The more that the lands are cultivated and their products made available, the greater will be the number of men and of infidel Indians that will be needed; and consequently they will submit [to Spanish authority], and be converted into loyal vassals and friends, and Christianity will be increasedin those regions, without any fear that the Moro and infidel enemies can disturb them.Fifth: It will be possible to equip every year three or four ships of six hundred to a thousand toneladas each, and despatch them for Europa with cinnamon, pepper, and other spices which will be produced there; and in return they will go back with various commodities and fruits, the products of España, which the people of Manila always find themselves compelled to buy from the English and Dutch, carrying away the money for them. In this manner not only will these gains remain within the dominions of his Majesty, without the other nations being able to draw thence the money with which they carry on war, [to the] injury of the commerce of España, but by this means the [Spanish] dominions that are so remote will come to be to a large extent dependent one upon another; and as the intercourse between them would be mutual and friendly, the Indians consequently would have occasion to see and experience the greatness [of the Spanish power]. Thus they would come to be more faithful and loyal vassals, and returning to their own lands, would influence their countrymen to be the same.Sixth: No one will deny my statement that the cinnamon would [thus] be obtained at a much less cost [by the Spaniards] than that at which the Dutch can sell it, unless [they encounter] less risk and danger—[which are] so manifest that for the preservation of this commerce they find themselves compelled to maintain a great number of troops and keep up many forts and garrisons, solely to defend themselves. Let to all this be added the governors, and the enormous number of people whom they have intheir service, with some very large expenses which arise from the various opinions of the companies—the costs of which, so ill applied, render the cinnamon more expensive (although in reality its cost is low), and it is certain that their commerce in spices does not prove to be so profitable as the nations assert. Very differently, then, will it be in favor of España when she reaches the cultivation of the cinnamon; for in place of the great expenses which his Majesty has had ever since he took possession of the said island, without its producing any benefit, he will obtain the greatest advantages without spending a real vellon more than at present. Especially, labor will be found as cheap, and the cultivation of the soil as easy, as in Ceylon; and the navigation can be made with the same advantages that [other] nations [possess], or even greater. For this reason the cinnamon will cost the merchants forty or fifty per cent less than they have actually paid hitherto. It is certain that it is a very serious damage which España generally suffers in her commerce, from paying, through this negligence, the freight charges of the Dutch ships, and the cost of their officers and seamen; and they even maintain their fortifications, etc., with the money which they obtain from España for this product of cinnamon.Seventh: Likewise, there would be great advantage to España in the ships which would come from the Philipinas, as I have said (in the fifth point); for they would return laden with many fruits and products of these kingdoms of España.Eighth: The Americans would likewise share in this great benefit; for the cinnamon, for which they are today paying so exorbitant a price, they wouldobtain at very nearly the same price at which it is usually sold in Cadiz.Ninth: If the cinnamon should become cheap, much chocolate would be consumed by the poor; and consequently the duties would amount to much more, to the advantage of his Majesty.Notwithstanding that the greatness of the enterprise is clearly demonstrated, and no additional information is needed, two things ought to be noted. First, that no damage or expense can result to his Majesty. Second, that from this arrangement, it is evident and positive, not the least injury or disadvantage ensues to España or to America; rather, it is a triple benefit, and indispensable—which, [however,] without general experience and practical knowledge it would be impossible to bring about without each dominion injuring the other; for in this consists the superiority of a man who is an expert.[The writer then proceeds to mention the spiritual advantages which would result from the temporal; but his argument becomes somewhat lame here, reducing itself to the “hope that, with the help of our Lord, a firm and permanent peace with the Moros may be secured” He makes an interesting statement regarding the extent of the ravages committed by the Mindanao pirates: “I am certain, from accurate information, that during the government of the Marqués de Obando he cost the king eight millions of reals vellon [for this purpose], although he proceeded with the utmost economy and care in the manner in which he used the royal revenue; and, having made in the year 1755 a calculation of the expenses which these piracies werecausing to his Majesty and his vassals (both Spaniards and Indians) from the ravages made by the Moros and infidels during the eight years preceding, it amounted to about eighty millions of reals vellon,” not to mention the killing of priests and native Christians. Of course, if peace is secured with the Moros, the progress and extension of the missions in the islands is assured. The writer again declares his devotion to the service of God and the king, his readiness to explain his plans further to those who desire more information, and his confidence that they will command the confidence of men of understanding, judgment, and patriotism.]Although through experience (tempus edrax rerum) one can come to know the utility and advantage which will accrue from the execution of this so vast enterprise, I trust that I have demonstrated it quite sufficiently to render it worthy of the consideration of his Majesty; nevertheless, seeing how much is involved, it is fitting for my honor to furnish proofs, the most detailed and circumstantial. This induces me to quote part of the lading which came in seventeen ships of the Company of Olanda, as published in theGazetteof Amsterdam, dated on July 3 of this present year, one thousand seven hundred and fifty-nine—products which are and may be those of the very islands in question; and in order to show how very important it is to give attention to what is herein proposed, each commodity is valued at the regular price which it can bring in the ports of Cadiz, Alicante, etc.PricesLibras[Commodities]Reals vellon per librareals vellon Total,4,672,746of pepper732,709,22250,000of nutmeg391,950,00060,000of mace704,200,000360,000of cloves5018,000,000375,840of cinnamon5821,198,7203,000of candied nutmeg60180,0002,398of candied cloves70167,860883,142of sugar3.9411[3,424,000]40,490of camphor16649,8406,582of benzoin22134,93610,500of borax15157,50012,146of gum-lac12145,7523,000of gum myrrh1236,0003,514of gamboge1656,22420,049of indigo, superior30601,470[Total,] eighty-three millions, six hundred and eleven thousand, five hundred and twenty-four reals vellon.83,611,524I have taken into consideration the objections which may be brought forward by persons who are little acquainted with trade, and these are reduced, substantially, to the following: That the consumption of these commodities in the dominions of his Majesty cannot be regulated by the above calculation.They speak glibly; but, in order not to lose time with these persons, I answer them, that one is compelled to encounter ignorance, but the only concern of great souls is to serve faithfully their kings and nations, and endure the calumnies which are uttered against honest men—imitating the stars, which, no matter how much the dogs bark, do not cease to shine down upon them and to follow their own courses. Accordingly, let us proceed to truths which are plain:First: that the Dutch carry these commodities in large quantities, as is above stated—a proof that there is a consumption for that amount, and that this is a profitable trade. Second: that the calculation which I have made cannot be defective, since the [amounts of the] commodities agree with the figures published by the Dutch themselves; and the prices are obtained from the Company of Druggists, in accordance with what they pay for the goods at the ports. Third: that the greater part [of these commodities], and the most important ones, if not [all], can be the products of the Philipinas Islands. Fourth: that these commodities must cost much less than in Olanda, or in any other country, is manifest and undeniable for this reason, that the Dutch are obliged to incur enormous expenses—for governors, members of council, lesser servants without number, and many troops—in order to maintain their establishments; and these expenses increase just so much the prices of their spices, so that, if they buy these from the [Eastern] nations at ten, the goods are worth to them twenty-five. This would not occur with us, because the king does not need to increase the expenses in order to secure the advancement of the islands. It would be entirely different; for, ifthese plantations are established, thousands of Indians who now are suffering the utmost poverty without having any opportunity to work, and for the same reason cannot pay their tributes, would have a means of gaining their living and of paying their tributes, and on this very account it would serve much for the increase of the royal revenue.As these Indians are not paid for their labor at higher rates than are those among whom the Dutch reside, we must reckon, for the reasons here stated, that those same commodities would cost much less, and that the Spaniards could sell them at lower prices than do the Dutch; and, as the merchant in every country buys where he will find his greatest advantage, España would be the fair for these commodities which have already enriched so many nations. But let us proceed to reveal the cunning of the Dutch, who furnish only three millions, seven hundred and fifty thousand, eight hundred and forty libras of cinnamon—which, at the rate of sixteen onzas a libra, make six12millions, thirteen thousand, four hundred and forty onzas. The rule for making chocolate is to take ten libras of cacao, ten of sugar, and eight onzas of cinnamon, or even less, and on account of the waste13it is computed that the result will betwenty libras net; consequently, from the three millions, seven hundred and fifty thousand, eight hundred and forty libras of cinnamon could be madefifteen millions, thirty-three thousand, six hundred libras of chocolate.Although it is folly to make such a proposition, I ask whether there are not in España,14all America,the Philipinas Islands, and, in short, all the so various domains of his Majesty, counting all these together, four millions of persons who drink chocolate sixty-four times in the year, in accordance with the rule of one onza for each time. Even the most ignorant or malicious person will not deny my proposition; this makes, then, the consumption of chocolate sixteen millions of libras, and for making it there will be needed four hundred thousand libras of cinnamon.Hence are drawn two conclusions. One is, the extreme craftiness of the Dutch, in not furnishing more than the said quantity in order to supply the Spaniards, and in making them believe that they will be left without chocolate; and thus they succeed in obliging the Spaniards to pay for the cinnamon at the very high prices which the Dutch have fixed in these recent years—for it is a hundred per cent more costly, and fifty per cent worse in quality; therefore there is an increase of a hundred and fifty per cent in favor of the Dutch, and of three hundred per cent to the injury of España, who without reason endures this tyranny. Therefore, if the Dutch are not mistaken in the estimate of cinnamon which they published in theGazette, and as the consumption [of that spice] in España is as I have made evident, there will not be cinnamon to supply all the nations; nevertheless, there will be no lack of it in any of them.15Second: since it is so evident that in the dominions of his Majesty there is consumed in [the beverageof] chocolate alone (without counting the numerous kinds of food in which use is made of it) sixteen millions of libras, and in order to make it there are needed four hundred thousand of cinnamon, at the rate of fifty-eight reals vellon that quantity will cost twenty-three millions, three hundred thousand reals vellon, which is the least that España could advance for the execution of the project. Moreover, I do not know any reason for not admitting the commodity of pepper—which not only is so exceedingly abundant in the islands, but I persuade myself that, since it is so excellent in its crude state, it would with skilful treatment be better than that of any [other] country. It is also plain to us that the Dutch bring [to Europa] four millions, six hundred and seventy-two thousand, seven hundred and forty-six libras of it; they assure me that only because of the great abundance of garlic16in España the pepper brings no more than seven reals vellon a libra—[at which rate] the above quantity will amount to thirty-two millions, seven [hundred] and nine thousand, two hundred and twenty-two reals vellon. This added to the twenty-three millions, three hundred thousand reals [for cinnamon] will make fifty-six millions, nine thousand, two hundred and twenty-two reals vellon.People will say, “Where would we consume so much pepper?” Then where does Olanda consume it, I would like to know? “[And there are] Francia and Inglaterra; do they bring much less [to Europa]?” Do not those who ask such questionsknow how much the king is paying to Norbega [i.e., Norway] and the northern countries for lumber, cordage, etc., for the construction in his royal navy? and that, if it happens that care is not given in time to the planting of oak groves, he will need much more [from those countries]?—At present these commodities are paid for in ready money, which would not be the case if we could give the merchants there the pepper, etc., so cheaply (or at less expense than [if purchased from] another country), on account of the great consumption of pepper which there is in those countries, and because this would be a [form of] trade that is mutually advantageous, as I have already said, for the day-laborer and the shepherd. It would be permanent, and many millions of reals which now leave España would remain here, to the greatest advantage not only of his Majesty, but of his vassals. I say, then, that no one is able to deny these two propositions, of which his Majesty will be best able to judge. Have I heard some one argue that España has17need of preventing thus the exportation of silver? Such arguments are foolish, and one should laugh at them.Do we not know that Olanda commands that a very large part of the spice product be burned and destroyed, in order that a commodity which brings her so enormous a profit should not, through its excessive abundance, contribute to her loss? I say, then, that if España reaches an excessive abundance of silver, it would be far better for the king to command that the mines be closed, or to fling the silver into the sea, than to let it pass into the hands of those whotomorrow can avail themselves of it to carry on war [against España]. Others I have heard talk [on this subject], so frivolously that I was astounded, hinting at the resentment of this other nation if España should profit by what is her own—that is, the execution of the proposition [that I have made]. That is the same as to say that Inglaterra or any other nation could declare that España shall not cultivate the ground or sow the wheat, because it suited that nation to supply it; it is to talk very heedlessly, without knowing that España can limit the commerce of Francia, Inglaterra, and Olanda whenever she desires, without cannon-ball or gunpowder, by the prohibition of silver alone. If she chooses to deprive any one of those countries of this advantage, she has only to calculate what she owes to the other two for the net balance of their trade, and then not allow any more silver to go out to those countries; and these, needing it for themselves, will not be able to supply the other one. I can assert that España, if she would avail herself of the rights which God has given her, would make herself more worthy of respect by depriving the [other] nations of what is essential, not only for their commerce, but for waging war to advantage.I believe that no one will dispute the advantages and benefit which can accrue from the Philipinas Islands, and it is this which from the outset I have attempted to demonstrate, although I omit, for the sake of brevity, the explanation of many things.Keeping in mind how much I owe to the infinite mercy and goodness of supreme Providence, in the second part of the work alluded to, which I presume to present to his Majesty, I have treated at lengthof the ravages which the Moros have committed during very many years in those islands, and of the exceeding damage which they thus cause to our holy Roman Catholic and apostolic faith, for I cannot do less. Indeed, it is evident that God has assisted me with His divine Grace; and therefore I certainly ought to defend and, if it should be necessary, die for His cause. Accordingly, in whatever concerns the subjection of the Moros, and consequently the protection and advancement of the holy faith in those islands, I hope to deserve that his Majesty will do me the honor of appointing six lieutenant-commanders—three from his royal navy, and three from his army—in order that they may examine with the utmost care the plan upon which I have based my proposition, giving their opinions in writing for presentation to his Majesty, in two copies, one for his Majesty’s royal Council of the Indias, the other for myself.When this examination shall be made, and the plan approved by the king if such be his royal will, I will immediately proceed to furnish the plan of the whole matter which I have drawn up for the execution of the project—from which, after further investigations (which are very just, and perhaps will be quite unprecedented) his Majesty can more easily decide what shall be most expedient in this matter, as also the selection of persons for the said purpose.As for what pertains to the commerce, for greater certainty I deemed it expedient to communicate my intention to Don Antonio Butlert [sic], formerly a merchant of Cadiz—since he is distinguished not only for his great success in business and his genuine friendship to this nation, but by his long experience in and thorough knowledge of the commerce of thesedominions—asking him to give me his disinterested opinion on the subject, in which he should consider with the utmost attention the general welfare of these dominions; and this opinion I have, in writing, and signed with the name of his firm, which reads “Butlert and Matheos.”Some persons who are little acquainted with affairs so vast, and who have still less ability to make ready for the great things which remain to be done, will suppose that the execution [of this plan] is easy, to one who has the writings which I have already furnished; nevertheless, if they engaged in the undertaking they would find themselves much mistaken, and the result would be greatly to the detriment of the nation.Warned by what I have passed through, and dreading [the effects of] ignorance and malice, I have reached the decision to supplicate the king to grant me the honor of this examination—desiring, whatever may fall to my lot, to prove that I have no other purpose than to serve faithfully both Majesties and their vassals, and entreating them for this end to dispose of my life and person, of which I will gladly make sacrifice in proof of my loyalty and sincere devotion.Extracts from the proposition of Don Nicolas Norton Nicols; the conditions which he requires; the benefits and advantages which will accrue to his Majesty and his vassals, on whose account his Majesty was pleased to issue a decree on the twenty-third of February last.The aim of the said proponent is, to establish in the Philipinas Islands plantations of cinnamon, pepper, other spices, etc., and to open a direct commercebetween the said islands and Cadiz, by way of the Cape of Good Hope.Conditions.—That he shall be permitted to undertake the said route from Cadiz, or may go to the said islands and make the voyage from there to Cadiz, as he shall find most convenient. If he shall set out from Cadiz, on account of not having time to build ships he shall be permitted to buy whatever vessels [he may need], without excepting those of foreigners. The cargo from Cadiz must consist of different fruits, liquids,18and commodities that are products of España and of her commerce, as on the return voyage it must be from the various products and commodities of the said islands and of their commerce. That his Majesty remit the duties for the first voyage, and that the proponent be permitted to embark freely at Cadiz the silver that he needs to defray the purchase of his return cargo. On the second voyage he shall pay at Cadiz not only the five per cent duties but the three per cent of the silver which he shall thereafter embark, as is done with the [traders of foreign] nations. In order to obviate any objection, he will not enter any port belonging to his Majesty or to any power of Europa; he shall, however, be permitted to enter and anchor at any one of the Indian ports, whether in these or in those seas, and therein buy, sell, exchange, or lade the goods which shall be offered to him.The advantages, etc., will be the following: His Majesty will not subject his royal revenue to any expense, nor will it be exposed to the evil designs of men, or to the doubtful patriots who pretend tohave knowledge. There is no treaty that can be set against him, as he can prove. By the most moderate computation, the Dutch annually export four millions of pesos for the spice-trade; this, therefore, is to make them powerful, to the injury of España. Norvega, St. Petersbourgh, and other countries demand a great amount of cash for lumber, pitch, cordage, sails, etc., for the royal shipbuilding, the greater part of which would be paid for in spices, as these are greatly liked in those countries. Equivalent injury to España, as is stated above.19The commodities and products of España would have a much larger market. A strong stimulus to the cultivation of the soil. His Majesty would experience much relief in the expenses of transportation for the missions. This navigation would serve as a nursery for the navy, as is found by experience in other countries. The direct communication would serve as a check on a thousand abuses, not only in the government of the islands, but in other matters. If his Majesty should grant this privilege to the said islands, it would be most just that the commonwealth of Manila should carry on its commerce with Acapulco at its own cost, without laying the burden of it on his Majesty. By not possessing this commerce when she can have it, España is maintaining thousands of strangers in place of a like number of her own vassals; [the latter would] redound to the increase of the royal revenue, and in the course of years to the propagation of the holy faith. The Moros, who now are by their wars destroying the felicitous progress ofthe Christian religion, when they found by experience how much more it suited their own interests to maintain peace and commerce with the Spaniards than to wage war against them, would inviolably observe their treaties; for, notwithstanding the cruelties which the Dutch practice against their Indians, the latter tolerate them on account of the advantages of their commerce. The people of Manila will, when they have a market for their products, cultivate the land; they will establish family estates, and enrich themselves; and their riches, like those of the Americans, will finally come to España. The duties which your Majesty would receive from this new commerce would in a very few years amount to very considerable sums. It would be a stimulus to other new commercial undertakings, which would be beneficial to his Majesty and his vassals.The whole matter in small compassHis Majesty, without risking anything, is going to gain infinitely more than what has been [here] stated. The method of securing these vast benefits is the easiest and safest which can be put into practice, and itself makes plain the useful and salutary design of the proponent.Don Nicolas Norton Nicols

[This will seem] a strange statement when it is considered that the Philipinas Islands since the year 1565 have caused to España every year a very great expense, without affording the least temporal advantage; and when I now try to demonstrate the advantage and benefit of them to the crown of España some will say that it is already time to stop; and others will ask, “Who is this newcomer2who soboldly tries to persuade us that the Spaniards have neglected their duty for one hundred and ninety-two years?” But so it is, and now is the time to warn them of this neglect; and, although ignorance attempts to prevent this, it shall not make me desist from the undertaking. I desire that his Majesty (whom may God preserve) may have positive knowledge of the treasure which he possesses in the Philipinas Islands; and I am undertaking to place before his Majesty plain and clear evidence that they can and ought to furnish very great profit, and maintain themselves from their own products.

I make no pretensions as an author, nor do I claim to have the ability for that; therefore let us lay aside panegyrics, which are so unprofitable; for, even if this little work deserves them, that does not comport with my purpose, which is simply the service of his Majesty and the advancement of his realms.

As regards all that I shall be able to state of the products of commodities which the said islands yield, in order that every one may know that I do not advocate something that is not so, I recommend (although various persons have written on the subject) to the curious the two books of the reverend master Father Pedro Murillo Velarde, of the Society of Jesus, entitledHistoria de las Islas PhilipinasandHistoria geograficaof the same Philipinas Islands.

These are worthy of attention, and in regard to what is theoretical can furnish much light; as for what concerns the practical, and the experiencewhich I have acquired at the cost of much money, labor, and application, I must make evident all the following.

First: We must consider what commodities or products these islands contain or produce, as well as the fact that we do not have to build castles in the air or proceed on fanciful assumptions; all that I assert shall be from my own knowledge.

Second: Whether the products or commodities can be used, and to explain and demonstrate how we can avail ourselves of them; and all that I shall say on this subject will proceed from the long experience which I have had.

Third: The advantages and benefits which will redound to his Majesty, to the Spaniards settled in those regions, and to the Indians themselves.

The first point: As the products of the Philipinas Islands are enumerated by the reverend Father Murillo (whom may God keep in Paradise), whom I have cited, and those of each island separately, in order not to extend this little work needlessly I will state the most important ones, which are the following: Rice, sugar, cotton (of choice quality and very fine), indigo, sulphur, siguey, balate, wax, pepper, coffee, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl; gold, mines of iron, and mines of copper (like that of Japon); tobacco, brazil-wood [sibucao], and pearl-fisheries; oil, cacao, birds’-nests, and ebony wood; lead (I believe that, as for the soil in some parts of Bisayas,3it melts into lead, just as in the island of Mauricius, which belongs to the French, it melts into iron);cocoanuts, which produce abundance of oil;4horses; deer and buffaloes, from which the people make what they calltapa[i.e., dried beef], and also use the sinews; and bichuca, or rattans.5

The above-mentioned products are very abundant, and exceedingly easy to collect. I do not, however, wish to include the following, for the reasons which I have mentioned: Lead, [of which] I have not personally actual experience, although I regard it as being as sure as all the others; coffee, which, as it is not cultivated, is not abundant, and its consumption is small for exportation, less than it would be for España or Europa; iron, [the working of] which, although it is very abundant, they have not yet succeeded in perfecting; the pearl-fisheries, which are not operated; copper, the mines of which are not worked; and cocoanuts, which are little used outside [the islands] except for oil and nails.6

The second: The commodities that I have mentioned are exported to the places that are enumerated as follows, and sell at prices that are very profitable—although commerce has, as in all regions, its ups and downs [sus altos y bajos]. To various ports of China: rice, sugar, cotton, indigo, bichuca or rattan, balate, pepper, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl, brazil-wood, ebony,tapa, the sinews of cattle, birds’-nests, and lead when they have it. To the Malabar coast and Persia: sugar in large quantities, which is sold for money. To the Coromandel coast and Bengala: sugar, indigo, brazil-wood, sulphur, pepper, siguey, birds’-nests, cotton, and often rice.

The third: The advantages and benefit which will accrue to his Majesty from the commerce and exportation of the commodities and products of those same islands are various, to wit: The more that the commodities which they need from outside can be supplied from the native products of the islands themselves, the more silver remains in the [Spanish] dominions. The more commodities or fruits are exported, so much more land will be cultivated, and many more people employed; and consequently the tributes imposed by his Majesty can be all the more easily collected, and from that time the royal exchequer will be better filled; and the vassals, by being kept busy, become more obedient and more loyal. The Spanish traders who are established there are favored [by such policy]; for they obtain their profits on both the exportation and the importation, and if one of these fail, the other will be able to supply the deficiency; but the advantage will be the greater if it can be obtained from both sources of gain. When commerce is flourishing, his Majesty will obtain greater profits from the customs duties, for which reason it is highly expedient that his Majesty encourage the cultivation of the land and the increase of its products—a thing which I do notconsider difficult of accomplishment, as I have already demonstrated in another little work, which I have placed in the hands of the ministers.7

In order to demonstrate clearly how much the people of Manila could avail themselves of the products of the land, I will relate what occurred with myself (and it is a circumstance which proves what I advanced in the second point), to wit: When I was at Manila the exportation of sugar was rigorously prohibited, so that hardly could a ship carry away enough for its own supply, [the authorities] telling the vessel-owners that it was against the ordinances of his Majesty. I remained for some time under this delusion, until I had carefully examined the said ordinances, from which it was clear to me that his Majesty had decreed everything in favor of his Indian vassals, and that his royal will was, not to oppress them therein. It caused me, then, much pain to see that this thing was so entirely misunderstood, since this prohibition was diametrically opposed to it; for it forbade the people to enjoy the benefits of the country which God had given them, which the king never had intended to take away from them—especially as this [commerce] is the only means that they possess by which they can pay their tributes. Finally I undertook to establish generally the exportation of sugar. Having been warned of the difficulties, I went to the province where it8greatly abounds (which is called Pampanga),and did what I could; it was agreed that I should make an experiment, in order to please his Lordship. I consented, on the condition that a certain Don Francisco Salgado, a careful and industrious man, should be appointed my assistant; as I had not the time to execute this plan, I only gave him all [necessary] information and instructions. At last we succeeded in making indigo so good that it stood every test, the severest and most certain that are known being those of water and of fire. I sent specimens of that quality to China, the Coromandel coast, Persia, and Londres [i.e., London]; in the first three places they were anxious to obtain it, and offered good prices, and in the last-named one the indigo that had cost 500 reals vellon was sold for 2,600 reals. They will be able to manufacture every year such quantity as they desire.

I believe that I have succeeded in what I undertook to demonstrate, which is as follows: First, to make known the abundance of the products of the Philipinas Islands; second, to prove from my own experience that it is easy to secure the benefit of these; third, to set forth the advantage and benefit which will accrue to his Majesty, to the Spaniards settled in those regions, and to the Indian vassals generally.

I can say that charity has induced me to make known what I have already related from my own experience, seeing that all that has hitherto been written [on this subject] is very superficial; nor can the most intelligent man form from those books a stable opinion of what these islands are capable of yielding from their so abundant products.

This little work is condensed, but those who are capable of comprehending it will see that it is [so]on account of being written out of thorough understanding and knowledge of what I write about, and not for lack of a very broad field in which I might descant, for it cannot be denied that there is material for filling a volume.

Nevertheless, I do not claim to lay down the law, nor do I presume to change any system; my intention is only to depict things as they are, in order that his Majesty may have actual knowledge of the treasure which he possesses in these islands. No advantage results to me, nor do I expect more than to be a man ready to communicate [what he knows], and desirous to do what shall depend on a limited ability, for the greater benefit of his Majesty and the advancement of his realms. But it is already time that we show in what consists the advantage and benefit which will accrue to his Majesty from the Philipinas Islands.

What precedes this serves only to demonstrate that the Spaniards settled in Manila have a broad field for carrying on a flourishing commerce, and even it would redound much to the advantage of his Majesty. But what I am earnestly advocating is cinnamon, and it is of great importance to his Majesty and worthy of his royal attention; and if I say that no one has hitherto, or since España conquered the Philipinas, made a proposition so certain, so well founded, and so advantageous to his Majesty, and to all his dominions and his vassals, it is not much to say. For it is no exaggeration when I say that it is more than the conquistador accomplished; he succeeded, with honor and glory, in conquering the islands, but they have always cost España most dearly for their maintenance. For not only do Iaim to relieve those expenses, which are so large, but those islands can in a few years become a benefit to his Majesty, and to his vassals, both Spaniards and Indians. I do not ask these gratuities,9nor that the king should spend one maravedi; my chief object and desire is, that a stable commerce be allowed from those countries to these kingdoms by the most direct route.

No one is ignorant of the vast amount of silver which goes every year from España to the Dutch for the supply of cinnamon, for it is not less than many millions of pesos duros each year, as they have estimated; but I affirm that this is because they [i.e., the Spaniards] are willing to let the silver go out [of the country]. España might with as good reason send to Olanda to buy her wine as her cinnamon. I will not undertake to argue whence it comes, although I know it very well. What I am trying to do, without offending any one, is to remedy this lack which España suffers, that the Spaniards may use their good judgment and their reason and become true patriots. What a pity it is that his Majesty, possessing so noble a commodity, and being able to place it on the market—with as good success as that of Ceylán, and even at less than half of the price—should permit so many millions of silver to pass every year from his dominions to the Dutch! which is to furnish that people with arms for carrying on war when opportunity may offer. It is well known that España consumes more cinnamon than all the other nations; can there, then, be greater folly? In order (as I suppose) to humor the Dutch, Españaleaves unused the cinnamon which she has in her own house, in order to buy it from those enemies and the destroyers of the holy faith in those countries; I say that this is opposed to the Christian religion, and I prove it in a few words: if España would avail herself of this product which she could so easily dispose of, the Dutch could not maintain [their establishments in] the island of Ceylon, and then España could even introduce missions in that island. But what foolish talk! The Dutch maintain Ceilon? The Spaniards support it; they pay for its ships, its fortresses, and its garrisons which the Dutch have there—although in order to destroy these the Spaniards need neither balls, nor gunpowder, nor war. If any one thinks that this is a sweeping statement [es adelantar mucho], we are of differing opinions, because to me it seems a moderate one.

I am known as a man who has accomplished much, who has traveled in many lands, and who has not passed through them heedlessly; nor have I stopped to consider the expenditure of money, or the risk to health, in order to satisfy my curiosity and obtain well grounded knowledge of all things wherever I have traveled. To the point: Samboanga, the capital of the island of Mindanao, is the place which could produce cinnamon as good as that of Ceylon, if our people knew how to cultivate it; I have already made the experiment, and it will yield the amount that I shall require. The Dutch are well aware of this, [as appears] by evidence which can be verified by me; for they, with their trained and accustomed cunning, placed in the said island a stone with the initial letters of [the name of] their companyengraved on it, like those which they are wont to place in their bales of goods, etc., by way of manifesting that these belong to the said company. The said stone was brought to Manila while I was there, and was delivered to the Marques de Obando; and his Lordship, knowing that I understood the tricks and policy of those gentlemen, sent to call me, and, showing me the stone, he said, “What is the meaning of this stone, which they have brought to me under such-and-such circumstances?” I replied to his Lordship, “It is nothing; it is a mark which the Dutch are wont to set up in order to have a pretext, when opportunity offers, for laying claim to the lands in which they have placed the said stones.”10No one, then, who understands that people—keen, mercenary, and always on the watch—will fail to agree with me, that they do not set up these stones in barren islands, unless it is evident that, on account of the location of these islands, it will not suit the Dutch to have [other people there as] close neighbors. When they abandoned the island of Maurisius, considering it uninhabitable on account of its sterility, they left no engraved stone in it. It is a circumstance which deserves attention, and is evenworthy of coming to his Majesty’s knowledge; and likewise those who have or have had practical knowledge of these matters regard them in this way. Finally, I have compared the quality of the soil at Samboanga with that of Ceylon, also the leaves of the cinnamon tree; still more, I have gathered the bark of this tree at Samboanga and made certain experiments with it, and when I compared it with that from Ceylon they were of equal value. I consider, then, [from] the manner of making these experiments with the cultivation of the soil and the culture of the cinnamon, [that] it will prove to be equal [to that of Ceylon]. Finally, in commencing the experiments which I have made—with the greatest application and industry, and enormous expenses—they are quite sufficient to prove that it will be possible, in the term of five or six years, to produce a large part of the best cinnamon which comes to Europa. This I have learned from the experiment with a quantity of chocolate which I ordered to be made in my own house at Manila; this product has been greatly liked by the ladies, and by people of taste and understanding, in the said city.

In view of these proofs, which I have from actual knowledge of the method of cultivating and preparing this product, it causes me surprise that his Majesty is losing a source of profit so extensive and lucrative; and I am persuaded that if full knowledge of them could have reached the officials who might have authority to examine the subject, they would have taken suitable measures to secure this benefit—although it is certain that it would not be considered that no one hitherto has attained it [i.e., such knowledge] except that which is here explainedby myself, which is the simple truth. And as for what concerns my part, I can serve, if desirable, in carrying out a work so national and so advantageous to his Majesty—in which honor and fame spur me to place myself at the disposal of his Majesty, without causing him the expenditure of one real of silver; for, thanks to God, I have the means for travel. Nevertheless, I shall never weary in the acquisition of the precious treasures of honor and truth; for God only knows the exceeding satisfaction which I feel in being the first and only person who has had the good fortune to furnish this information, so clear and plain that, if it were published to the world, I am sure that the rest of the nations would conspire against me; for they know its great usefulness, and the little difficulty which I would find in carrying out the plan.

I have been assured that the clove is found in Mindanao. I have made every possible effort to investigate this, and I believe that it is certainly so, although I cannot assert more than what experience has taught me. But I can affirm with more certainty that the nutmeg grows there, and needs only to be cultivated; also pepper of the best quality, and most delicious, can be had in abundance. At present the only thing left for us is to reflect upon the many advantages and incredible benefits which will accrue to his Majesty, and to his dominions and vassals, both Spaniards and Indians, without costing him a real vellon to establish this commerce. The English and Dutch, on the other hand, will spend millions to prevent the success of this great project, for which reason it is evidently necessary to maintain the utmost secrecy regarding it.

Recapitulation of the advantages and benefits of this commerceFirst: The millions of pesos duros which now pass out of the domains of his Majesty, with which the Dutch are enriching themselves and promoting their main commerce, that of the cinnamon; they will have so much less for hostilities against España, the more that this matter of the cinnamon is pushed in that country, thus rendering it impossible for them to carry away the silver thence.Second: Great numbers of Indians would be employed who now have no way in which to make a living or to pay their tributes; by this means not only would they be relieved [from their burdens], but it would be with great increase to the royal exchequer; and through their application and gains they would consequently be more faithful and constant vassals, while now idleness and vices prevent them from being such.Third: The Philipinas Islands are suffering severely from the lack of communication by a direct route with España; this could be easily secured by arming the ships there, which need from España more people than a few officers; and it would be very desirable to transport for those islands some artisans whom they will need for promoting and cultivating the various products of the land.Fourth: The more that the lands are cultivated and their products made available, the greater will be the number of men and of infidel Indians that will be needed; and consequently they will submit [to Spanish authority], and be converted into loyal vassals and friends, and Christianity will be increasedin those regions, without any fear that the Moro and infidel enemies can disturb them.Fifth: It will be possible to equip every year three or four ships of six hundred to a thousand toneladas each, and despatch them for Europa with cinnamon, pepper, and other spices which will be produced there; and in return they will go back with various commodities and fruits, the products of España, which the people of Manila always find themselves compelled to buy from the English and Dutch, carrying away the money for them. In this manner not only will these gains remain within the dominions of his Majesty, without the other nations being able to draw thence the money with which they carry on war, [to the] injury of the commerce of España, but by this means the [Spanish] dominions that are so remote will come to be to a large extent dependent one upon another; and as the intercourse between them would be mutual and friendly, the Indians consequently would have occasion to see and experience the greatness [of the Spanish power]. Thus they would come to be more faithful and loyal vassals, and returning to their own lands, would influence their countrymen to be the same.Sixth: No one will deny my statement that the cinnamon would [thus] be obtained at a much less cost [by the Spaniards] than that at which the Dutch can sell it, unless [they encounter] less risk and danger—[which are] so manifest that for the preservation of this commerce they find themselves compelled to maintain a great number of troops and keep up many forts and garrisons, solely to defend themselves. Let to all this be added the governors, and the enormous number of people whom they have intheir service, with some very large expenses which arise from the various opinions of the companies—the costs of which, so ill applied, render the cinnamon more expensive (although in reality its cost is low), and it is certain that their commerce in spices does not prove to be so profitable as the nations assert. Very differently, then, will it be in favor of España when she reaches the cultivation of the cinnamon; for in place of the great expenses which his Majesty has had ever since he took possession of the said island, without its producing any benefit, he will obtain the greatest advantages without spending a real vellon more than at present. Especially, labor will be found as cheap, and the cultivation of the soil as easy, as in Ceylon; and the navigation can be made with the same advantages that [other] nations [possess], or even greater. For this reason the cinnamon will cost the merchants forty or fifty per cent less than they have actually paid hitherto. It is certain that it is a very serious damage which España generally suffers in her commerce, from paying, through this negligence, the freight charges of the Dutch ships, and the cost of their officers and seamen; and they even maintain their fortifications, etc., with the money which they obtain from España for this product of cinnamon.Seventh: Likewise, there would be great advantage to España in the ships which would come from the Philipinas, as I have said (in the fifth point); for they would return laden with many fruits and products of these kingdoms of España.Eighth: The Americans would likewise share in this great benefit; for the cinnamon, for which they are today paying so exorbitant a price, they wouldobtain at very nearly the same price at which it is usually sold in Cadiz.Ninth: If the cinnamon should become cheap, much chocolate would be consumed by the poor; and consequently the duties would amount to much more, to the advantage of his Majesty.Notwithstanding that the greatness of the enterprise is clearly demonstrated, and no additional information is needed, two things ought to be noted. First, that no damage or expense can result to his Majesty. Second, that from this arrangement, it is evident and positive, not the least injury or disadvantage ensues to España or to America; rather, it is a triple benefit, and indispensable—which, [however,] without general experience and practical knowledge it would be impossible to bring about without each dominion injuring the other; for in this consists the superiority of a man who is an expert.[The writer then proceeds to mention the spiritual advantages which would result from the temporal; but his argument becomes somewhat lame here, reducing itself to the “hope that, with the help of our Lord, a firm and permanent peace with the Moros may be secured” He makes an interesting statement regarding the extent of the ravages committed by the Mindanao pirates: “I am certain, from accurate information, that during the government of the Marqués de Obando he cost the king eight millions of reals vellon [for this purpose], although he proceeded with the utmost economy and care in the manner in which he used the royal revenue; and, having made in the year 1755 a calculation of the expenses which these piracies werecausing to his Majesty and his vassals (both Spaniards and Indians) from the ravages made by the Moros and infidels during the eight years preceding, it amounted to about eighty millions of reals vellon,” not to mention the killing of priests and native Christians. Of course, if peace is secured with the Moros, the progress and extension of the missions in the islands is assured. The writer again declares his devotion to the service of God and the king, his readiness to explain his plans further to those who desire more information, and his confidence that they will command the confidence of men of understanding, judgment, and patriotism.]Although through experience (tempus edrax rerum) one can come to know the utility and advantage which will accrue from the execution of this so vast enterprise, I trust that I have demonstrated it quite sufficiently to render it worthy of the consideration of his Majesty; nevertheless, seeing how much is involved, it is fitting for my honor to furnish proofs, the most detailed and circumstantial. This induces me to quote part of the lading which came in seventeen ships of the Company of Olanda, as published in theGazetteof Amsterdam, dated on July 3 of this present year, one thousand seven hundred and fifty-nine—products which are and may be those of the very islands in question; and in order to show how very important it is to give attention to what is herein proposed, each commodity is valued at the regular price which it can bring in the ports of Cadiz, Alicante, etc.PricesLibras[Commodities]Reals vellon per librareals vellon Total,4,672,746of pepper732,709,22250,000of nutmeg391,950,00060,000of mace704,200,000360,000of cloves5018,000,000375,840of cinnamon5821,198,7203,000of candied nutmeg60180,0002,398of candied cloves70167,860883,142of sugar3.9411[3,424,000]40,490of camphor16649,8406,582of benzoin22134,93610,500of borax15157,50012,146of gum-lac12145,7523,000of gum myrrh1236,0003,514of gamboge1656,22420,049of indigo, superior30601,470[Total,] eighty-three millions, six hundred and eleven thousand, five hundred and twenty-four reals vellon.83,611,524I have taken into consideration the objections which may be brought forward by persons who are little acquainted with trade, and these are reduced, substantially, to the following: That the consumption of these commodities in the dominions of his Majesty cannot be regulated by the above calculation.They speak glibly; but, in order not to lose time with these persons, I answer them, that one is compelled to encounter ignorance, but the only concern of great souls is to serve faithfully their kings and nations, and endure the calumnies which are uttered against honest men—imitating the stars, which, no matter how much the dogs bark, do not cease to shine down upon them and to follow their own courses. Accordingly, let us proceed to truths which are plain:First: that the Dutch carry these commodities in large quantities, as is above stated—a proof that there is a consumption for that amount, and that this is a profitable trade. Second: that the calculation which I have made cannot be defective, since the [amounts of the] commodities agree with the figures published by the Dutch themselves; and the prices are obtained from the Company of Druggists, in accordance with what they pay for the goods at the ports. Third: that the greater part [of these commodities], and the most important ones, if not [all], can be the products of the Philipinas Islands. Fourth: that these commodities must cost much less than in Olanda, or in any other country, is manifest and undeniable for this reason, that the Dutch are obliged to incur enormous expenses—for governors, members of council, lesser servants without number, and many troops—in order to maintain their establishments; and these expenses increase just so much the prices of their spices, so that, if they buy these from the [Eastern] nations at ten, the goods are worth to them twenty-five. This would not occur with us, because the king does not need to increase the expenses in order to secure the advancement of the islands. It would be entirely different; for, ifthese plantations are established, thousands of Indians who now are suffering the utmost poverty without having any opportunity to work, and for the same reason cannot pay their tributes, would have a means of gaining their living and of paying their tributes, and on this very account it would serve much for the increase of the royal revenue.As these Indians are not paid for their labor at higher rates than are those among whom the Dutch reside, we must reckon, for the reasons here stated, that those same commodities would cost much less, and that the Spaniards could sell them at lower prices than do the Dutch; and, as the merchant in every country buys where he will find his greatest advantage, España would be the fair for these commodities which have already enriched so many nations. But let us proceed to reveal the cunning of the Dutch, who furnish only three millions, seven hundred and fifty thousand, eight hundred and forty libras of cinnamon—which, at the rate of sixteen onzas a libra, make six12millions, thirteen thousand, four hundred and forty onzas. The rule for making chocolate is to take ten libras of cacao, ten of sugar, and eight onzas of cinnamon, or even less, and on account of the waste13it is computed that the result will betwenty libras net; consequently, from the three millions, seven hundred and fifty thousand, eight hundred and forty libras of cinnamon could be madefifteen millions, thirty-three thousand, six hundred libras of chocolate.Although it is folly to make such a proposition, I ask whether there are not in España,14all America,the Philipinas Islands, and, in short, all the so various domains of his Majesty, counting all these together, four millions of persons who drink chocolate sixty-four times in the year, in accordance with the rule of one onza for each time. Even the most ignorant or malicious person will not deny my proposition; this makes, then, the consumption of chocolate sixteen millions of libras, and for making it there will be needed four hundred thousand libras of cinnamon.Hence are drawn two conclusions. One is, the extreme craftiness of the Dutch, in not furnishing more than the said quantity in order to supply the Spaniards, and in making them believe that they will be left without chocolate; and thus they succeed in obliging the Spaniards to pay for the cinnamon at the very high prices which the Dutch have fixed in these recent years—for it is a hundred per cent more costly, and fifty per cent worse in quality; therefore there is an increase of a hundred and fifty per cent in favor of the Dutch, and of three hundred per cent to the injury of España, who without reason endures this tyranny. Therefore, if the Dutch are not mistaken in the estimate of cinnamon which they published in theGazette, and as the consumption [of that spice] in España is as I have made evident, there will not be cinnamon to supply all the nations; nevertheless, there will be no lack of it in any of them.15Second: since it is so evident that in the dominions of his Majesty there is consumed in [the beverageof] chocolate alone (without counting the numerous kinds of food in which use is made of it) sixteen millions of libras, and in order to make it there are needed four hundred thousand of cinnamon, at the rate of fifty-eight reals vellon that quantity will cost twenty-three millions, three hundred thousand reals vellon, which is the least that España could advance for the execution of the project. Moreover, I do not know any reason for not admitting the commodity of pepper—which not only is so exceedingly abundant in the islands, but I persuade myself that, since it is so excellent in its crude state, it would with skilful treatment be better than that of any [other] country. It is also plain to us that the Dutch bring [to Europa] four millions, six hundred and seventy-two thousand, seven hundred and forty-six libras of it; they assure me that only because of the great abundance of garlic16in España the pepper brings no more than seven reals vellon a libra—[at which rate] the above quantity will amount to thirty-two millions, seven [hundred] and nine thousand, two hundred and twenty-two reals vellon. This added to the twenty-three millions, three hundred thousand reals [for cinnamon] will make fifty-six millions, nine thousand, two hundred and twenty-two reals vellon.People will say, “Where would we consume so much pepper?” Then where does Olanda consume it, I would like to know? “[And there are] Francia and Inglaterra; do they bring much less [to Europa]?” Do not those who ask such questionsknow how much the king is paying to Norbega [i.e., Norway] and the northern countries for lumber, cordage, etc., for the construction in his royal navy? and that, if it happens that care is not given in time to the planting of oak groves, he will need much more [from those countries]?—At present these commodities are paid for in ready money, which would not be the case if we could give the merchants there the pepper, etc., so cheaply (or at less expense than [if purchased from] another country), on account of the great consumption of pepper which there is in those countries, and because this would be a [form of] trade that is mutually advantageous, as I have already said, for the day-laborer and the shepherd. It would be permanent, and many millions of reals which now leave España would remain here, to the greatest advantage not only of his Majesty, but of his vassals. I say, then, that no one is able to deny these two propositions, of which his Majesty will be best able to judge. Have I heard some one argue that España has17need of preventing thus the exportation of silver? Such arguments are foolish, and one should laugh at them.Do we not know that Olanda commands that a very large part of the spice product be burned and destroyed, in order that a commodity which brings her so enormous a profit should not, through its excessive abundance, contribute to her loss? I say, then, that if España reaches an excessive abundance of silver, it would be far better for the king to command that the mines be closed, or to fling the silver into the sea, than to let it pass into the hands of those whotomorrow can avail themselves of it to carry on war [against España]. Others I have heard talk [on this subject], so frivolously that I was astounded, hinting at the resentment of this other nation if España should profit by what is her own—that is, the execution of the proposition [that I have made]. That is the same as to say that Inglaterra or any other nation could declare that España shall not cultivate the ground or sow the wheat, because it suited that nation to supply it; it is to talk very heedlessly, without knowing that España can limit the commerce of Francia, Inglaterra, and Olanda whenever she desires, without cannon-ball or gunpowder, by the prohibition of silver alone. If she chooses to deprive any one of those countries of this advantage, she has only to calculate what she owes to the other two for the net balance of their trade, and then not allow any more silver to go out to those countries; and these, needing it for themselves, will not be able to supply the other one. I can assert that España, if she would avail herself of the rights which God has given her, would make herself more worthy of respect by depriving the [other] nations of what is essential, not only for their commerce, but for waging war to advantage.I believe that no one will dispute the advantages and benefit which can accrue from the Philipinas Islands, and it is this which from the outset I have attempted to demonstrate, although I omit, for the sake of brevity, the explanation of many things.Keeping in mind how much I owe to the infinite mercy and goodness of supreme Providence, in the second part of the work alluded to, which I presume to present to his Majesty, I have treated at lengthof the ravages which the Moros have committed during very many years in those islands, and of the exceeding damage which they thus cause to our holy Roman Catholic and apostolic faith, for I cannot do less. Indeed, it is evident that God has assisted me with His divine Grace; and therefore I certainly ought to defend and, if it should be necessary, die for His cause. Accordingly, in whatever concerns the subjection of the Moros, and consequently the protection and advancement of the holy faith in those islands, I hope to deserve that his Majesty will do me the honor of appointing six lieutenant-commanders—three from his royal navy, and three from his army—in order that they may examine with the utmost care the plan upon which I have based my proposition, giving their opinions in writing for presentation to his Majesty, in two copies, one for his Majesty’s royal Council of the Indias, the other for myself.When this examination shall be made, and the plan approved by the king if such be his royal will, I will immediately proceed to furnish the plan of the whole matter which I have drawn up for the execution of the project—from which, after further investigations (which are very just, and perhaps will be quite unprecedented) his Majesty can more easily decide what shall be most expedient in this matter, as also the selection of persons for the said purpose.As for what pertains to the commerce, for greater certainty I deemed it expedient to communicate my intention to Don Antonio Butlert [sic], formerly a merchant of Cadiz—since he is distinguished not only for his great success in business and his genuine friendship to this nation, but by his long experience in and thorough knowledge of the commerce of thesedominions—asking him to give me his disinterested opinion on the subject, in which he should consider with the utmost attention the general welfare of these dominions; and this opinion I have, in writing, and signed with the name of his firm, which reads “Butlert and Matheos.”Some persons who are little acquainted with affairs so vast, and who have still less ability to make ready for the great things which remain to be done, will suppose that the execution [of this plan] is easy, to one who has the writings which I have already furnished; nevertheless, if they engaged in the undertaking they would find themselves much mistaken, and the result would be greatly to the detriment of the nation.Warned by what I have passed through, and dreading [the effects of] ignorance and malice, I have reached the decision to supplicate the king to grant me the honor of this examination—desiring, whatever may fall to my lot, to prove that I have no other purpose than to serve faithfully both Majesties and their vassals, and entreating them for this end to dispose of my life and person, of which I will gladly make sacrifice in proof of my loyalty and sincere devotion.

Recapitulation of the advantages and benefits of this commerce

First: The millions of pesos duros which now pass out of the domains of his Majesty, with which the Dutch are enriching themselves and promoting their main commerce, that of the cinnamon; they will have so much less for hostilities against España, the more that this matter of the cinnamon is pushed in that country, thus rendering it impossible for them to carry away the silver thence.Second: Great numbers of Indians would be employed who now have no way in which to make a living or to pay their tributes; by this means not only would they be relieved [from their burdens], but it would be with great increase to the royal exchequer; and through their application and gains they would consequently be more faithful and constant vassals, while now idleness and vices prevent them from being such.Third: The Philipinas Islands are suffering severely from the lack of communication by a direct route with España; this could be easily secured by arming the ships there, which need from España more people than a few officers; and it would be very desirable to transport for those islands some artisans whom they will need for promoting and cultivating the various products of the land.Fourth: The more that the lands are cultivated and their products made available, the greater will be the number of men and of infidel Indians that will be needed; and consequently they will submit [to Spanish authority], and be converted into loyal vassals and friends, and Christianity will be increasedin those regions, without any fear that the Moro and infidel enemies can disturb them.Fifth: It will be possible to equip every year three or four ships of six hundred to a thousand toneladas each, and despatch them for Europa with cinnamon, pepper, and other spices which will be produced there; and in return they will go back with various commodities and fruits, the products of España, which the people of Manila always find themselves compelled to buy from the English and Dutch, carrying away the money for them. In this manner not only will these gains remain within the dominions of his Majesty, without the other nations being able to draw thence the money with which they carry on war, [to the] injury of the commerce of España, but by this means the [Spanish] dominions that are so remote will come to be to a large extent dependent one upon another; and as the intercourse between them would be mutual and friendly, the Indians consequently would have occasion to see and experience the greatness [of the Spanish power]. Thus they would come to be more faithful and loyal vassals, and returning to their own lands, would influence their countrymen to be the same.Sixth: No one will deny my statement that the cinnamon would [thus] be obtained at a much less cost [by the Spaniards] than that at which the Dutch can sell it, unless [they encounter] less risk and danger—[which are] so manifest that for the preservation of this commerce they find themselves compelled to maintain a great number of troops and keep up many forts and garrisons, solely to defend themselves. Let to all this be added the governors, and the enormous number of people whom they have intheir service, with some very large expenses which arise from the various opinions of the companies—the costs of which, so ill applied, render the cinnamon more expensive (although in reality its cost is low), and it is certain that their commerce in spices does not prove to be so profitable as the nations assert. Very differently, then, will it be in favor of España when she reaches the cultivation of the cinnamon; for in place of the great expenses which his Majesty has had ever since he took possession of the said island, without its producing any benefit, he will obtain the greatest advantages without spending a real vellon more than at present. Especially, labor will be found as cheap, and the cultivation of the soil as easy, as in Ceylon; and the navigation can be made with the same advantages that [other] nations [possess], or even greater. For this reason the cinnamon will cost the merchants forty or fifty per cent less than they have actually paid hitherto. It is certain that it is a very serious damage which España generally suffers in her commerce, from paying, through this negligence, the freight charges of the Dutch ships, and the cost of their officers and seamen; and they even maintain their fortifications, etc., with the money which they obtain from España for this product of cinnamon.Seventh: Likewise, there would be great advantage to España in the ships which would come from the Philipinas, as I have said (in the fifth point); for they would return laden with many fruits and products of these kingdoms of España.Eighth: The Americans would likewise share in this great benefit; for the cinnamon, for which they are today paying so exorbitant a price, they wouldobtain at very nearly the same price at which it is usually sold in Cadiz.Ninth: If the cinnamon should become cheap, much chocolate would be consumed by the poor; and consequently the duties would amount to much more, to the advantage of his Majesty.Notwithstanding that the greatness of the enterprise is clearly demonstrated, and no additional information is needed, two things ought to be noted. First, that no damage or expense can result to his Majesty. Second, that from this arrangement, it is evident and positive, not the least injury or disadvantage ensues to España or to America; rather, it is a triple benefit, and indispensable—which, [however,] without general experience and practical knowledge it would be impossible to bring about without each dominion injuring the other; for in this consists the superiority of a man who is an expert.[The writer then proceeds to mention the spiritual advantages which would result from the temporal; but his argument becomes somewhat lame here, reducing itself to the “hope that, with the help of our Lord, a firm and permanent peace with the Moros may be secured” He makes an interesting statement regarding the extent of the ravages committed by the Mindanao pirates: “I am certain, from accurate information, that during the government of the Marqués de Obando he cost the king eight millions of reals vellon [for this purpose], although he proceeded with the utmost economy and care in the manner in which he used the royal revenue; and, having made in the year 1755 a calculation of the expenses which these piracies werecausing to his Majesty and his vassals (both Spaniards and Indians) from the ravages made by the Moros and infidels during the eight years preceding, it amounted to about eighty millions of reals vellon,” not to mention the killing of priests and native Christians. Of course, if peace is secured with the Moros, the progress and extension of the missions in the islands is assured. The writer again declares his devotion to the service of God and the king, his readiness to explain his plans further to those who desire more information, and his confidence that they will command the confidence of men of understanding, judgment, and patriotism.]Although through experience (tempus edrax rerum) one can come to know the utility and advantage which will accrue from the execution of this so vast enterprise, I trust that I have demonstrated it quite sufficiently to render it worthy of the consideration of his Majesty; nevertheless, seeing how much is involved, it is fitting for my honor to furnish proofs, the most detailed and circumstantial. This induces me to quote part of the lading which came in seventeen ships of the Company of Olanda, as published in theGazetteof Amsterdam, dated on July 3 of this present year, one thousand seven hundred and fifty-nine—products which are and may be those of the very islands in question; and in order to show how very important it is to give attention to what is herein proposed, each commodity is valued at the regular price which it can bring in the ports of Cadiz, Alicante, etc.PricesLibras[Commodities]Reals vellon per librareals vellon Total,4,672,746of pepper732,709,22250,000of nutmeg391,950,00060,000of mace704,200,000360,000of cloves5018,000,000375,840of cinnamon5821,198,7203,000of candied nutmeg60180,0002,398of candied cloves70167,860883,142of sugar3.9411[3,424,000]40,490of camphor16649,8406,582of benzoin22134,93610,500of borax15157,50012,146of gum-lac12145,7523,000of gum myrrh1236,0003,514of gamboge1656,22420,049of indigo, superior30601,470[Total,] eighty-three millions, six hundred and eleven thousand, five hundred and twenty-four reals vellon.83,611,524I have taken into consideration the objections which may be brought forward by persons who are little acquainted with trade, and these are reduced, substantially, to the following: That the consumption of these commodities in the dominions of his Majesty cannot be regulated by the above calculation.They speak glibly; but, in order not to lose time with these persons, I answer them, that one is compelled to encounter ignorance, but the only concern of great souls is to serve faithfully their kings and nations, and endure the calumnies which are uttered against honest men—imitating the stars, which, no matter how much the dogs bark, do not cease to shine down upon them and to follow their own courses. Accordingly, let us proceed to truths which are plain:First: that the Dutch carry these commodities in large quantities, as is above stated—a proof that there is a consumption for that amount, and that this is a profitable trade. Second: that the calculation which I have made cannot be defective, since the [amounts of the] commodities agree with the figures published by the Dutch themselves; and the prices are obtained from the Company of Druggists, in accordance with what they pay for the goods at the ports. Third: that the greater part [of these commodities], and the most important ones, if not [all], can be the products of the Philipinas Islands. Fourth: that these commodities must cost much less than in Olanda, or in any other country, is manifest and undeniable for this reason, that the Dutch are obliged to incur enormous expenses—for governors, members of council, lesser servants without number, and many troops—in order to maintain their establishments; and these expenses increase just so much the prices of their spices, so that, if they buy these from the [Eastern] nations at ten, the goods are worth to them twenty-five. This would not occur with us, because the king does not need to increase the expenses in order to secure the advancement of the islands. It would be entirely different; for, ifthese plantations are established, thousands of Indians who now are suffering the utmost poverty without having any opportunity to work, and for the same reason cannot pay their tributes, would have a means of gaining their living and of paying their tributes, and on this very account it would serve much for the increase of the royal revenue.As these Indians are not paid for their labor at higher rates than are those among whom the Dutch reside, we must reckon, for the reasons here stated, that those same commodities would cost much less, and that the Spaniards could sell them at lower prices than do the Dutch; and, as the merchant in every country buys where he will find his greatest advantage, España would be the fair for these commodities which have already enriched so many nations. But let us proceed to reveal the cunning of the Dutch, who furnish only three millions, seven hundred and fifty thousand, eight hundred and forty libras of cinnamon—which, at the rate of sixteen onzas a libra, make six12millions, thirteen thousand, four hundred and forty onzas. The rule for making chocolate is to take ten libras of cacao, ten of sugar, and eight onzas of cinnamon, or even less, and on account of the waste13it is computed that the result will betwenty libras net; consequently, from the three millions, seven hundred and fifty thousand, eight hundred and forty libras of cinnamon could be madefifteen millions, thirty-three thousand, six hundred libras of chocolate.Although it is folly to make such a proposition, I ask whether there are not in España,14all America,the Philipinas Islands, and, in short, all the so various domains of his Majesty, counting all these together, four millions of persons who drink chocolate sixty-four times in the year, in accordance with the rule of one onza for each time. Even the most ignorant or malicious person will not deny my proposition; this makes, then, the consumption of chocolate sixteen millions of libras, and for making it there will be needed four hundred thousand libras of cinnamon.Hence are drawn two conclusions. One is, the extreme craftiness of the Dutch, in not furnishing more than the said quantity in order to supply the Spaniards, and in making them believe that they will be left without chocolate; and thus they succeed in obliging the Spaniards to pay for the cinnamon at the very high prices which the Dutch have fixed in these recent years—for it is a hundred per cent more costly, and fifty per cent worse in quality; therefore there is an increase of a hundred and fifty per cent in favor of the Dutch, and of three hundred per cent to the injury of España, who without reason endures this tyranny. Therefore, if the Dutch are not mistaken in the estimate of cinnamon which they published in theGazette, and as the consumption [of that spice] in España is as I have made evident, there will not be cinnamon to supply all the nations; nevertheless, there will be no lack of it in any of them.15Second: since it is so evident that in the dominions of his Majesty there is consumed in [the beverageof] chocolate alone (without counting the numerous kinds of food in which use is made of it) sixteen millions of libras, and in order to make it there are needed four hundred thousand of cinnamon, at the rate of fifty-eight reals vellon that quantity will cost twenty-three millions, three hundred thousand reals vellon, which is the least that España could advance for the execution of the project. Moreover, I do not know any reason for not admitting the commodity of pepper—which not only is so exceedingly abundant in the islands, but I persuade myself that, since it is so excellent in its crude state, it would with skilful treatment be better than that of any [other] country. It is also plain to us that the Dutch bring [to Europa] four millions, six hundred and seventy-two thousand, seven hundred and forty-six libras of it; they assure me that only because of the great abundance of garlic16in España the pepper brings no more than seven reals vellon a libra—[at which rate] the above quantity will amount to thirty-two millions, seven [hundred] and nine thousand, two hundred and twenty-two reals vellon. This added to the twenty-three millions, three hundred thousand reals [for cinnamon] will make fifty-six millions, nine thousand, two hundred and twenty-two reals vellon.People will say, “Where would we consume so much pepper?” Then where does Olanda consume it, I would like to know? “[And there are] Francia and Inglaterra; do they bring much less [to Europa]?” Do not those who ask such questionsknow how much the king is paying to Norbega [i.e., Norway] and the northern countries for lumber, cordage, etc., for the construction in his royal navy? and that, if it happens that care is not given in time to the planting of oak groves, he will need much more [from those countries]?—At present these commodities are paid for in ready money, which would not be the case if we could give the merchants there the pepper, etc., so cheaply (or at less expense than [if purchased from] another country), on account of the great consumption of pepper which there is in those countries, and because this would be a [form of] trade that is mutually advantageous, as I have already said, for the day-laborer and the shepherd. It would be permanent, and many millions of reals which now leave España would remain here, to the greatest advantage not only of his Majesty, but of his vassals. I say, then, that no one is able to deny these two propositions, of which his Majesty will be best able to judge. Have I heard some one argue that España has17need of preventing thus the exportation of silver? Such arguments are foolish, and one should laugh at them.Do we not know that Olanda commands that a very large part of the spice product be burned and destroyed, in order that a commodity which brings her so enormous a profit should not, through its excessive abundance, contribute to her loss? I say, then, that if España reaches an excessive abundance of silver, it would be far better for the king to command that the mines be closed, or to fling the silver into the sea, than to let it pass into the hands of those whotomorrow can avail themselves of it to carry on war [against España]. Others I have heard talk [on this subject], so frivolously that I was astounded, hinting at the resentment of this other nation if España should profit by what is her own—that is, the execution of the proposition [that I have made]. That is the same as to say that Inglaterra or any other nation could declare that España shall not cultivate the ground or sow the wheat, because it suited that nation to supply it; it is to talk very heedlessly, without knowing that España can limit the commerce of Francia, Inglaterra, and Olanda whenever she desires, without cannon-ball or gunpowder, by the prohibition of silver alone. If she chooses to deprive any one of those countries of this advantage, she has only to calculate what she owes to the other two for the net balance of their trade, and then not allow any more silver to go out to those countries; and these, needing it for themselves, will not be able to supply the other one. I can assert that España, if she would avail herself of the rights which God has given her, would make herself more worthy of respect by depriving the [other] nations of what is essential, not only for their commerce, but for waging war to advantage.I believe that no one will dispute the advantages and benefit which can accrue from the Philipinas Islands, and it is this which from the outset I have attempted to demonstrate, although I omit, for the sake of brevity, the explanation of many things.Keeping in mind how much I owe to the infinite mercy and goodness of supreme Providence, in the second part of the work alluded to, which I presume to present to his Majesty, I have treated at lengthof the ravages which the Moros have committed during very many years in those islands, and of the exceeding damage which they thus cause to our holy Roman Catholic and apostolic faith, for I cannot do less. Indeed, it is evident that God has assisted me with His divine Grace; and therefore I certainly ought to defend and, if it should be necessary, die for His cause. Accordingly, in whatever concerns the subjection of the Moros, and consequently the protection and advancement of the holy faith in those islands, I hope to deserve that his Majesty will do me the honor of appointing six lieutenant-commanders—three from his royal navy, and three from his army—in order that they may examine with the utmost care the plan upon which I have based my proposition, giving their opinions in writing for presentation to his Majesty, in two copies, one for his Majesty’s royal Council of the Indias, the other for myself.When this examination shall be made, and the plan approved by the king if such be his royal will, I will immediately proceed to furnish the plan of the whole matter which I have drawn up for the execution of the project—from which, after further investigations (which are very just, and perhaps will be quite unprecedented) his Majesty can more easily decide what shall be most expedient in this matter, as also the selection of persons for the said purpose.As for what pertains to the commerce, for greater certainty I deemed it expedient to communicate my intention to Don Antonio Butlert [sic], formerly a merchant of Cadiz—since he is distinguished not only for his great success in business and his genuine friendship to this nation, but by his long experience in and thorough knowledge of the commerce of thesedominions—asking him to give me his disinterested opinion on the subject, in which he should consider with the utmost attention the general welfare of these dominions; and this opinion I have, in writing, and signed with the name of his firm, which reads “Butlert and Matheos.”Some persons who are little acquainted with affairs so vast, and who have still less ability to make ready for the great things which remain to be done, will suppose that the execution [of this plan] is easy, to one who has the writings which I have already furnished; nevertheless, if they engaged in the undertaking they would find themselves much mistaken, and the result would be greatly to the detriment of the nation.Warned by what I have passed through, and dreading [the effects of] ignorance and malice, I have reached the decision to supplicate the king to grant me the honor of this examination—desiring, whatever may fall to my lot, to prove that I have no other purpose than to serve faithfully both Majesties and their vassals, and entreating them for this end to dispose of my life and person, of which I will gladly make sacrifice in proof of my loyalty and sincere devotion.

First: The millions of pesos duros which now pass out of the domains of his Majesty, with which the Dutch are enriching themselves and promoting their main commerce, that of the cinnamon; they will have so much less for hostilities against España, the more that this matter of the cinnamon is pushed in that country, thus rendering it impossible for them to carry away the silver thence.

Second: Great numbers of Indians would be employed who now have no way in which to make a living or to pay their tributes; by this means not only would they be relieved [from their burdens], but it would be with great increase to the royal exchequer; and through their application and gains they would consequently be more faithful and constant vassals, while now idleness and vices prevent them from being such.

Third: The Philipinas Islands are suffering severely from the lack of communication by a direct route with España; this could be easily secured by arming the ships there, which need from España more people than a few officers; and it would be very desirable to transport for those islands some artisans whom they will need for promoting and cultivating the various products of the land.

Fourth: The more that the lands are cultivated and their products made available, the greater will be the number of men and of infidel Indians that will be needed; and consequently they will submit [to Spanish authority], and be converted into loyal vassals and friends, and Christianity will be increasedin those regions, without any fear that the Moro and infidel enemies can disturb them.

Fifth: It will be possible to equip every year three or four ships of six hundred to a thousand toneladas each, and despatch them for Europa with cinnamon, pepper, and other spices which will be produced there; and in return they will go back with various commodities and fruits, the products of España, which the people of Manila always find themselves compelled to buy from the English and Dutch, carrying away the money for them. In this manner not only will these gains remain within the dominions of his Majesty, without the other nations being able to draw thence the money with which they carry on war, [to the] injury of the commerce of España, but by this means the [Spanish] dominions that are so remote will come to be to a large extent dependent one upon another; and as the intercourse between them would be mutual and friendly, the Indians consequently would have occasion to see and experience the greatness [of the Spanish power]. Thus they would come to be more faithful and loyal vassals, and returning to their own lands, would influence their countrymen to be the same.

Sixth: No one will deny my statement that the cinnamon would [thus] be obtained at a much less cost [by the Spaniards] than that at which the Dutch can sell it, unless [they encounter] less risk and danger—[which are] so manifest that for the preservation of this commerce they find themselves compelled to maintain a great number of troops and keep up many forts and garrisons, solely to defend themselves. Let to all this be added the governors, and the enormous number of people whom they have intheir service, with some very large expenses which arise from the various opinions of the companies—the costs of which, so ill applied, render the cinnamon more expensive (although in reality its cost is low), and it is certain that their commerce in spices does not prove to be so profitable as the nations assert. Very differently, then, will it be in favor of España when she reaches the cultivation of the cinnamon; for in place of the great expenses which his Majesty has had ever since he took possession of the said island, without its producing any benefit, he will obtain the greatest advantages without spending a real vellon more than at present. Especially, labor will be found as cheap, and the cultivation of the soil as easy, as in Ceylon; and the navigation can be made with the same advantages that [other] nations [possess], or even greater. For this reason the cinnamon will cost the merchants forty or fifty per cent less than they have actually paid hitherto. It is certain that it is a very serious damage which España generally suffers in her commerce, from paying, through this negligence, the freight charges of the Dutch ships, and the cost of their officers and seamen; and they even maintain their fortifications, etc., with the money which they obtain from España for this product of cinnamon.

Seventh: Likewise, there would be great advantage to España in the ships which would come from the Philipinas, as I have said (in the fifth point); for they would return laden with many fruits and products of these kingdoms of España.

Eighth: The Americans would likewise share in this great benefit; for the cinnamon, for which they are today paying so exorbitant a price, they wouldobtain at very nearly the same price at which it is usually sold in Cadiz.

Ninth: If the cinnamon should become cheap, much chocolate would be consumed by the poor; and consequently the duties would amount to much more, to the advantage of his Majesty.

Notwithstanding that the greatness of the enterprise is clearly demonstrated, and no additional information is needed, two things ought to be noted. First, that no damage or expense can result to his Majesty. Second, that from this arrangement, it is evident and positive, not the least injury or disadvantage ensues to España or to America; rather, it is a triple benefit, and indispensable—which, [however,] without general experience and practical knowledge it would be impossible to bring about without each dominion injuring the other; for in this consists the superiority of a man who is an expert.

[The writer then proceeds to mention the spiritual advantages which would result from the temporal; but his argument becomes somewhat lame here, reducing itself to the “hope that, with the help of our Lord, a firm and permanent peace with the Moros may be secured” He makes an interesting statement regarding the extent of the ravages committed by the Mindanao pirates: “I am certain, from accurate information, that during the government of the Marqués de Obando he cost the king eight millions of reals vellon [for this purpose], although he proceeded with the utmost economy and care in the manner in which he used the royal revenue; and, having made in the year 1755 a calculation of the expenses which these piracies werecausing to his Majesty and his vassals (both Spaniards and Indians) from the ravages made by the Moros and infidels during the eight years preceding, it amounted to about eighty millions of reals vellon,” not to mention the killing of priests and native Christians. Of course, if peace is secured with the Moros, the progress and extension of the missions in the islands is assured. The writer again declares his devotion to the service of God and the king, his readiness to explain his plans further to those who desire more information, and his confidence that they will command the confidence of men of understanding, judgment, and patriotism.]

Although through experience (tempus edrax rerum) one can come to know the utility and advantage which will accrue from the execution of this so vast enterprise, I trust that I have demonstrated it quite sufficiently to render it worthy of the consideration of his Majesty; nevertheless, seeing how much is involved, it is fitting for my honor to furnish proofs, the most detailed and circumstantial. This induces me to quote part of the lading which came in seventeen ships of the Company of Olanda, as published in theGazetteof Amsterdam, dated on July 3 of this present year, one thousand seven hundred and fifty-nine—products which are and may be those of the very islands in question; and in order to show how very important it is to give attention to what is herein proposed, each commodity is valued at the regular price which it can bring in the ports of Cadiz, Alicante, etc.

Prices

Libras[Commodities]Reals vellon per librareals vellon Total,4,672,746of pepper732,709,22250,000of nutmeg391,950,00060,000of mace704,200,000360,000of cloves5018,000,000375,840of cinnamon5821,198,7203,000of candied nutmeg60180,0002,398of candied cloves70167,860883,142of sugar3.9411[3,424,000]40,490of camphor16649,8406,582of benzoin22134,93610,500of borax15157,50012,146of gum-lac12145,7523,000of gum myrrh1236,0003,514of gamboge1656,22420,049of indigo, superior30601,470[Total,] eighty-three millions, six hundred and eleven thousand, five hundred and twenty-four reals vellon.83,611,524

I have taken into consideration the objections which may be brought forward by persons who are little acquainted with trade, and these are reduced, substantially, to the following: That the consumption of these commodities in the dominions of his Majesty cannot be regulated by the above calculation.They speak glibly; but, in order not to lose time with these persons, I answer them, that one is compelled to encounter ignorance, but the only concern of great souls is to serve faithfully their kings and nations, and endure the calumnies which are uttered against honest men—imitating the stars, which, no matter how much the dogs bark, do not cease to shine down upon them and to follow their own courses. Accordingly, let us proceed to truths which are plain:

First: that the Dutch carry these commodities in large quantities, as is above stated—a proof that there is a consumption for that amount, and that this is a profitable trade. Second: that the calculation which I have made cannot be defective, since the [amounts of the] commodities agree with the figures published by the Dutch themselves; and the prices are obtained from the Company of Druggists, in accordance with what they pay for the goods at the ports. Third: that the greater part [of these commodities], and the most important ones, if not [all], can be the products of the Philipinas Islands. Fourth: that these commodities must cost much less than in Olanda, or in any other country, is manifest and undeniable for this reason, that the Dutch are obliged to incur enormous expenses—for governors, members of council, lesser servants without number, and many troops—in order to maintain their establishments; and these expenses increase just so much the prices of their spices, so that, if they buy these from the [Eastern] nations at ten, the goods are worth to them twenty-five. This would not occur with us, because the king does not need to increase the expenses in order to secure the advancement of the islands. It would be entirely different; for, ifthese plantations are established, thousands of Indians who now are suffering the utmost poverty without having any opportunity to work, and for the same reason cannot pay their tributes, would have a means of gaining their living and of paying their tributes, and on this very account it would serve much for the increase of the royal revenue.

As these Indians are not paid for their labor at higher rates than are those among whom the Dutch reside, we must reckon, for the reasons here stated, that those same commodities would cost much less, and that the Spaniards could sell them at lower prices than do the Dutch; and, as the merchant in every country buys where he will find his greatest advantage, España would be the fair for these commodities which have already enriched so many nations. But let us proceed to reveal the cunning of the Dutch, who furnish only three millions, seven hundred and fifty thousand, eight hundred and forty libras of cinnamon—which, at the rate of sixteen onzas a libra, make six12millions, thirteen thousand, four hundred and forty onzas. The rule for making chocolate is to take ten libras of cacao, ten of sugar, and eight onzas of cinnamon, or even less, and on account of the waste13it is computed that the result will betwenty libras net; consequently, from the three millions, seven hundred and fifty thousand, eight hundred and forty libras of cinnamon could be madefifteen millions, thirty-three thousand, six hundred libras of chocolate.

Although it is folly to make such a proposition, I ask whether there are not in España,14all America,the Philipinas Islands, and, in short, all the so various domains of his Majesty, counting all these together, four millions of persons who drink chocolate sixty-four times in the year, in accordance with the rule of one onza for each time. Even the most ignorant or malicious person will not deny my proposition; this makes, then, the consumption of chocolate sixteen millions of libras, and for making it there will be needed four hundred thousand libras of cinnamon.

Hence are drawn two conclusions. One is, the extreme craftiness of the Dutch, in not furnishing more than the said quantity in order to supply the Spaniards, and in making them believe that they will be left without chocolate; and thus they succeed in obliging the Spaniards to pay for the cinnamon at the very high prices which the Dutch have fixed in these recent years—for it is a hundred per cent more costly, and fifty per cent worse in quality; therefore there is an increase of a hundred and fifty per cent in favor of the Dutch, and of three hundred per cent to the injury of España, who without reason endures this tyranny. Therefore, if the Dutch are not mistaken in the estimate of cinnamon which they published in theGazette, and as the consumption [of that spice] in España is as I have made evident, there will not be cinnamon to supply all the nations; nevertheless, there will be no lack of it in any of them.15

Second: since it is so evident that in the dominions of his Majesty there is consumed in [the beverageof] chocolate alone (without counting the numerous kinds of food in which use is made of it) sixteen millions of libras, and in order to make it there are needed four hundred thousand of cinnamon, at the rate of fifty-eight reals vellon that quantity will cost twenty-three millions, three hundred thousand reals vellon, which is the least that España could advance for the execution of the project. Moreover, I do not know any reason for not admitting the commodity of pepper—which not only is so exceedingly abundant in the islands, but I persuade myself that, since it is so excellent in its crude state, it would with skilful treatment be better than that of any [other] country. It is also plain to us that the Dutch bring [to Europa] four millions, six hundred and seventy-two thousand, seven hundred and forty-six libras of it; they assure me that only because of the great abundance of garlic16in España the pepper brings no more than seven reals vellon a libra—[at which rate] the above quantity will amount to thirty-two millions, seven [hundred] and nine thousand, two hundred and twenty-two reals vellon. This added to the twenty-three millions, three hundred thousand reals [for cinnamon] will make fifty-six millions, nine thousand, two hundred and twenty-two reals vellon.

People will say, “Where would we consume so much pepper?” Then where does Olanda consume it, I would like to know? “[And there are] Francia and Inglaterra; do they bring much less [to Europa]?” Do not those who ask such questionsknow how much the king is paying to Norbega [i.e., Norway] and the northern countries for lumber, cordage, etc., for the construction in his royal navy? and that, if it happens that care is not given in time to the planting of oak groves, he will need much more [from those countries]?—At present these commodities are paid for in ready money, which would not be the case if we could give the merchants there the pepper, etc., so cheaply (or at less expense than [if purchased from] another country), on account of the great consumption of pepper which there is in those countries, and because this would be a [form of] trade that is mutually advantageous, as I have already said, for the day-laborer and the shepherd. It would be permanent, and many millions of reals which now leave España would remain here, to the greatest advantage not only of his Majesty, but of his vassals. I say, then, that no one is able to deny these two propositions, of which his Majesty will be best able to judge. Have I heard some one argue that España has17need of preventing thus the exportation of silver? Such arguments are foolish, and one should laugh at them.

Do we not know that Olanda commands that a very large part of the spice product be burned and destroyed, in order that a commodity which brings her so enormous a profit should not, through its excessive abundance, contribute to her loss? I say, then, that if España reaches an excessive abundance of silver, it would be far better for the king to command that the mines be closed, or to fling the silver into the sea, than to let it pass into the hands of those whotomorrow can avail themselves of it to carry on war [against España]. Others I have heard talk [on this subject], so frivolously that I was astounded, hinting at the resentment of this other nation if España should profit by what is her own—that is, the execution of the proposition [that I have made]. That is the same as to say that Inglaterra or any other nation could declare that España shall not cultivate the ground or sow the wheat, because it suited that nation to supply it; it is to talk very heedlessly, without knowing that España can limit the commerce of Francia, Inglaterra, and Olanda whenever she desires, without cannon-ball or gunpowder, by the prohibition of silver alone. If she chooses to deprive any one of those countries of this advantage, she has only to calculate what she owes to the other two for the net balance of their trade, and then not allow any more silver to go out to those countries; and these, needing it for themselves, will not be able to supply the other one. I can assert that España, if she would avail herself of the rights which God has given her, would make herself more worthy of respect by depriving the [other] nations of what is essential, not only for their commerce, but for waging war to advantage.

I believe that no one will dispute the advantages and benefit which can accrue from the Philipinas Islands, and it is this which from the outset I have attempted to demonstrate, although I omit, for the sake of brevity, the explanation of many things.

Keeping in mind how much I owe to the infinite mercy and goodness of supreme Providence, in the second part of the work alluded to, which I presume to present to his Majesty, I have treated at lengthof the ravages which the Moros have committed during very many years in those islands, and of the exceeding damage which they thus cause to our holy Roman Catholic and apostolic faith, for I cannot do less. Indeed, it is evident that God has assisted me with His divine Grace; and therefore I certainly ought to defend and, if it should be necessary, die for His cause. Accordingly, in whatever concerns the subjection of the Moros, and consequently the protection and advancement of the holy faith in those islands, I hope to deserve that his Majesty will do me the honor of appointing six lieutenant-commanders—three from his royal navy, and three from his army—in order that they may examine with the utmost care the plan upon which I have based my proposition, giving their opinions in writing for presentation to his Majesty, in two copies, one for his Majesty’s royal Council of the Indias, the other for myself.

When this examination shall be made, and the plan approved by the king if such be his royal will, I will immediately proceed to furnish the plan of the whole matter which I have drawn up for the execution of the project—from which, after further investigations (which are very just, and perhaps will be quite unprecedented) his Majesty can more easily decide what shall be most expedient in this matter, as also the selection of persons for the said purpose.

As for what pertains to the commerce, for greater certainty I deemed it expedient to communicate my intention to Don Antonio Butlert [sic], formerly a merchant of Cadiz—since he is distinguished not only for his great success in business and his genuine friendship to this nation, but by his long experience in and thorough knowledge of the commerce of thesedominions—asking him to give me his disinterested opinion on the subject, in which he should consider with the utmost attention the general welfare of these dominions; and this opinion I have, in writing, and signed with the name of his firm, which reads “Butlert and Matheos.”

Some persons who are little acquainted with affairs so vast, and who have still less ability to make ready for the great things which remain to be done, will suppose that the execution [of this plan] is easy, to one who has the writings which I have already furnished; nevertheless, if they engaged in the undertaking they would find themselves much mistaken, and the result would be greatly to the detriment of the nation.

Warned by what I have passed through, and dreading [the effects of] ignorance and malice, I have reached the decision to supplicate the king to grant me the honor of this examination—desiring, whatever may fall to my lot, to prove that I have no other purpose than to serve faithfully both Majesties and their vassals, and entreating them for this end to dispose of my life and person, of which I will gladly make sacrifice in proof of my loyalty and sincere devotion.

Extracts from the proposition of Don Nicolas Norton Nicols; the conditions which he requires; the benefits and advantages which will accrue to his Majesty and his vassals, on whose account his Majesty was pleased to issue a decree on the twenty-third of February last.The aim of the said proponent is, to establish in the Philipinas Islands plantations of cinnamon, pepper, other spices, etc., and to open a direct commercebetween the said islands and Cadiz, by way of the Cape of Good Hope.Conditions.—That he shall be permitted to undertake the said route from Cadiz, or may go to the said islands and make the voyage from there to Cadiz, as he shall find most convenient. If he shall set out from Cadiz, on account of not having time to build ships he shall be permitted to buy whatever vessels [he may need], without excepting those of foreigners. The cargo from Cadiz must consist of different fruits, liquids,18and commodities that are products of España and of her commerce, as on the return voyage it must be from the various products and commodities of the said islands and of their commerce. That his Majesty remit the duties for the first voyage, and that the proponent be permitted to embark freely at Cadiz the silver that he needs to defray the purchase of his return cargo. On the second voyage he shall pay at Cadiz not only the five per cent duties but the three per cent of the silver which he shall thereafter embark, as is done with the [traders of foreign] nations. In order to obviate any objection, he will not enter any port belonging to his Majesty or to any power of Europa; he shall, however, be permitted to enter and anchor at any one of the Indian ports, whether in these or in those seas, and therein buy, sell, exchange, or lade the goods which shall be offered to him.The advantages, etc., will be the following: His Majesty will not subject his royal revenue to any expense, nor will it be exposed to the evil designs of men, or to the doubtful patriots who pretend tohave knowledge. There is no treaty that can be set against him, as he can prove. By the most moderate computation, the Dutch annually export four millions of pesos for the spice-trade; this, therefore, is to make them powerful, to the injury of España. Norvega, St. Petersbourgh, and other countries demand a great amount of cash for lumber, pitch, cordage, sails, etc., for the royal shipbuilding, the greater part of which would be paid for in spices, as these are greatly liked in those countries. Equivalent injury to España, as is stated above.19The commodities and products of España would have a much larger market. A strong stimulus to the cultivation of the soil. His Majesty would experience much relief in the expenses of transportation for the missions. This navigation would serve as a nursery for the navy, as is found by experience in other countries. The direct communication would serve as a check on a thousand abuses, not only in the government of the islands, but in other matters. If his Majesty should grant this privilege to the said islands, it would be most just that the commonwealth of Manila should carry on its commerce with Acapulco at its own cost, without laying the burden of it on his Majesty. By not possessing this commerce when she can have it, España is maintaining thousands of strangers in place of a like number of her own vassals; [the latter would] redound to the increase of the royal revenue, and in the course of years to the propagation of the holy faith. The Moros, who now are by their wars destroying the felicitous progress ofthe Christian religion, when they found by experience how much more it suited their own interests to maintain peace and commerce with the Spaniards than to wage war against them, would inviolably observe their treaties; for, notwithstanding the cruelties which the Dutch practice against their Indians, the latter tolerate them on account of the advantages of their commerce. The people of Manila will, when they have a market for their products, cultivate the land; they will establish family estates, and enrich themselves; and their riches, like those of the Americans, will finally come to España. The duties which your Majesty would receive from this new commerce would in a very few years amount to very considerable sums. It would be a stimulus to other new commercial undertakings, which would be beneficial to his Majesty and his vassals.

Extracts from the proposition of Don Nicolas Norton Nicols; the conditions which he requires; the benefits and advantages which will accrue to his Majesty and his vassals, on whose account his Majesty was pleased to issue a decree on the twenty-third of February last.

The aim of the said proponent is, to establish in the Philipinas Islands plantations of cinnamon, pepper, other spices, etc., and to open a direct commercebetween the said islands and Cadiz, by way of the Cape of Good Hope.Conditions.—That he shall be permitted to undertake the said route from Cadiz, or may go to the said islands and make the voyage from there to Cadiz, as he shall find most convenient. If he shall set out from Cadiz, on account of not having time to build ships he shall be permitted to buy whatever vessels [he may need], without excepting those of foreigners. The cargo from Cadiz must consist of different fruits, liquids,18and commodities that are products of España and of her commerce, as on the return voyage it must be from the various products and commodities of the said islands and of their commerce. That his Majesty remit the duties for the first voyage, and that the proponent be permitted to embark freely at Cadiz the silver that he needs to defray the purchase of his return cargo. On the second voyage he shall pay at Cadiz not only the five per cent duties but the three per cent of the silver which he shall thereafter embark, as is done with the [traders of foreign] nations. In order to obviate any objection, he will not enter any port belonging to his Majesty or to any power of Europa; he shall, however, be permitted to enter and anchor at any one of the Indian ports, whether in these or in those seas, and therein buy, sell, exchange, or lade the goods which shall be offered to him.The advantages, etc., will be the following: His Majesty will not subject his royal revenue to any expense, nor will it be exposed to the evil designs of men, or to the doubtful patriots who pretend tohave knowledge. There is no treaty that can be set against him, as he can prove. By the most moderate computation, the Dutch annually export four millions of pesos for the spice-trade; this, therefore, is to make them powerful, to the injury of España. Norvega, St. Petersbourgh, and other countries demand a great amount of cash for lumber, pitch, cordage, sails, etc., for the royal shipbuilding, the greater part of which would be paid for in spices, as these are greatly liked in those countries. Equivalent injury to España, as is stated above.19The commodities and products of España would have a much larger market. A strong stimulus to the cultivation of the soil. His Majesty would experience much relief in the expenses of transportation for the missions. This navigation would serve as a nursery for the navy, as is found by experience in other countries. The direct communication would serve as a check on a thousand abuses, not only in the government of the islands, but in other matters. If his Majesty should grant this privilege to the said islands, it would be most just that the commonwealth of Manila should carry on its commerce with Acapulco at its own cost, without laying the burden of it on his Majesty. By not possessing this commerce when she can have it, España is maintaining thousands of strangers in place of a like number of her own vassals; [the latter would] redound to the increase of the royal revenue, and in the course of years to the propagation of the holy faith. The Moros, who now are by their wars destroying the felicitous progress ofthe Christian religion, when they found by experience how much more it suited their own interests to maintain peace and commerce with the Spaniards than to wage war against them, would inviolably observe their treaties; for, notwithstanding the cruelties which the Dutch practice against their Indians, the latter tolerate them on account of the advantages of their commerce. The people of Manila will, when they have a market for their products, cultivate the land; they will establish family estates, and enrich themselves; and their riches, like those of the Americans, will finally come to España. The duties which your Majesty would receive from this new commerce would in a very few years amount to very considerable sums. It would be a stimulus to other new commercial undertakings, which would be beneficial to his Majesty and his vassals.

The aim of the said proponent is, to establish in the Philipinas Islands plantations of cinnamon, pepper, other spices, etc., and to open a direct commercebetween the said islands and Cadiz, by way of the Cape of Good Hope.

Conditions.—That he shall be permitted to undertake the said route from Cadiz, or may go to the said islands and make the voyage from there to Cadiz, as he shall find most convenient. If he shall set out from Cadiz, on account of not having time to build ships he shall be permitted to buy whatever vessels [he may need], without excepting those of foreigners. The cargo from Cadiz must consist of different fruits, liquids,18and commodities that are products of España and of her commerce, as on the return voyage it must be from the various products and commodities of the said islands and of their commerce. That his Majesty remit the duties for the first voyage, and that the proponent be permitted to embark freely at Cadiz the silver that he needs to defray the purchase of his return cargo. On the second voyage he shall pay at Cadiz not only the five per cent duties but the three per cent of the silver which he shall thereafter embark, as is done with the [traders of foreign] nations. In order to obviate any objection, he will not enter any port belonging to his Majesty or to any power of Europa; he shall, however, be permitted to enter and anchor at any one of the Indian ports, whether in these or in those seas, and therein buy, sell, exchange, or lade the goods which shall be offered to him.

The advantages, etc., will be the following: His Majesty will not subject his royal revenue to any expense, nor will it be exposed to the evil designs of men, or to the doubtful patriots who pretend tohave knowledge. There is no treaty that can be set against him, as he can prove. By the most moderate computation, the Dutch annually export four millions of pesos for the spice-trade; this, therefore, is to make them powerful, to the injury of España. Norvega, St. Petersbourgh, and other countries demand a great amount of cash for lumber, pitch, cordage, sails, etc., for the royal shipbuilding, the greater part of which would be paid for in spices, as these are greatly liked in those countries. Equivalent injury to España, as is stated above.19The commodities and products of España would have a much larger market. A strong stimulus to the cultivation of the soil. His Majesty would experience much relief in the expenses of transportation for the missions. This navigation would serve as a nursery for the navy, as is found by experience in other countries. The direct communication would serve as a check on a thousand abuses, not only in the government of the islands, but in other matters. If his Majesty should grant this privilege to the said islands, it would be most just that the commonwealth of Manila should carry on its commerce with Acapulco at its own cost, without laying the burden of it on his Majesty. By not possessing this commerce when she can have it, España is maintaining thousands of strangers in place of a like number of her own vassals; [the latter would] redound to the increase of the royal revenue, and in the course of years to the propagation of the holy faith. The Moros, who now are by their wars destroying the felicitous progress ofthe Christian religion, when they found by experience how much more it suited their own interests to maintain peace and commerce with the Spaniards than to wage war against them, would inviolably observe their treaties; for, notwithstanding the cruelties which the Dutch practice against their Indians, the latter tolerate them on account of the advantages of their commerce. The people of Manila will, when they have a market for their products, cultivate the land; they will establish family estates, and enrich themselves; and their riches, like those of the Americans, will finally come to España. The duties which your Majesty would receive from this new commerce would in a very few years amount to very considerable sums. It would be a stimulus to other new commercial undertakings, which would be beneficial to his Majesty and his vassals.

The whole matter in small compassHis Majesty, without risking anything, is going to gain infinitely more than what has been [here] stated. The method of securing these vast benefits is the easiest and safest which can be put into practice, and itself makes plain the useful and salutary design of the proponent.Don Nicolas Norton Nicols

The whole matter in small compass

His Majesty, without risking anything, is going to gain infinitely more than what has been [here] stated. The method of securing these vast benefits is the easiest and safest which can be put into practice, and itself makes plain the useful and salutary design of the proponent.Don Nicolas Norton Nicols

His Majesty, without risking anything, is going to gain infinitely more than what has been [here] stated. The method of securing these vast benefits is the easiest and safest which can be put into practice, and itself makes plain the useful and salutary design of the proponent.

Don Nicolas Norton Nicols

1“By the marriage with Elizabeth Farnese (ancestry normal), Philip V had, as an heir, Charles III, of Spain, who was the best of the more modern sovereigns of that country—in fact, the only normal one since before the days of the Emperor Charles V, now seven generations in the background. Not that Charles III inherited any of the ancient genius, for that had gone, never to appear again. He was, however, ([to cite] Hume), ‘an enlightened, generous, and just king and a noble and magnanimous man,’ and (Rose’sBiographical Dictionary) ‘possessed abilities as a monarch, and virtues as a private citizen, ... was a popular sovereign and a great economist of time, scrupulously methodical in all his operations.’” Thus writes Dr. F. A. Woods, in hisHeredity in Royalty(New York, 1906), pp. 155, 156—a book which endeavors, on scientific lines, to ascertain the influence of heredity as displayed in the royal families of Europe. The chapter on the rulers of Spain is found at pp. 124–171. He says (p. 138): “The origin of the well-known insanity in the Spanish and Austrian houses, perpetuated over thirteen generations and involving more than a score of individuals, is a very interesting question. It cannot be traced with certainty prior to Isabella, the Queen of John II, of Castile. This Isabella was out and out insane, according to the English alienist, W. W. Ireland; and from her, onward, the insanity passed along in one form or another by the very intermarriages which their pride and political motives caused them to arrange, with the intended idea of making permanent their world power, but with the inevitable result of losing that same prestige by placing it in the hands of the unfortunate children whose inheritance was necessarily mental weakness as the result of such unwise wedlocks.”For account of Carlos III’s reign, see Manuel Danvila y Collado’sReinado de Carlos III(Madrid, 1894). An interesting description of this monarch’s character and mode of life may be found in theDublin Magazinefor April, 1763, pp. 238, 239; it is written by a clergyman named Clark, “chaplain to the Earl of Bristol, late ambassador at the court of Madrid.” He says, among other things: “He is the greatest Nimrod of his time: he sacrifices everything to this favorite pleasure; he was disgusted at his public entry, because ithinderedhim of four days sport. He stayed three days at Toledo, and killed six wild mountain-cats, which, as I was well informed by those who had calculated the expence of that expedition, cost him exactly 1000 l. a cat.” “It has been imagined that he is a very weak prince, and of little or no understanding: Ir is a great mistake; he has some parts, but is mulish and obstinate to the last degree; and, by being constantly flattered, he imagines that he has more understanding than he really possesses. He is reserved beyond the common reserve of princes, has no confidant, and communicates his will only by his orders to put into execution. He can neither be led nor driven; all must come from himself.” “He allows no minister to remonstrate or argue with him.” “He arrested and banished the inquisitor-general, and sent him prisoner to a convent. He engaged in the present war with England, contrary to the sentiments of his ministers, and in direct opposition to the voice of the whole nation.”↑2A copy of the naturalization papers of Nicolas Norton y Nicols as a Spaniard exists in the Archivo general de Indias at Sevilla; its pressmark is, “Est. 105, caj. 2, leg. 13, libro 12, fol. 226b-229b,” and the document is dated at Aranjuez, August 3, 1758. Norton became a Catholic, and was allowed to trade in the Philippines. The allusion to “192 years” is somewhat incorrect, if he refers to the first discovery of the islands, which occurred in 1565; or else he may have begun to write out this proposal to the king as early as 1757, which would tally with the above numbers.↑3In the text,Bisarjas, evidently a clerical error. This, and a few similar discrepancies in the MS., strengthen the conjecture that it is not written by Norton’s own hand; it was probably dictated by him to an amanuensis.↑4See articles describing the cocoanut, its uses, culture, etc., inCensus of the Philippine Islands, iv, pp. 53–76; its uses are thus characterized (p. 72): “Briefly summed up, its timber can be employed in every form of house construction; its foliage in making mats, sacks, and thatches; its fruit in curry and sweet-meats; its oil for medicine, cookery, and illumination; its various uses in the manufacture of wines, spirits, sugar, and vinegar.” See also various scientific articles regarding the culture of the cocoanut palm, its enemies, and the qualities of its oil, in thePhilippine Journal of Science, Manila, 1906 (published by the Philippine government).↑5Spanish,cañas, which (as sometimes elsewhere) indicates that this name was bestowed indifferently on the bamboo and the rattan; but the latter is here meant, of course, as being namedbichuca(forbejuco).↑6Spanish,clauos; apparently meaning that the natives used in their housebuilding wedges made from the wood of the cocoanut tree as a substitute for iron nails.↑7Probably alluding to a document which is preserved in the Archivo de Indias at Sevilla, by Norton y Nicols, dated at Madrid, September 2, 1757; it will be mentioned in the bibliographical section of this series (VOL. LIII).↑8The context would imply that sugar is here referred to; but the writer does not mention it again, and seems to have abandoned his attempt to export it.↑9Spanish,estas ayudas de, followed by a blank space, doubtless intended to be filled bycostas.↑10Concepción mentions this stone (Hist. de Philipinas, xii, p. 25), found on a site selected by the Dutch; they had marked “a stone with the letter T, which, as it was interpreted, signified, ‘annexed to Terrenate.’ This same token they had placed in other uninhabited islands in the vicinity. This marked stone was dug up by the sultan of Mindanao, who sent it to the governor of Samboangan, Don Pedro Zacharias. Two Dutch chalupas went to call the Mindanaos to account for this act, intending to obtain satisfaction for it by placing the marked stone in the locality of Silangan, on the mainland of Mindanao; but Radiamura courageously drove back the Dutch who made a landing—who, in retreating, swore to return with adequate forces for that enterprise.”↑11There is some confusion or error in these figures, which read, in the MS., “35 = 3.94 @ 2,82:600.” Without them, the totals amount to 80,187,524; subtracting this from the entire total, there remains a balance of 3,424,000, apparently indicating the value of the sugar—save that the total for benzoin is erroneously figured in the MS.; it should be 144,804. The MS. is also uncertain on some of the other totals.↑12The writer (or more probably his amanuensis) has made an error in transcribing these sums; “six millions” should read “sixty millions,” and at the end of the paragraph the amount of chocolate should be “one hundred and fifty” instead of “fifteen” millions. The remaining figures are correct.↑13“In 1618, according to the testimony of Dr. Marradón, of Marchena, to one hundred cacao-beans must be added a pound and a half of sugar, two onzas of cinnamon, fourteen grains of Mexican pepper, a half-onza of cloves, and two reals’ weight of anise and annotto; and one might add almonds, nuts, and orange-flower water. Years afterward Dr. Colmenero of Ledesma modified this formula, making the paste in the proportion of one hundred cacao-beans, one-half libra of sugar, two granos of pepper, anise, cloves, Alexandrian [i.e., white] roses, logwood, cinnamon, almonds, nuts, and a sufficient quantity of annotto to give it color.”Until the end of the eighteenth century chocolate was prepared mainly by hand-labor. “In the seventeenth century, the preparation of the chocolate was made by artisans, who received twelve reals and anazumbre[i.e., about half a gallon] of wine for preparing each day the portion of chocolate from sixteen libras of clear cacao. The chocolate, thus prepared and sold under the name of ‘health chocolate,’ often contained special ingredients, chosen on account of the fashion, or of the taste of the consumers; and if in those times great praise was given to the chocolate which contained aromatic essences—vanilla, amber, and orange—certainly not less famous on that account was the chocolate of Madrid with its doradilla [i.e., ceterach], that of Ávila with its pimentón [i.e., a large variety of pepper], and that of Pamplona with its pepper and ginger. Fray Manuel Ordoñez says, referring to the paste which we are considering, that ‘in the past century it was sold only in the apothecary shops, like physicians’ prescriptions, for our cure;’ and from this citation we may infer not only that chocolate was regarded as a special medicine, but that it was considered as a therapeutic agent, worthy of being kept by the pharmacists of the seventeenth century. Later, in the eighteenth century, the preparation of chocolate began to be made by the guild of spice-dealers, its ingredients being reduced to the cacao, cinnamon or vanilla, and sugar; and the custom became somewhat general of adding to the paste some biscuit-dough, in order to make it thicker when it was diluted with water. At the same time when the ‘health chocolate’ was sold in the spice-shops, a medicinal chocolate was prepared in the apothecary shops, in which the principal products of the pharmacopeia entered as ingredients. As the preparation of chocolate had become general in the convents, in attempting to compete with the spice-dealers the friars did not think of making it of better quality; but, in order to sell it more cheaply, they subtracted from cacao and cinnamon what they added in ingredients that were not always harmless for the parishioner’s health. In order that the importance of this adulteration may be estimated, it is sufficient to cite some of the additions most used, as wheat flour, rice flour; ground lentils, peas, beans, and maize; starch, potato starch, and dextrine; olive oil, sweet almond oil, yolk of egg, tallow of veal and mutton; storax, chestnut [flour], gum tragacanth; cinnabar, red oxide of mercury, red lead, carbonate of lime, etc.” The manufacture of chocolate has been conducted almost entirely by machinery during the past century, and has accordingly thrown out the majority of the artisans who made it by hand. (José del Carmenal, cited in Gräfenberg’sSpanisches Lesebuch, Frankfurt, 1899, pp. 7–11.)↑14At the end of the atlas volume in Raynal’sÉtablissemens et commerce des Européensis a tabular “Enumeration of the population of Spain, prepared in 1768 by order of his Lordship Conde de Aranda, president of the Council of Castilla.” The population is given separately for each of the eight archbishoprics (which contain 48 bishoprics, 2 of them “exempt”). The lay population was thus classed: married persons, 1,724,567 men and 1,714,505 women; unmarried (presumably including children), 2,809,069 boys and 2,911,858 girls; total, 9,159,999. Add the number of the clergy (both regular and secular), which was 147,805, and the entire population numbered 9,307,804. Two curious discrepancies may be noted: the number of married men is greater than that of the married women by 10,062, and the girls exceed the boys by 102,789 (this latter an excess of about 3⅔ per cent). The only region in which the number of married men is practically the same as that of married women is the archdiocese of Valencia, and the only one where the same thing is true of the boys and girls is the archdiocese of Zaragoza. The greatest discrepancy in the numbers of both these classes is found in the archdiocese of Burgos, where there were 197,064 married men, and only 185,997 married women; and it had 330,428 girls and only 310,545 boys. Highly significant is the enumeration of the privileged classes, of whom in the total population there were 846,657, thus classified: those enjoying royal privileges, 89,393; in the department of finances, 27,577; in that of the Crusade, 4,248; in that of the Inquisition, 2,645; in the nobility, 722,794. It is to be observed that three-fourths of all the privileged class are found in the archdiocese of Burgos and the two exempt bishoprics—in the former, 324,661; in the latter, 306,378. Not less interesting are the statistics of the ecclesiastical estate. In the 16,427 cities and villages were 18,106 parishes, which were served by 15,641 curas. There were 2,004 monasteries, containing 55,453 religious; and 1,026 convents with 26,465 nuns. All these religious orders employed also 8,552 persons as procurators and treasurers, and with the orders were affiliated 26,294 laymen. In the service of the churches were 25,248 laymen; and besides the curas there were 50,246 chaplains and beneficed priests. The total of all these items is 147,805, the number above given.↑15A literal translation of the text; but there seems to be some omission or confusion in the statement. Possibly the writer intended to make it contingent on the success of his project for making cinnamon plantations.↑16In the text,aljoresesite; there is no such word in the lexicons, and it probably is an error (perhaps of an amanuensis) forajo aceite, the name of a pungent preparation of garlic, oil, etc., which is used in the southern countries of Europe as a condiment.↑17Thus in original, but the context would indicate that “no” was omitted here.↑18Spanish,caldos: a term applied to the wine, oil, and brandy that are transported by sea (Dominguez).↑19The somewhat fragmentary nature of these statements indicates the probability that they are but memoranda, and the whole MS. a rough draft, which was to be presented to the king in revised and improved form.↑

1“By the marriage with Elizabeth Farnese (ancestry normal), Philip V had, as an heir, Charles III, of Spain, who was the best of the more modern sovereigns of that country—in fact, the only normal one since before the days of the Emperor Charles V, now seven generations in the background. Not that Charles III inherited any of the ancient genius, for that had gone, never to appear again. He was, however, ([to cite] Hume), ‘an enlightened, generous, and just king and a noble and magnanimous man,’ and (Rose’sBiographical Dictionary) ‘possessed abilities as a monarch, and virtues as a private citizen, ... was a popular sovereign and a great economist of time, scrupulously methodical in all his operations.’” Thus writes Dr. F. A. Woods, in hisHeredity in Royalty(New York, 1906), pp. 155, 156—a book which endeavors, on scientific lines, to ascertain the influence of heredity as displayed in the royal families of Europe. The chapter on the rulers of Spain is found at pp. 124–171. He says (p. 138): “The origin of the well-known insanity in the Spanish and Austrian houses, perpetuated over thirteen generations and involving more than a score of individuals, is a very interesting question. It cannot be traced with certainty prior to Isabella, the Queen of John II, of Castile. This Isabella was out and out insane, according to the English alienist, W. W. Ireland; and from her, onward, the insanity passed along in one form or another by the very intermarriages which their pride and political motives caused them to arrange, with the intended idea of making permanent their world power, but with the inevitable result of losing that same prestige by placing it in the hands of the unfortunate children whose inheritance was necessarily mental weakness as the result of such unwise wedlocks.”For account of Carlos III’s reign, see Manuel Danvila y Collado’sReinado de Carlos III(Madrid, 1894). An interesting description of this monarch’s character and mode of life may be found in theDublin Magazinefor April, 1763, pp. 238, 239; it is written by a clergyman named Clark, “chaplain to the Earl of Bristol, late ambassador at the court of Madrid.” He says, among other things: “He is the greatest Nimrod of his time: he sacrifices everything to this favorite pleasure; he was disgusted at his public entry, because ithinderedhim of four days sport. He stayed three days at Toledo, and killed six wild mountain-cats, which, as I was well informed by those who had calculated the expence of that expedition, cost him exactly 1000 l. a cat.” “It has been imagined that he is a very weak prince, and of little or no understanding: Ir is a great mistake; he has some parts, but is mulish and obstinate to the last degree; and, by being constantly flattered, he imagines that he has more understanding than he really possesses. He is reserved beyond the common reserve of princes, has no confidant, and communicates his will only by his orders to put into execution. He can neither be led nor driven; all must come from himself.” “He allows no minister to remonstrate or argue with him.” “He arrested and banished the inquisitor-general, and sent him prisoner to a convent. He engaged in the present war with England, contrary to the sentiments of his ministers, and in direct opposition to the voice of the whole nation.”↑2A copy of the naturalization papers of Nicolas Norton y Nicols as a Spaniard exists in the Archivo general de Indias at Sevilla; its pressmark is, “Est. 105, caj. 2, leg. 13, libro 12, fol. 226b-229b,” and the document is dated at Aranjuez, August 3, 1758. Norton became a Catholic, and was allowed to trade in the Philippines. The allusion to “192 years” is somewhat incorrect, if he refers to the first discovery of the islands, which occurred in 1565; or else he may have begun to write out this proposal to the king as early as 1757, which would tally with the above numbers.↑3In the text,Bisarjas, evidently a clerical error. This, and a few similar discrepancies in the MS., strengthen the conjecture that it is not written by Norton’s own hand; it was probably dictated by him to an amanuensis.↑4See articles describing the cocoanut, its uses, culture, etc., inCensus of the Philippine Islands, iv, pp. 53–76; its uses are thus characterized (p. 72): “Briefly summed up, its timber can be employed in every form of house construction; its foliage in making mats, sacks, and thatches; its fruit in curry and sweet-meats; its oil for medicine, cookery, and illumination; its various uses in the manufacture of wines, spirits, sugar, and vinegar.” See also various scientific articles regarding the culture of the cocoanut palm, its enemies, and the qualities of its oil, in thePhilippine Journal of Science, Manila, 1906 (published by the Philippine government).↑5Spanish,cañas, which (as sometimes elsewhere) indicates that this name was bestowed indifferently on the bamboo and the rattan; but the latter is here meant, of course, as being namedbichuca(forbejuco).↑6Spanish,clauos; apparently meaning that the natives used in their housebuilding wedges made from the wood of the cocoanut tree as a substitute for iron nails.↑7Probably alluding to a document which is preserved in the Archivo de Indias at Sevilla, by Norton y Nicols, dated at Madrid, September 2, 1757; it will be mentioned in the bibliographical section of this series (VOL. LIII).↑8The context would imply that sugar is here referred to; but the writer does not mention it again, and seems to have abandoned his attempt to export it.↑9Spanish,estas ayudas de, followed by a blank space, doubtless intended to be filled bycostas.↑10Concepción mentions this stone (Hist. de Philipinas, xii, p. 25), found on a site selected by the Dutch; they had marked “a stone with the letter T, which, as it was interpreted, signified, ‘annexed to Terrenate.’ This same token they had placed in other uninhabited islands in the vicinity. This marked stone was dug up by the sultan of Mindanao, who sent it to the governor of Samboangan, Don Pedro Zacharias. Two Dutch chalupas went to call the Mindanaos to account for this act, intending to obtain satisfaction for it by placing the marked stone in the locality of Silangan, on the mainland of Mindanao; but Radiamura courageously drove back the Dutch who made a landing—who, in retreating, swore to return with adequate forces for that enterprise.”↑11There is some confusion or error in these figures, which read, in the MS., “35 = 3.94 @ 2,82:600.” Without them, the totals amount to 80,187,524; subtracting this from the entire total, there remains a balance of 3,424,000, apparently indicating the value of the sugar—save that the total for benzoin is erroneously figured in the MS.; it should be 144,804. The MS. is also uncertain on some of the other totals.↑12The writer (or more probably his amanuensis) has made an error in transcribing these sums; “six millions” should read “sixty millions,” and at the end of the paragraph the amount of chocolate should be “one hundred and fifty” instead of “fifteen” millions. The remaining figures are correct.↑13“In 1618, according to the testimony of Dr. Marradón, of Marchena, to one hundred cacao-beans must be added a pound and a half of sugar, two onzas of cinnamon, fourteen grains of Mexican pepper, a half-onza of cloves, and two reals’ weight of anise and annotto; and one might add almonds, nuts, and orange-flower water. Years afterward Dr. Colmenero of Ledesma modified this formula, making the paste in the proportion of one hundred cacao-beans, one-half libra of sugar, two granos of pepper, anise, cloves, Alexandrian [i.e., white] roses, logwood, cinnamon, almonds, nuts, and a sufficient quantity of annotto to give it color.”Until the end of the eighteenth century chocolate was prepared mainly by hand-labor. “In the seventeenth century, the preparation of the chocolate was made by artisans, who received twelve reals and anazumbre[i.e., about half a gallon] of wine for preparing each day the portion of chocolate from sixteen libras of clear cacao. The chocolate, thus prepared and sold under the name of ‘health chocolate,’ often contained special ingredients, chosen on account of the fashion, or of the taste of the consumers; and if in those times great praise was given to the chocolate which contained aromatic essences—vanilla, amber, and orange—certainly not less famous on that account was the chocolate of Madrid with its doradilla [i.e., ceterach], that of Ávila with its pimentón [i.e., a large variety of pepper], and that of Pamplona with its pepper and ginger. Fray Manuel Ordoñez says, referring to the paste which we are considering, that ‘in the past century it was sold only in the apothecary shops, like physicians’ prescriptions, for our cure;’ and from this citation we may infer not only that chocolate was regarded as a special medicine, but that it was considered as a therapeutic agent, worthy of being kept by the pharmacists of the seventeenth century. Later, in the eighteenth century, the preparation of chocolate began to be made by the guild of spice-dealers, its ingredients being reduced to the cacao, cinnamon or vanilla, and sugar; and the custom became somewhat general of adding to the paste some biscuit-dough, in order to make it thicker when it was diluted with water. At the same time when the ‘health chocolate’ was sold in the spice-shops, a medicinal chocolate was prepared in the apothecary shops, in which the principal products of the pharmacopeia entered as ingredients. As the preparation of chocolate had become general in the convents, in attempting to compete with the spice-dealers the friars did not think of making it of better quality; but, in order to sell it more cheaply, they subtracted from cacao and cinnamon what they added in ingredients that were not always harmless for the parishioner’s health. In order that the importance of this adulteration may be estimated, it is sufficient to cite some of the additions most used, as wheat flour, rice flour; ground lentils, peas, beans, and maize; starch, potato starch, and dextrine; olive oil, sweet almond oil, yolk of egg, tallow of veal and mutton; storax, chestnut [flour], gum tragacanth; cinnabar, red oxide of mercury, red lead, carbonate of lime, etc.” The manufacture of chocolate has been conducted almost entirely by machinery during the past century, and has accordingly thrown out the majority of the artisans who made it by hand. (José del Carmenal, cited in Gräfenberg’sSpanisches Lesebuch, Frankfurt, 1899, pp. 7–11.)↑14At the end of the atlas volume in Raynal’sÉtablissemens et commerce des Européensis a tabular “Enumeration of the population of Spain, prepared in 1768 by order of his Lordship Conde de Aranda, president of the Council of Castilla.” The population is given separately for each of the eight archbishoprics (which contain 48 bishoprics, 2 of them “exempt”). The lay population was thus classed: married persons, 1,724,567 men and 1,714,505 women; unmarried (presumably including children), 2,809,069 boys and 2,911,858 girls; total, 9,159,999. Add the number of the clergy (both regular and secular), which was 147,805, and the entire population numbered 9,307,804. Two curious discrepancies may be noted: the number of married men is greater than that of the married women by 10,062, and the girls exceed the boys by 102,789 (this latter an excess of about 3⅔ per cent). The only region in which the number of married men is practically the same as that of married women is the archdiocese of Valencia, and the only one where the same thing is true of the boys and girls is the archdiocese of Zaragoza. The greatest discrepancy in the numbers of both these classes is found in the archdiocese of Burgos, where there were 197,064 married men, and only 185,997 married women; and it had 330,428 girls and only 310,545 boys. Highly significant is the enumeration of the privileged classes, of whom in the total population there were 846,657, thus classified: those enjoying royal privileges, 89,393; in the department of finances, 27,577; in that of the Crusade, 4,248; in that of the Inquisition, 2,645; in the nobility, 722,794. It is to be observed that three-fourths of all the privileged class are found in the archdiocese of Burgos and the two exempt bishoprics—in the former, 324,661; in the latter, 306,378. Not less interesting are the statistics of the ecclesiastical estate. In the 16,427 cities and villages were 18,106 parishes, which were served by 15,641 curas. There were 2,004 monasteries, containing 55,453 religious; and 1,026 convents with 26,465 nuns. All these religious orders employed also 8,552 persons as procurators and treasurers, and with the orders were affiliated 26,294 laymen. In the service of the churches were 25,248 laymen; and besides the curas there were 50,246 chaplains and beneficed priests. The total of all these items is 147,805, the number above given.↑15A literal translation of the text; but there seems to be some omission or confusion in the statement. Possibly the writer intended to make it contingent on the success of his project for making cinnamon plantations.↑16In the text,aljoresesite; there is no such word in the lexicons, and it probably is an error (perhaps of an amanuensis) forajo aceite, the name of a pungent preparation of garlic, oil, etc., which is used in the southern countries of Europe as a condiment.↑17Thus in original, but the context would indicate that “no” was omitted here.↑18Spanish,caldos: a term applied to the wine, oil, and brandy that are transported by sea (Dominguez).↑19The somewhat fragmentary nature of these statements indicates the probability that they are but memoranda, and the whole MS. a rough draft, which was to be presented to the king in revised and improved form.↑

1“By the marriage with Elizabeth Farnese (ancestry normal), Philip V had, as an heir, Charles III, of Spain, who was the best of the more modern sovereigns of that country—in fact, the only normal one since before the days of the Emperor Charles V, now seven generations in the background. Not that Charles III inherited any of the ancient genius, for that had gone, never to appear again. He was, however, ([to cite] Hume), ‘an enlightened, generous, and just king and a noble and magnanimous man,’ and (Rose’sBiographical Dictionary) ‘possessed abilities as a monarch, and virtues as a private citizen, ... was a popular sovereign and a great economist of time, scrupulously methodical in all his operations.’” Thus writes Dr. F. A. Woods, in hisHeredity in Royalty(New York, 1906), pp. 155, 156—a book which endeavors, on scientific lines, to ascertain the influence of heredity as displayed in the royal families of Europe. The chapter on the rulers of Spain is found at pp. 124–171. He says (p. 138): “The origin of the well-known insanity in the Spanish and Austrian houses, perpetuated over thirteen generations and involving more than a score of individuals, is a very interesting question. It cannot be traced with certainty prior to Isabella, the Queen of John II, of Castile. This Isabella was out and out insane, according to the English alienist, W. W. Ireland; and from her, onward, the insanity passed along in one form or another by the very intermarriages which their pride and political motives caused them to arrange, with the intended idea of making permanent their world power, but with the inevitable result of losing that same prestige by placing it in the hands of the unfortunate children whose inheritance was necessarily mental weakness as the result of such unwise wedlocks.”

For account of Carlos III’s reign, see Manuel Danvila y Collado’sReinado de Carlos III(Madrid, 1894). An interesting description of this monarch’s character and mode of life may be found in theDublin Magazinefor April, 1763, pp. 238, 239; it is written by a clergyman named Clark, “chaplain to the Earl of Bristol, late ambassador at the court of Madrid.” He says, among other things: “He is the greatest Nimrod of his time: he sacrifices everything to this favorite pleasure; he was disgusted at his public entry, because ithinderedhim of four days sport. He stayed three days at Toledo, and killed six wild mountain-cats, which, as I was well informed by those who had calculated the expence of that expedition, cost him exactly 1000 l. a cat.” “It has been imagined that he is a very weak prince, and of little or no understanding: Ir is a great mistake; he has some parts, but is mulish and obstinate to the last degree; and, by being constantly flattered, he imagines that he has more understanding than he really possesses. He is reserved beyond the common reserve of princes, has no confidant, and communicates his will only by his orders to put into execution. He can neither be led nor driven; all must come from himself.” “He allows no minister to remonstrate or argue with him.” “He arrested and banished the inquisitor-general, and sent him prisoner to a convent. He engaged in the present war with England, contrary to the sentiments of his ministers, and in direct opposition to the voice of the whole nation.”↑

2A copy of the naturalization papers of Nicolas Norton y Nicols as a Spaniard exists in the Archivo general de Indias at Sevilla; its pressmark is, “Est. 105, caj. 2, leg. 13, libro 12, fol. 226b-229b,” and the document is dated at Aranjuez, August 3, 1758. Norton became a Catholic, and was allowed to trade in the Philippines. The allusion to “192 years” is somewhat incorrect, if he refers to the first discovery of the islands, which occurred in 1565; or else he may have begun to write out this proposal to the king as early as 1757, which would tally with the above numbers.↑

3In the text,Bisarjas, evidently a clerical error. This, and a few similar discrepancies in the MS., strengthen the conjecture that it is not written by Norton’s own hand; it was probably dictated by him to an amanuensis.↑

4See articles describing the cocoanut, its uses, culture, etc., inCensus of the Philippine Islands, iv, pp. 53–76; its uses are thus characterized (p. 72): “Briefly summed up, its timber can be employed in every form of house construction; its foliage in making mats, sacks, and thatches; its fruit in curry and sweet-meats; its oil for medicine, cookery, and illumination; its various uses in the manufacture of wines, spirits, sugar, and vinegar.” See also various scientific articles regarding the culture of the cocoanut palm, its enemies, and the qualities of its oil, in thePhilippine Journal of Science, Manila, 1906 (published by the Philippine government).↑

5Spanish,cañas, which (as sometimes elsewhere) indicates that this name was bestowed indifferently on the bamboo and the rattan; but the latter is here meant, of course, as being namedbichuca(forbejuco).↑

6Spanish,clauos; apparently meaning that the natives used in their housebuilding wedges made from the wood of the cocoanut tree as a substitute for iron nails.↑

7Probably alluding to a document which is preserved in the Archivo de Indias at Sevilla, by Norton y Nicols, dated at Madrid, September 2, 1757; it will be mentioned in the bibliographical section of this series (VOL. LIII).↑

8The context would imply that sugar is here referred to; but the writer does not mention it again, and seems to have abandoned his attempt to export it.↑

9Spanish,estas ayudas de, followed by a blank space, doubtless intended to be filled bycostas.↑

10Concepción mentions this stone (Hist. de Philipinas, xii, p. 25), found on a site selected by the Dutch; they had marked “a stone with the letter T, which, as it was interpreted, signified, ‘annexed to Terrenate.’ This same token they had placed in other uninhabited islands in the vicinity. This marked stone was dug up by the sultan of Mindanao, who sent it to the governor of Samboangan, Don Pedro Zacharias. Two Dutch chalupas went to call the Mindanaos to account for this act, intending to obtain satisfaction for it by placing the marked stone in the locality of Silangan, on the mainland of Mindanao; but Radiamura courageously drove back the Dutch who made a landing—who, in retreating, swore to return with adequate forces for that enterprise.”↑

11There is some confusion or error in these figures, which read, in the MS., “35 = 3.94 @ 2,82:600.” Without them, the totals amount to 80,187,524; subtracting this from the entire total, there remains a balance of 3,424,000, apparently indicating the value of the sugar—save that the total for benzoin is erroneously figured in the MS.; it should be 144,804. The MS. is also uncertain on some of the other totals.↑

12The writer (or more probably his amanuensis) has made an error in transcribing these sums; “six millions” should read “sixty millions,” and at the end of the paragraph the amount of chocolate should be “one hundred and fifty” instead of “fifteen” millions. The remaining figures are correct.↑

13“In 1618, according to the testimony of Dr. Marradón, of Marchena, to one hundred cacao-beans must be added a pound and a half of sugar, two onzas of cinnamon, fourteen grains of Mexican pepper, a half-onza of cloves, and two reals’ weight of anise and annotto; and one might add almonds, nuts, and orange-flower water. Years afterward Dr. Colmenero of Ledesma modified this formula, making the paste in the proportion of one hundred cacao-beans, one-half libra of sugar, two granos of pepper, anise, cloves, Alexandrian [i.e., white] roses, logwood, cinnamon, almonds, nuts, and a sufficient quantity of annotto to give it color.”

Until the end of the eighteenth century chocolate was prepared mainly by hand-labor. “In the seventeenth century, the preparation of the chocolate was made by artisans, who received twelve reals and anazumbre[i.e., about half a gallon] of wine for preparing each day the portion of chocolate from sixteen libras of clear cacao. The chocolate, thus prepared and sold under the name of ‘health chocolate,’ often contained special ingredients, chosen on account of the fashion, or of the taste of the consumers; and if in those times great praise was given to the chocolate which contained aromatic essences—vanilla, amber, and orange—certainly not less famous on that account was the chocolate of Madrid with its doradilla [i.e., ceterach], that of Ávila with its pimentón [i.e., a large variety of pepper], and that of Pamplona with its pepper and ginger. Fray Manuel Ordoñez says, referring to the paste which we are considering, that ‘in the past century it was sold only in the apothecary shops, like physicians’ prescriptions, for our cure;’ and from this citation we may infer not only that chocolate was regarded as a special medicine, but that it was considered as a therapeutic agent, worthy of being kept by the pharmacists of the seventeenth century. Later, in the eighteenth century, the preparation of chocolate began to be made by the guild of spice-dealers, its ingredients being reduced to the cacao, cinnamon or vanilla, and sugar; and the custom became somewhat general of adding to the paste some biscuit-dough, in order to make it thicker when it was diluted with water. At the same time when the ‘health chocolate’ was sold in the spice-shops, a medicinal chocolate was prepared in the apothecary shops, in which the principal products of the pharmacopeia entered as ingredients. As the preparation of chocolate had become general in the convents, in attempting to compete with the spice-dealers the friars did not think of making it of better quality; but, in order to sell it more cheaply, they subtracted from cacao and cinnamon what they added in ingredients that were not always harmless for the parishioner’s health. In order that the importance of this adulteration may be estimated, it is sufficient to cite some of the additions most used, as wheat flour, rice flour; ground lentils, peas, beans, and maize; starch, potato starch, and dextrine; olive oil, sweet almond oil, yolk of egg, tallow of veal and mutton; storax, chestnut [flour], gum tragacanth; cinnabar, red oxide of mercury, red lead, carbonate of lime, etc.” The manufacture of chocolate has been conducted almost entirely by machinery during the past century, and has accordingly thrown out the majority of the artisans who made it by hand. (José del Carmenal, cited in Gräfenberg’sSpanisches Lesebuch, Frankfurt, 1899, pp. 7–11.)↑

14At the end of the atlas volume in Raynal’sÉtablissemens et commerce des Européensis a tabular “Enumeration of the population of Spain, prepared in 1768 by order of his Lordship Conde de Aranda, president of the Council of Castilla.” The population is given separately for each of the eight archbishoprics (which contain 48 bishoprics, 2 of them “exempt”). The lay population was thus classed: married persons, 1,724,567 men and 1,714,505 women; unmarried (presumably including children), 2,809,069 boys and 2,911,858 girls; total, 9,159,999. Add the number of the clergy (both regular and secular), which was 147,805, and the entire population numbered 9,307,804. Two curious discrepancies may be noted: the number of married men is greater than that of the married women by 10,062, and the girls exceed the boys by 102,789 (this latter an excess of about 3⅔ per cent). The only region in which the number of married men is practically the same as that of married women is the archdiocese of Valencia, and the only one where the same thing is true of the boys and girls is the archdiocese of Zaragoza. The greatest discrepancy in the numbers of both these classes is found in the archdiocese of Burgos, where there were 197,064 married men, and only 185,997 married women; and it had 330,428 girls and only 310,545 boys. Highly significant is the enumeration of the privileged classes, of whom in the total population there were 846,657, thus classified: those enjoying royal privileges, 89,393; in the department of finances, 27,577; in that of the Crusade, 4,248; in that of the Inquisition, 2,645; in the nobility, 722,794. It is to be observed that three-fourths of all the privileged class are found in the archdiocese of Burgos and the two exempt bishoprics—in the former, 324,661; in the latter, 306,378. Not less interesting are the statistics of the ecclesiastical estate. In the 16,427 cities and villages were 18,106 parishes, which were served by 15,641 curas. There were 2,004 monasteries, containing 55,453 religious; and 1,026 convents with 26,465 nuns. All these religious orders employed also 8,552 persons as procurators and treasurers, and with the orders were affiliated 26,294 laymen. In the service of the churches were 25,248 laymen; and besides the curas there were 50,246 chaplains and beneficed priests. The total of all these items is 147,805, the number above given.↑

15A literal translation of the text; but there seems to be some omission or confusion in the statement. Possibly the writer intended to make it contingent on the success of his project for making cinnamon plantations.↑

16In the text,aljoresesite; there is no such word in the lexicons, and it probably is an error (perhaps of an amanuensis) forajo aceite, the name of a pungent preparation of garlic, oil, etc., which is used in the southern countries of Europe as a condiment.↑

17Thus in original, but the context would indicate that “no” was omitted here.↑

18Spanish,caldos: a term applied to the wine, oil, and brandy that are transported by sea (Dominguez).↑

19The somewhat fragmentary nature of these statements indicates the probability that they are but memoranda, and the whole MS. a rough draft, which was to be presented to the king in revised and improved form.↑

Back to IndexNext