MATTER

MATTERAs a general term,matter, means substance; with scientific precision, the term is confined to the elementary state, in contradistinction to the termbody, applied to matter consolidated into solids and fluids.Matter consists of atoms, which are hard, opaque,unalterable, of homogeneous substance, of the spheric shape, and naturallyinert, therefore of inactive essence; beinginert, various species of substance would be useless. The spherical shape admits immediate atomic contact, and leaves interstices uniformly throughout all bodies. There cannot be either communication or alteration of the essence of inert matter; and what the essence of unalterable matter may be, is impossible, and would be useless, to know.An element is any volume of atoms of the same size. There is no difference between elements but in the size of their atoms.Every element is a rarer medium to every other element of larger atoms; the minor is as a partial vacuum to the major, which involves the principle ofinequality, on which motion depends.Correlative elements are any two, the atoms of one of which are fitted for the interstices of the other, and for no other interstices. Such elements will naturally be together. On the correlative principle magnetism depends.All bodies consist of several elements; there isnothing simple, but an element. Bodies are divisible, matter is not.All bodies include a portion ofelementaryorelectricmatter, which is removed without injury to their general texture.Matter can suffer no change but change of place.Weight is an accident of matter, the effect of motion: alleffectconsists in motion; there is no result until effect has ended in rest.Rest being natural to inert matter, is no effect, has no cause.There is no power but impulsive pressure; nor is there any effect whatever attributable toinertia.The fundamental principle ofinertiais that only from which the philosophy of nature is deducible: all philosophy is false which is not consistent throughout with this universal, all-directing principle.Note.—The termselectricandelementaryare of the same signification, which is,highly rare: quality and power to act are wholly out of the question with the inert atoms of the elements of bodies and matter.

As a general term,matter, means substance; with scientific precision, the term is confined to the elementary state, in contradistinction to the termbody, applied to matter consolidated into solids and fluids.

Matter consists of atoms, which are hard, opaque,unalterable, of homogeneous substance, of the spheric shape, and naturallyinert, therefore of inactive essence; beinginert, various species of substance would be useless. The spherical shape admits immediate atomic contact, and leaves interstices uniformly throughout all bodies. There cannot be either communication or alteration of the essence of inert matter; and what the essence of unalterable matter may be, is impossible, and would be useless, to know.

An element is any volume of atoms of the same size. There is no difference between elements but in the size of their atoms.

Every element is a rarer medium to every other element of larger atoms; the minor is as a partial vacuum to the major, which involves the principle ofinequality, on which motion depends.

Correlative elements are any two, the atoms of one of which are fitted for the interstices of the other, and for no other interstices. Such elements will naturally be together. On the correlative principle magnetism depends.

All bodies consist of several elements; there isnothing simple, but an element. Bodies are divisible, matter is not.

All bodies include a portion ofelementaryorelectricmatter, which is removed without injury to their general texture.

Matter can suffer no change but change of place.

Weight is an accident of matter, the effect of motion: alleffectconsists in motion; there is no result until effect has ended in rest.

Rest being natural to inert matter, is no effect, has no cause.

There is no power but impulsive pressure; nor is there any effect whatever attributable toinertia.

The fundamental principle ofinertiais that only from which the philosophy of nature is deducible: all philosophy is false which is not consistent throughout with this universal, all-directing principle.

Note.—The termselectricandelementaryare of the same signification, which is,highly rare: quality and power to act are wholly out of the question with the inert atoms of the elements of bodies and matter.

MOTION.Motion admits of no definition, from being but a local casuality of transitory endurance; motion is the same in all things, from an atom to a planet, against which all difference in velocity and direction makes noexception.Impulsive pressure is the only cause analogousto the mechanical effect motion; pressure is universal because matter is inert.Motion is not natural toinertmatter: the term is expressive of the local condition of a body, while the body is prevented remaining where it is, and while the body is being passed through contiguous portions of space.There is no cause of motion but physical impulse.As effect and cause are necessarily equal, so is motion the measure of impulse, in time. Therefore as long as a body is in motion it is being impelled, however insensible the impelling cause. Motion must be in the direction of impulse; for, as a body cannot move itself, and is the passive patient of impulse, so must its direction be the same as that of impulse; therefore when the direction of motion is changed, it must be by a novel impulse in the novel direction.From all matter being in motion, and all effect consisting in motion, and because like effects everywhere are attributable to the like or same cause, so must there be a cause of motion as universal as matter; rather than that there should be a distinct impelling cause for every individual motion following after the body, to put and keep it in motion. In all philosophic research the golden rule of nature should be held in mind, which prescribes "the shortest mode and fewest materials:"to mistake on the side of simplicity is more wise than censurable in the search after natural physical truths.A universal cause of motion, it would seem, canbe no other than a universal medium, a medium of pressure, one occupying the regions of planetary space, competent to keep the planets in interminable motion and effect all terrestrial minor motion: only by such means is it conceivable how the earth can be under endless, ever-varying impulse, productive of ever-changing direction. When impulsively pressed into motion by such a medium, the direction of a planet must be orbicular, on account of the pressure on the solar side being always less than on the opposite, by which the projectile direction is diverted from rectilinear to curvilinear.Newton imagined that a medium, and however rare, occupying the regions of space, must retard, in time destroy, and eventually require the hand of Deity to restore the primeval order of planetary motion: no very bright idea of the great mathematician, considering the Omniscience of the Projector of aself-going,self-regulatingUniverse. Whereas a medium as dense as molten gold, could produce no such disorder as long as impulse is greater than resistance; which the long-continuance and order of planetary motion strongly seem to indicate is the case. Were there no medium in space, the planets must be at rest; one could not possibly affect another but by its shadow: Uranus being agitated by the greatly remote presence of Neptune, is proof of there being a connecting medium between. Gravitation is supposed to move the body possessed of the property, forwards,—why not every way?—to the sun or towards some neighbouring planet, but not to send that body or planet an agitatingwarning of its presence. How is gravitation within one planet to keep another in a state of agitation; which agitation being motion—a mechanical effect—is proof of there being a medium by which mediate connection is maintained between the two, Uranus and Neptune. Without a planetary medium there could be nosystemof planets. Suppose the existence of such a medium, then its sudden removal,—must not every subordinate system, which makes part of the universal system, become disjointed the same instant? Besides, from the laws of vision, rather of optics, there is equal proof that space contains a medium. There is no light to come from a star to the eye; there is nothing of sight belonging to the eye-balls; and there must be something between a star and the sense to connect the star with the sense; or how is the sense or brain to be so affected by the star, as that the perception or sensation shall be always the same when the eye-ball lenses are directed to the same star; and only by a universal medium can all the stars of the hemisphere be in connection with the eye at the same time, or the time of a few winks of the eye. Therefore until it is proved that constant planetary motion can be without constant and equal corresponding impulse, as to direction; and that a star can affect the sense of itself, immediately or with nothing between, all denial of planetary space being occupied by a medium of pressure, is utterly untenable.

Motion admits of no definition, from being but a local casuality of transitory endurance; motion is the same in all things, from an atom to a planet, against which all difference in velocity and direction makes noexception.

Impulsive pressure is the only cause analogousto the mechanical effect motion; pressure is universal because matter is inert.

Motion is not natural toinertmatter: the term is expressive of the local condition of a body, while the body is prevented remaining where it is, and while the body is being passed through contiguous portions of space.

There is no cause of motion but physical impulse.

As effect and cause are necessarily equal, so is motion the measure of impulse, in time. Therefore as long as a body is in motion it is being impelled, however insensible the impelling cause. Motion must be in the direction of impulse; for, as a body cannot move itself, and is the passive patient of impulse, so must its direction be the same as that of impulse; therefore when the direction of motion is changed, it must be by a novel impulse in the novel direction.

From all matter being in motion, and all effect consisting in motion, and because like effects everywhere are attributable to the like or same cause, so must there be a cause of motion as universal as matter; rather than that there should be a distinct impelling cause for every individual motion following after the body, to put and keep it in motion. In all philosophic research the golden rule of nature should be held in mind, which prescribes "the shortest mode and fewest materials:"to mistake on the side of simplicity is more wise than censurable in the search after natural physical truths.

A universal cause of motion, it would seem, canbe no other than a universal medium, a medium of pressure, one occupying the regions of planetary space, competent to keep the planets in interminable motion and effect all terrestrial minor motion: only by such means is it conceivable how the earth can be under endless, ever-varying impulse, productive of ever-changing direction. When impulsively pressed into motion by such a medium, the direction of a planet must be orbicular, on account of the pressure on the solar side being always less than on the opposite, by which the projectile direction is diverted from rectilinear to curvilinear.

Newton imagined that a medium, and however rare, occupying the regions of space, must retard, in time destroy, and eventually require the hand of Deity to restore the primeval order of planetary motion: no very bright idea of the great mathematician, considering the Omniscience of the Projector of aself-going,self-regulatingUniverse. Whereas a medium as dense as molten gold, could produce no such disorder as long as impulse is greater than resistance; which the long-continuance and order of planetary motion strongly seem to indicate is the case. Were there no medium in space, the planets must be at rest; one could not possibly affect another but by its shadow: Uranus being agitated by the greatly remote presence of Neptune, is proof of there being a connecting medium between. Gravitation is supposed to move the body possessed of the property, forwards,—why not every way?—to the sun or towards some neighbouring planet, but not to send that body or planet an agitatingwarning of its presence. How is gravitation within one planet to keep another in a state of agitation; which agitation being motion—a mechanical effect—is proof of there being a medium by which mediate connection is maintained between the two, Uranus and Neptune. Without a planetary medium there could be nosystemof planets. Suppose the existence of such a medium, then its sudden removal,—must not every subordinate system, which makes part of the universal system, become disjointed the same instant? Besides, from the laws of vision, rather of optics, there is equal proof that space contains a medium. There is no light to come from a star to the eye; there is nothing of sight belonging to the eye-balls; and there must be something between a star and the sense to connect the star with the sense; or how is the sense or brain to be so affected by the star, as that the perception or sensation shall be always the same when the eye-ball lenses are directed to the same star; and only by a universal medium can all the stars of the hemisphere be in connection with the eye at the same time, or the time of a few winks of the eye. Therefore until it is proved that constant planetary motion can be without constant and equal corresponding impulse, as to direction; and that a star can affect the sense of itself, immediately or with nothing between, all denial of planetary space being occupied by a medium of pressure, is utterly untenable.

THE MEDIUM OF SPACE.Pressure being obviously the cause of planetary motion, so is it of all terrestrial motion. To produce atomic motion and transfer generally, it is necessary, only, that the atoms of the medium of space should be of less size than the minutest interstices in bodies.A universal medium must be of universal service, (as would be conceived, were the universe involved in a medium of water,) to be in accordance with nature's economy: to keep the planets and matter in motion, to retain atoms together, and effect their separation occasionally, include the whole of action required by its service; more in this respect it cannot effect; nor is the common general procedure otherwise effected. Therefore in pressure, by the medium of space, consists theprimum mobile: the beginning and end of all physical cause of action and of all physical effect.Pressure is nothing assumed, hypothetic, or unproven, like attraction and gravitation,—the justly dethroned imbecile usurpers of the imperial chair of philosophy for ages past.On barometric evidence alone, that pressure exists all round the globe is fully proved; and that it is indispensable to the maintenance of the existing general order, all must readily grant who reflect for an instant on the fatal consequences which the cessation of the general pressure, for only a few minutes, must cause. Hence it is no immediatequestion how the general pressure originated, how maintained, what the confining boundaries orpoint d'appui. Most likely it is the consequence of the motion of the planets themselves, surging through the ocean of space. As every performance of nature has some ulterior object in view, it is probable that the effect of the motion of a planet on the medium of space is tributary to the motion of another planet, and that the motion of the whole is a means of preventing the cessation of motion of any of the parts. Most likely the medium of space was not in a state of pressure at first; that planetary motion, however commenced, effected the state of pressure necessary for its continuance, and which would be useless beyond the precincts of planetary evolution: where pressure is not needed, of a certainty there is none. Hence the conclusion is warrantable, that the general pressure, however commenced, is maintained by not only the motion of the planets individually but in systems, through the ocean of space.The earth may be said to swim through the medium of space, and to be soaked with it as a submerged sponge is with water, and the portion within the globe of the earth, is continuous with the like medium in space generally. By which all parts of the interior of the globe are under the general pressure equally as the surface, and all terrestrial bodies subject to its vicissitudes.By such means, only, is the great earthquake to be accounted for on dynamic principles. Far as the subterraneous grumbling extends, the physical causemust be present, and in a state of force equal to the awful result. No pent-up air suddenly set free, or suddenly exploded gas,—both naturally forceless,—subject to attenuation and obstruction in the passage from the source—is competent to burst the globe and hurl whole cities into the engulfing chasm: nor is fire any assistant, judging from the absence of flame, smoke, cinders, and ashes. Dreadful as is the catastrophe, it is but a natural casuality and in perfect accordance with the laws of matter. An extraordinary rushing into the body of the earth of medium of space, preceded by an equal efflux of elementary matter atmospherically induced, are the cause and promoting means of the extraordinary, terrific phenomenon.All things being under the general pressure, and elementary atoms of all sizes everywhere present, the interstices of bodies cannot remain empty. From all interstices being formed by spherical atoms, and the atoms of the medium of space the smallest, there are always interstitial spaces for medium of space to enter, pass through or remain within, and whichis not insulated, but continuous with the outward source. Thus, has the medium of space access to every atom, and by the pressure from without, is enabled to actcentrifugallywithin the body, as a kind of back-spring against each and the whole of its constituent atoms, to produce expansion, dissolution, and elementary dispersion according to the medium or circumstances in which the body may be placed. These general principles admit of repetition, in order, that, by repeated showing, to prove theirvalidity, against others more generally known and adopted, although unfounded in nature, sense, or reason.

Pressure being obviously the cause of planetary motion, so is it of all terrestrial motion. To produce atomic motion and transfer generally, it is necessary, only, that the atoms of the medium of space should be of less size than the minutest interstices in bodies.

A universal medium must be of universal service, (as would be conceived, were the universe involved in a medium of water,) to be in accordance with nature's economy: to keep the planets and matter in motion, to retain atoms together, and effect their separation occasionally, include the whole of action required by its service; more in this respect it cannot effect; nor is the common general procedure otherwise effected. Therefore in pressure, by the medium of space, consists theprimum mobile: the beginning and end of all physical cause of action and of all physical effect.

Pressure is nothing assumed, hypothetic, or unproven, like attraction and gravitation,—the justly dethroned imbecile usurpers of the imperial chair of philosophy for ages past.

On barometric evidence alone, that pressure exists all round the globe is fully proved; and that it is indispensable to the maintenance of the existing general order, all must readily grant who reflect for an instant on the fatal consequences which the cessation of the general pressure, for only a few minutes, must cause. Hence it is no immediatequestion how the general pressure originated, how maintained, what the confining boundaries orpoint d'appui. Most likely it is the consequence of the motion of the planets themselves, surging through the ocean of space. As every performance of nature has some ulterior object in view, it is probable that the effect of the motion of a planet on the medium of space is tributary to the motion of another planet, and that the motion of the whole is a means of preventing the cessation of motion of any of the parts. Most likely the medium of space was not in a state of pressure at first; that planetary motion, however commenced, effected the state of pressure necessary for its continuance, and which would be useless beyond the precincts of planetary evolution: where pressure is not needed, of a certainty there is none. Hence the conclusion is warrantable, that the general pressure, however commenced, is maintained by not only the motion of the planets individually but in systems, through the ocean of space.

The earth may be said to swim through the medium of space, and to be soaked with it as a submerged sponge is with water, and the portion within the globe of the earth, is continuous with the like medium in space generally. By which all parts of the interior of the globe are under the general pressure equally as the surface, and all terrestrial bodies subject to its vicissitudes.

By such means, only, is the great earthquake to be accounted for on dynamic principles. Far as the subterraneous grumbling extends, the physical causemust be present, and in a state of force equal to the awful result. No pent-up air suddenly set free, or suddenly exploded gas,—both naturally forceless,—subject to attenuation and obstruction in the passage from the source—is competent to burst the globe and hurl whole cities into the engulfing chasm: nor is fire any assistant, judging from the absence of flame, smoke, cinders, and ashes. Dreadful as is the catastrophe, it is but a natural casuality and in perfect accordance with the laws of matter. An extraordinary rushing into the body of the earth of medium of space, preceded by an equal efflux of elementary matter atmospherically induced, are the cause and promoting means of the extraordinary, terrific phenomenon.

All things being under the general pressure, and elementary atoms of all sizes everywhere present, the interstices of bodies cannot remain empty. From all interstices being formed by spherical atoms, and the atoms of the medium of space the smallest, there are always interstitial spaces for medium of space to enter, pass through or remain within, and whichis not insulated, but continuous with the outward source. Thus, has the medium of space access to every atom, and by the pressure from without, is enabled to actcentrifugallywithin the body, as a kind of back-spring against each and the whole of its constituent atoms, to produce expansion, dissolution, and elementary dispersion according to the medium or circumstances in which the body may be placed. These general principles admit of repetition, in order, that, by repeated showing, to prove theirvalidity, against others more generally known and adopted, although unfounded in nature, sense, or reason.

MINUS-PRESSURE MATTER.Taking the maximum of pressure as a fixed quantity, or, as not being subject to increase, and assuming the degree to be not less than equal to the tenacity of steel, there must of necessity be means of mitigating the maximum, so that in the scale of descent every degree of force should be attainable; and more, to keep the equilibrium in a state of disturbance, without which all things must be, and remain in the rest of death. Were there no minus-pressure means, the solid, or perhaps aëriform state of matter would exist everywhere, and of motion there could be none. Such means for promoting motion are amply supplied, and without any addition of matter to the measured quantity sufficient for the formation of bodies and service of nature generally, in the elements themselves, of matter.As the body which is involved in a medium of air is under less pressure than in a medium of water, and still less within a medium of elementary matter, so is elementary matter, and the elements generally, the natural means of mitigating the maximum of pressure on and within bodies. All bodies within and on the surface of the earth, possess removable elementary matter, which prevents superficial contact, and excludes medium of space proportionally from their interior; and because the medium of space isthe cause of pressure, in being thus rendered discontinuous, so is its force, as it were, intercepted or lessened. For instance, a polished needle floats on water, but when wetted or smoked is precipitated, from having its electric or minus-pressure atmosphere removed; from which it is obvious that with the minus-pressure atmosphere, the needle is under less pressure than when without it; and the same atmosphere it is which makes the bed in the water so much larger every way than the needle.The minus-pressure principle is well exemplified in the rise of water within a tube over which fire is situated. When the fire is removed, the water falls. The fire must be in the state of combustion—mere ignition does not answer. The elements forced out of the combustible, as combustion proceeds, cover the orifice of the tube, and intercept the general pressure, notwithstanding they are under the general pressure. By such minus-pressure means is the equilibrium destroyed, and by the unaltered pressure on the water outside the lower orifice of the tube, the water is forced upwards. So is it that the water of the sea is raised to the minus-pressure, elementary matter descending from a cloud in the shape of an inverted cone, and known as the water-spout. Astronomers can best say whether the sun and moon be not minus-pressure means in promoting the rise of the ocean, productive of the tides; a miniature representation of which is effected by holding a charged jar over a surface of water, to which the water rises in a small cone,—which cone follows every motion of the jar, and falls when thejar is discharged. Capillary ascent is promoted by the interposed minus-pressure electric matter which fills the caliber of the tube: the same matter prevents the horizontal flow of water through such tubes; but when the tubes are de-electrised, the flow is free and constant: boiling water, or fire de-electrises all such tubes. The electric matter on a bar of iron is a hinderance to water running down, but when removed by means of fire, the water runs down the bar freely. The atmosphere is a minus-pressure medium to the earth, and on the general principle thatinterposed elementary matter renders discontinuousthe medium of pressure, which is the medium of space.Minus-pressure means exist in other than the elementary form, as in blotting-paper, candle-wick, pledgets of lint. Within the cupping-glass, which is empty of air only, it is the minus-pressure matter obtained from flame which promotes the rise of blister. Within the vessels of the vascular system, as mucilaginous lining, minus-pressure matter assists the circulation of fluids, on the foregoing capillary principle. The slime on deep-water fish, seems provided to lessen the pressure of the water on the inhabitants of those seas. Minus-pressure matter on one side only of a body, destroys the equilibrium, and promotes the motion of the body; and generally, the partial action, implied by motion, of the medium of space on bodies or their parts, is promoted by interposed minus-pressure matter in every instance of physical change. Only in minus-pressure means, which serve as a partial vacuum in some cases, todisturb the equilibrium of pressure, is motion, or change of place of the elements of bodies, or of bodies themselves promoted: without such means there is nothing to promote the blowing of a wind, or to put the medium of space into action. Cause being given, theGeneral Pressurein the production of every physical effect, the sole province of philosophy consists in tracing out the minus-pressure means which promote the occasional and partial action of the medium of pressure.

Taking the maximum of pressure as a fixed quantity, or, as not being subject to increase, and assuming the degree to be not less than equal to the tenacity of steel, there must of necessity be means of mitigating the maximum, so that in the scale of descent every degree of force should be attainable; and more, to keep the equilibrium in a state of disturbance, without which all things must be, and remain in the rest of death. Were there no minus-pressure means, the solid, or perhaps aëriform state of matter would exist everywhere, and of motion there could be none. Such means for promoting motion are amply supplied, and without any addition of matter to the measured quantity sufficient for the formation of bodies and service of nature generally, in the elements themselves, of matter.

As the body which is involved in a medium of air is under less pressure than in a medium of water, and still less within a medium of elementary matter, so is elementary matter, and the elements generally, the natural means of mitigating the maximum of pressure on and within bodies. All bodies within and on the surface of the earth, possess removable elementary matter, which prevents superficial contact, and excludes medium of space proportionally from their interior; and because the medium of space isthe cause of pressure, in being thus rendered discontinuous, so is its force, as it were, intercepted or lessened. For instance, a polished needle floats on water, but when wetted or smoked is precipitated, from having its electric or minus-pressure atmosphere removed; from which it is obvious that with the minus-pressure atmosphere, the needle is under less pressure than when without it; and the same atmosphere it is which makes the bed in the water so much larger every way than the needle.

The minus-pressure principle is well exemplified in the rise of water within a tube over which fire is situated. When the fire is removed, the water falls. The fire must be in the state of combustion—mere ignition does not answer. The elements forced out of the combustible, as combustion proceeds, cover the orifice of the tube, and intercept the general pressure, notwithstanding they are under the general pressure. By such minus-pressure means is the equilibrium destroyed, and by the unaltered pressure on the water outside the lower orifice of the tube, the water is forced upwards. So is it that the water of the sea is raised to the minus-pressure, elementary matter descending from a cloud in the shape of an inverted cone, and known as the water-spout. Astronomers can best say whether the sun and moon be not minus-pressure means in promoting the rise of the ocean, productive of the tides; a miniature representation of which is effected by holding a charged jar over a surface of water, to which the water rises in a small cone,—which cone follows every motion of the jar, and falls when thejar is discharged. Capillary ascent is promoted by the interposed minus-pressure electric matter which fills the caliber of the tube: the same matter prevents the horizontal flow of water through such tubes; but when the tubes are de-electrised, the flow is free and constant: boiling water, or fire de-electrises all such tubes. The electric matter on a bar of iron is a hinderance to water running down, but when removed by means of fire, the water runs down the bar freely. The atmosphere is a minus-pressure medium to the earth, and on the general principle thatinterposed elementary matter renders discontinuousthe medium of pressure, which is the medium of space.

Minus-pressure means exist in other than the elementary form, as in blotting-paper, candle-wick, pledgets of lint. Within the cupping-glass, which is empty of air only, it is the minus-pressure matter obtained from flame which promotes the rise of blister. Within the vessels of the vascular system, as mucilaginous lining, minus-pressure matter assists the circulation of fluids, on the foregoing capillary principle. The slime on deep-water fish, seems provided to lessen the pressure of the water on the inhabitants of those seas. Minus-pressure matter on one side only of a body, destroys the equilibrium, and promotes the motion of the body; and generally, the partial action, implied by motion, of the medium of space on bodies or their parts, is promoted by interposed minus-pressure matter in every instance of physical change. Only in minus-pressure means, which serve as a partial vacuum in some cases, todisturb the equilibrium of pressure, is motion, or change of place of the elements of bodies, or of bodies themselves promoted: without such means there is nothing to promote the blowing of a wind, or to put the medium of space into action. Cause being given, theGeneral Pressurein the production of every physical effect, the sole province of philosophy consists in tracing out the minus-pressure means which promote the occasional and partial action of the medium of pressure.

FIRE.Fire is not hot, although it burns the flesh and promotes pain. Matter, which is unalterable, cannot be made hot or cold, neither is there anything to make it so. If a limb be made rigid, or the nerves of sensation be removed, or the function of the nervous fluid be obstructed, the limb may be burned off unconsciously. Heat is a sensation effected through excitement of the brain; out of the brain there is neither excitement nor heat. The fire does not excite the brain, but the nervous fluid; and although the sensation is not hot, it is imagined that the cause must be hot, which is false reasoning. The chymist finds heat creviced in all things, even those which he admits are destroyed by heat—gunpowder and ice. How can flame be hot, when just obtained from the gases of decomposed ice water? or, if hot,sui generis, it must have been hot frozen flame in the original ice.Modern philosophy adopts different kinds of heat,—animal, culinary, and latent heat. The firstis our own feeling excited by means of fire in the sensitive centre, the brain; also by exercise and disease, in the absence of fire. How is the spark from the flint or from the steel to saturate a bushel of coal with heat? How, again, does "heat come to an equilibrium in all surrounding bodies," when some portion of the coal may be black cold, and others red hot—using the popular terms—in the fire-place, at the same time, and while the air in the chamber is indexing zero?Latent heatis of the philosopher's own peculiar making; and on the "great discovery" the most unbounded praise is still bestowed. Latent heat, "which all bodies possess without being heated," which, "heats nothing," and is not hot, is cold heat, and should be nomenclatured such, or, absurd heat. Are not Instructors less than half-reasoners and unnatural philosophers, who abide by and teach such consummate nonsense: on a par with which is the discovery of "latent dark light"—"of black being formed by the intermixture of two luminous rays at the point of intersection in the spectrum," which is the same as feelable darkness; after which, there only remains for "new discovery," latent sound, for inking on, thence vibrating from, a sheet of music-paper; and latent motion, to keep a stone at rest, the quantity of motion in the world having been already ascertained arithmetically to a fraction; the last-day discovery, the quantity of right reason, is the small remaining trifle to be discovered. Radiation of heat and cold by fire and ice, being inconsistent with theinertiaofmatter, is an erroneous and greatly-misleading assumption, although proved through the nicest experiments, according to the experimenter's ideas.Instead of fire communicating anything to bodies,fire promotes loss to everythingin its neighbourhood. The bars of stoves, iron pokers, steam-boilers; all culinary vessels; coal, wood, candles, paper, linen, all suffer loss by means of fire; cinders, charcoal, tinder, are but remains: to which it is no exception that some bodies acquire substance and weight in becoming oxydes; because, previous to acquiring oxygen from the air, they must have lost elementary matter to the fire to make spaces for the oxygen to enter, otherwise the open air should oxydize equally, in the absence of fire.The loss, or matter of loss which fire promotes to fluids, appears as air-beads on the sides and bottom within the vessel on the fire, before the water comes to ebullition: these beads cannot be made to rise in the water by any manner of agitation, which is proof they have not come from the fire, and through the rigid bottom, or ascent and escape are inevitable. When the bottom has been sufficiently de-electrised by the fire, they are pressed through it to the fire; or if the vessel be removed and placed on the ground, they become dispersed through the water insensibly. The like spherules collect on an egg while boiling, which cannot be anything issued from the fire to the surface of the water, then precipitated on the egg. On the bottom of a glass-retort suspended over a lamp, the likespherules collect, from which it is supposed that water never touches the bottom of any containing vessel; it must touch that which it wets.That air suffers loss to fire, is made evident by the air being deprived of, or losing its oxygen during combustion; and from both fire and flame becoming extinguished in a limited quantity of respirable air, in consequence of having lost its oxygen to the combustible, while in the state of fire.Solids, as polished metals and glass, when they experience no change of weight, lose to the fire imponderable elementary matter only. So is it when the hand is presented to the fire, it loses electric matter, and the loss it suffers promotes the sensation of heat: when the hand afterwards touches a body, supposed to be cold, it acquires elementary matter from that which is touched. In every instance the body, solid or fluid, supposed to beheating, is losing elementary matter; and that which is said to becooling, is acquiring the like matter; the handlosesto the former andreceivesfrom the latter electric matter.

Fire is not hot, although it burns the flesh and promotes pain. Matter, which is unalterable, cannot be made hot or cold, neither is there anything to make it so. If a limb be made rigid, or the nerves of sensation be removed, or the function of the nervous fluid be obstructed, the limb may be burned off unconsciously. Heat is a sensation effected through excitement of the brain; out of the brain there is neither excitement nor heat. The fire does not excite the brain, but the nervous fluid; and although the sensation is not hot, it is imagined that the cause must be hot, which is false reasoning. The chymist finds heat creviced in all things, even those which he admits are destroyed by heat—gunpowder and ice. How can flame be hot, when just obtained from the gases of decomposed ice water? or, if hot,sui generis, it must have been hot frozen flame in the original ice.

Modern philosophy adopts different kinds of heat,—animal, culinary, and latent heat. The firstis our own feeling excited by means of fire in the sensitive centre, the brain; also by exercise and disease, in the absence of fire. How is the spark from the flint or from the steel to saturate a bushel of coal with heat? How, again, does "heat come to an equilibrium in all surrounding bodies," when some portion of the coal may be black cold, and others red hot—using the popular terms—in the fire-place, at the same time, and while the air in the chamber is indexing zero?Latent heatis of the philosopher's own peculiar making; and on the "great discovery" the most unbounded praise is still bestowed. Latent heat, "which all bodies possess without being heated," which, "heats nothing," and is not hot, is cold heat, and should be nomenclatured such, or, absurd heat. Are not Instructors less than half-reasoners and unnatural philosophers, who abide by and teach such consummate nonsense: on a par with which is the discovery of "latent dark light"—"of black being formed by the intermixture of two luminous rays at the point of intersection in the spectrum," which is the same as feelable darkness; after which, there only remains for "new discovery," latent sound, for inking on, thence vibrating from, a sheet of music-paper; and latent motion, to keep a stone at rest, the quantity of motion in the world having been already ascertained arithmetically to a fraction; the last-day discovery, the quantity of right reason, is the small remaining trifle to be discovered. Radiation of heat and cold by fire and ice, being inconsistent with theinertiaofmatter, is an erroneous and greatly-misleading assumption, although proved through the nicest experiments, according to the experimenter's ideas.

Instead of fire communicating anything to bodies,fire promotes loss to everythingin its neighbourhood. The bars of stoves, iron pokers, steam-boilers; all culinary vessels; coal, wood, candles, paper, linen, all suffer loss by means of fire; cinders, charcoal, tinder, are but remains: to which it is no exception that some bodies acquire substance and weight in becoming oxydes; because, previous to acquiring oxygen from the air, they must have lost elementary matter to the fire to make spaces for the oxygen to enter, otherwise the open air should oxydize equally, in the absence of fire.

The loss, or matter of loss which fire promotes to fluids, appears as air-beads on the sides and bottom within the vessel on the fire, before the water comes to ebullition: these beads cannot be made to rise in the water by any manner of agitation, which is proof they have not come from the fire, and through the rigid bottom, or ascent and escape are inevitable. When the bottom has been sufficiently de-electrised by the fire, they are pressed through it to the fire; or if the vessel be removed and placed on the ground, they become dispersed through the water insensibly. The like spherules collect on an egg while boiling, which cannot be anything issued from the fire to the surface of the water, then precipitated on the egg. On the bottom of a glass-retort suspended over a lamp, the likespherules collect, from which it is supposed that water never touches the bottom of any containing vessel; it must touch that which it wets.

That air suffers loss to fire, is made evident by the air being deprived of, or losing its oxygen during combustion; and from both fire and flame becoming extinguished in a limited quantity of respirable air, in consequence of having lost its oxygen to the combustible, while in the state of fire.

Solids, as polished metals and glass, when they experience no change of weight, lose to the fire imponderable elementary matter only. So is it when the hand is presented to the fire, it loses electric matter, and the loss it suffers promotes the sensation of heat: when the hand afterwards touches a body, supposed to be cold, it acquires elementary matter from that which is touched. In every instance the body, solid or fluid, supposed to beheating, is losing elementary matter; and that which is said to becooling, is acquiring the like matter; the handlosesto the former andreceivesfrom the latter electric matter.

THE MEDIUM OF FIRE.A peculiar medium is formed within a fire, towards the composition of which the fuel contributes more or less of its elements; which is made manifest in a piece of wood or paper when held within the fire, being brought to the state of combustion, and without touching the fuel, (heat, be it remembered, is no more physical than shadow.) The like medium is formed from the elements contributed by flame, andwhatever of elementary matter the atmosphere may contribute beside. High above the flame of a lamp combustion and fusion are effected the same as within, or in contact with the flame. Between the cupped hands this medium is receivable, and may be carried from the flame of a candle to the wick of a different candle just blown out, which it re-illumines. There being little or none of the medium of fire attendant on a detached ignited body, favours the conjecture that the fuel during combustion contributes somewhat of its elements towards the formation of the medium of fire. Hence, although not included in the nomenclature of chymistry or any other, the medium of fire should have place on the list of realities.As all bodies include more or less of free elementary matter, which excludes its equal in volume of the medium of space, so to admit medium of space in order to cause change in the constitution of a body, the body must undergo previous de-electrisation: the law is general.The medium of space being the expanding and decomposing cause, by means of its centrifugal pressure within bodies, to prevent its being in excess and effecting such changes spontaneously, productive of the decomposition of all things, all bodies are protected or retained in their present condition by the electric matter within them, which excludes the decomposing cause.Within the medium of fire all kinds of bodies become de-electrised; all suffer loss of electric matter, which is succeeded by influent medium ofspace, the centrifugal pressure of which affects the several changes to which bodies are liable previous to ultimate dissolution into the elementary state. In promoting the de-electrisation of every kind of body, and to the extreme, which no other individual medium or menstruum can effect, consists the universal utility of the medium of fire.

A peculiar medium is formed within a fire, towards the composition of which the fuel contributes more or less of its elements; which is made manifest in a piece of wood or paper when held within the fire, being brought to the state of combustion, and without touching the fuel, (heat, be it remembered, is no more physical than shadow.) The like medium is formed from the elements contributed by flame, andwhatever of elementary matter the atmosphere may contribute beside. High above the flame of a lamp combustion and fusion are effected the same as within, or in contact with the flame. Between the cupped hands this medium is receivable, and may be carried from the flame of a candle to the wick of a different candle just blown out, which it re-illumines. There being little or none of the medium of fire attendant on a detached ignited body, favours the conjecture that the fuel during combustion contributes somewhat of its elements towards the formation of the medium of fire. Hence, although not included in the nomenclature of chymistry or any other, the medium of fire should have place on the list of realities.

As all bodies include more or less of free elementary matter, which excludes its equal in volume of the medium of space, so to admit medium of space in order to cause change in the constitution of a body, the body must undergo previous de-electrisation: the law is general.

The medium of space being the expanding and decomposing cause, by means of its centrifugal pressure within bodies, to prevent its being in excess and effecting such changes spontaneously, productive of the decomposition of all things, all bodies are protected or retained in their present condition by the electric matter within them, which excludes the decomposing cause.

Within the medium of fire all kinds of bodies become de-electrised; all suffer loss of electric matter, which is succeeded by influent medium ofspace, the centrifugal pressure of which affects the several changes to which bodies are liable previous to ultimate dissolution into the elementary state. In promoting the de-electrisation of every kind of body, and to the extreme, which no other individual medium or menstruum can effect, consists the universal utility of the medium of fire.

EXPANSION.The theory of expansion is of easy comprehension; it consists in previous de-electrisation, succeeded by influent medium of space, which, by acting with centrifugal pressure, produces the phenomenon of expansion. The general pressure is the expanding cause, by reason of the portion of medium of space within all bodies being continuous with the medium of pressure in general space.A bar of iron placed within the medium of fire suffers de-electrisation; then acquires medium of space, by which the bar is expanded. When taken from the fire, it acquires electric matter similar to that of which it had suffered loss, which displaces the expanding medium, and now becomes contracted by external pressure. The olden philosophy has no contracting cause, the imputed attraction having been destroyed by the imputed heat of the fire, as the same philosophy states of the imputed attraction of magnets being destroyed by the heat of fire, which leaves the bar to contract itself.A piece of lead on the fire becomes de-electrised and expanded. The portion of medium of space it has acquired separates the atoms of the lead bywhich the state of solidity is subverted; it remains as one of the constituents of the lead, and is as a menstruum to the metal, and the atoms of the metal may be said to swim in it as the globules of blood in the serum. Further de-electrisation and additional increments of medium of space are productive of complete dispersion of the atoms of the metal, and of a kind of efflorescent result, which is a subsequent formation. The air in a corked bottle before the fire loses electric matter to the medium of fire; and by the medium of space which enters the vacated interstices, the cork is exploded. In the partially exhausted air-pump receiver, that decrease in the quantity of air should increase the expansive power of the remainder, and that the atoms should fly asunder with exploding force, is most unreasonable and impossible. The physical fact is, the more the air is reduced, the greater is the quantity of influent medium of space, consequently of expanding and exploding force. In the condensing of air, as is the expression, by the piston of the syringe, the quantity is reduced from being forced out through the pores of the syringe; and pressure on the bottom of the piston springs it up when the depressing power is removed. Under the general pressure the atoms of air must be in contact; and the volume being reduced, implies reduction of quantity: hard unalterable atoms are incompressible beyond contact; and as to their being elastic, it is physically impossible; medium of space being forced out and re-entering, is what makes the air be considered elastic. Let the syringe be workedunder water, and the matter displaced appears escaping as air-bubbles, and as air-beads on the outside of the syringe.

The theory of expansion is of easy comprehension; it consists in previous de-electrisation, succeeded by influent medium of space, which, by acting with centrifugal pressure, produces the phenomenon of expansion. The general pressure is the expanding cause, by reason of the portion of medium of space within all bodies being continuous with the medium of pressure in general space.

A bar of iron placed within the medium of fire suffers de-electrisation; then acquires medium of space, by which the bar is expanded. When taken from the fire, it acquires electric matter similar to that of which it had suffered loss, which displaces the expanding medium, and now becomes contracted by external pressure. The olden philosophy has no contracting cause, the imputed attraction having been destroyed by the imputed heat of the fire, as the same philosophy states of the imputed attraction of magnets being destroyed by the heat of fire, which leaves the bar to contract itself.

A piece of lead on the fire becomes de-electrised and expanded. The portion of medium of space it has acquired separates the atoms of the lead bywhich the state of solidity is subverted; it remains as one of the constituents of the lead, and is as a menstruum to the metal, and the atoms of the metal may be said to swim in it as the globules of blood in the serum. Further de-electrisation and additional increments of medium of space are productive of complete dispersion of the atoms of the metal, and of a kind of efflorescent result, which is a subsequent formation. The air in a corked bottle before the fire loses electric matter to the medium of fire; and by the medium of space which enters the vacated interstices, the cork is exploded. In the partially exhausted air-pump receiver, that decrease in the quantity of air should increase the expansive power of the remainder, and that the atoms should fly asunder with exploding force, is most unreasonable and impossible. The physical fact is, the more the air is reduced, the greater is the quantity of influent medium of space, consequently of expanding and exploding force. In the condensing of air, as is the expression, by the piston of the syringe, the quantity is reduced from being forced out through the pores of the syringe; and pressure on the bottom of the piston springs it up when the depressing power is removed. Under the general pressure the atoms of air must be in contact; and the volume being reduced, implies reduction of quantity: hard unalterable atoms are incompressible beyond contact; and as to their being elastic, it is physically impossible; medium of space being forced out and re-entering, is what makes the air be considered elastic. Let the syringe be workedunder water, and the matter displaced appears escaping as air-bubbles, and as air-beads on the outside of the syringe.

OXYGEN AIR.All airs are compounds. Medium of space is the most voluminous constituent of everyaëriformbody, which accounts for an air or gas and steam being of so much greater volume than that from which it had been obtained; steam has fifteen hundred times the volume of the water it was produced from.Oxygen air is decomposed in converting it with hydrogen to water: there is no oxygen or hydrogen air in water; theirelementsare the constituents of water. Oxygen is decomposed by respiration; when inspired, it is not expired, but nitrogen, which must have been one of its constituents, and from there being nothing to constitute the expiration but the previous inspiration the proposition is proved.The constituents of oxygen are—nitrogen,a highly rare imponderable elementand medium of space. The first is the most ponderable element of nitrogen air; its atoms are the largest of all others of the elements of matter, and, it may be said, they constitute the substance of the framework of all ponderable or gross formations. Davy says, "the properties of nitrogen are altogether negative;" the same applies to every other kind of air, all being constituted ofinertatomic substance, consequently of inactive essence; and all being alike in every respect but in the size of their atoms. Theimponderable element being highly evanescent, is never found alone, and is always connected with nitrogen; hence simple nitrogen is obtainable only from bodies, or by deoxygenating atmospheric air. Atmospheric air is nitrogen, plus the imponderable element; and when the nitrogen is saturated with the same element, the air is oxygen: hence, whichever is inspired, nitrogen is expired.From nitrogen being evolved copiously from water in vacuo, and from ice being convertible to nitrogen, according to Priestley, so is nitrogen a constituent of water, also of the gases into which water is decomposable; but as it cannot belong to the hydrogen, owing to its superior levity, it must to the oxygen; which is confirmation of the above, that nitrogen is a constituent of oxygen air or gas.

All airs are compounds. Medium of space is the most voluminous constituent of everyaëriformbody, which accounts for an air or gas and steam being of so much greater volume than that from which it had been obtained; steam has fifteen hundred times the volume of the water it was produced from.

Oxygen air is decomposed in converting it with hydrogen to water: there is no oxygen or hydrogen air in water; theirelementsare the constituents of water. Oxygen is decomposed by respiration; when inspired, it is not expired, but nitrogen, which must have been one of its constituents, and from there being nothing to constitute the expiration but the previous inspiration the proposition is proved.

The constituents of oxygen are—nitrogen,a highly rare imponderable elementand medium of space. The first is the most ponderable element of nitrogen air; its atoms are the largest of all others of the elements of matter, and, it may be said, they constitute the substance of the framework of all ponderable or gross formations. Davy says, "the properties of nitrogen are altogether negative;" the same applies to every other kind of air, all being constituted ofinertatomic substance, consequently of inactive essence; and all being alike in every respect but in the size of their atoms. Theimponderable element being highly evanescent, is never found alone, and is always connected with nitrogen; hence simple nitrogen is obtainable only from bodies, or by deoxygenating atmospheric air. Atmospheric air is nitrogen, plus the imponderable element; and when the nitrogen is saturated with the same element, the air is oxygen: hence, whichever is inspired, nitrogen is expired.

From nitrogen being evolved copiously from water in vacuo, and from ice being convertible to nitrogen, according to Priestley, so is nitrogen a constituent of water, also of the gases into which water is decomposable; but as it cannot belong to the hydrogen, owing to its superior levity, it must to the oxygen; which is confirmation of the above, that nitrogen is a constituent of oxygen air or gas.

THE USE OF OXYGEN IN PROMOTING COMBUSTION.How oxygen supports combustion no Elementary Treatise explains; but leaves it to be imagined, that oxygen is somewhat of a burnable nature, or that it generates heat when blown into a fire. The fact is, it supports combustion only mechanically. The centrifugal pressure, by the medium of space, decomposes the fuel; electric matter, entering the ignited fuel, displaces medium of space, and the fire goes out; oxygen prevents the entrance of electric matter, and permits the medium of space to enter the fuel freely, the pressure from without gives centrifugal force. In thistwofoldmanner of service oxygen promotes the continuance of the kind ofdecomposition known as combustion. A live coal is greatlydeficientof electric matter; when just fallen from the fire it is said to be red and hot, after a few minutes black and cold; all of which are but mental effects. On the hearth the coal acquires electric matter from the air, which displaces medium of space, and becomes extinguished; so would the fire were there no oxygen in the surrounding air. Hence it would seem, that the interstices of oxygen are too diminutive for electric matter to enter, but are sufficiently large for those of the medium of space to pass through, thence into the fuel. Should the utility of the nitrogen of oxygen in combustion be questioned, because nitrogen alone puts an end to the combustion of a candle; it may be answered, that, as the imponderable element of oxygen air, from being highly evanescent, is not obtainable without the nitrogen, and as by the service of both together combustion is increased, so may both be considered supporters of combustion; the grosser element serving as a carrier to the minor, and, as it were, giving it momentum sufficient to penetrate beyond the surface of the half-decomposed, or previously ignited fuel.

How oxygen supports combustion no Elementary Treatise explains; but leaves it to be imagined, that oxygen is somewhat of a burnable nature, or that it generates heat when blown into a fire. The fact is, it supports combustion only mechanically. The centrifugal pressure, by the medium of space, decomposes the fuel; electric matter, entering the ignited fuel, displaces medium of space, and the fire goes out; oxygen prevents the entrance of electric matter, and permits the medium of space to enter the fuel freely, the pressure from without gives centrifugal force. In thistwofoldmanner of service oxygen promotes the continuance of the kind ofdecomposition known as combustion. A live coal is greatlydeficientof electric matter; when just fallen from the fire it is said to be red and hot, after a few minutes black and cold; all of which are but mental effects. On the hearth the coal acquires electric matter from the air, which displaces medium of space, and becomes extinguished; so would the fire were there no oxygen in the surrounding air. Hence it would seem, that the interstices of oxygen are too diminutive for electric matter to enter, but are sufficiently large for those of the medium of space to pass through, thence into the fuel. Should the utility of the nitrogen of oxygen in combustion be questioned, because nitrogen alone puts an end to the combustion of a candle; it may be answered, that, as the imponderable element of oxygen air, from being highly evanescent, is not obtainable without the nitrogen, and as by the service of both together combustion is increased, so may both be considered supporters of combustion; the grosser element serving as a carrier to the minor, and, as it were, giving it momentum sufficient to penetrate beyond the surface of the half-decomposed, or previously ignited fuel.

COMBUSTION.A piece of wood, like everything else when placed within the medium of fire, suffers de-electrisation andacquiresmedium of space: this twofold procedure continuing, the wood becomes split or burst asunder, and its elements gradually forced out bythe centrifugal pressure; some of which are precipitated, some contribute to the medium of fire, others are recombined differently and exist for a short space of time as flame, and others, with matter from the air, form soot. Such is the most rational theory of combustion, consistent with theinertiaof matter and the absence of heat.Friction rubs away electric matter, percussion forces it out, combustion and ignition follow, and without being promoted by either heat or fire. The kindling matter of a coal-laid fire requires the de-electrising spark at first, and the de-electrised kindling de-electrises the coal; the wood fire, effected by means of friction, is independent of even the spark of fire for its commencement, from having been otherwise de-electrised at first. Within the fire, one part de-electrises another, and the centrifugal pressure decomposes the whole.Animal combustion is consequent on the internal organs and flesh being de-electrised, the stomach first, by means of spirituous liquors, which, like fire in so doing, promote the sensation of heat. The stomach and adjacent organs, from being thus de-electrised, are prepared to receive the decomposing medium; and from oxygen, to exclude electric matter, being absent, the flesh is brought to the state of smothered combustion and charred: it may now be considered in the light of amortuum caput.The spontaneous combustion of greasy clothes, damp hay and other things, is promoted by the limited quantity of air in which such articles are confined. To the hand the air seems warm beforecombustion has commenced, which indicates deficiency of electric matter, but which, in time, the air acquires from greasy clothes, and from damp hay, the removal of which is succeeded by the destroying medium, by which the elements of the combustible become separated, set free, and dispersed.In summer, when the atmosphere is greatly deficient of what may be termed winter electric matter, all woodwork is in a desiccated condition; and the slight friction of limb against limb is sufficient to make space for medium of space to enter in excess, and convert to fire, tree after tree, the whole of a forest.The combustion of a candle is well worthy the philosopher's attention. The candle while burning, comprises a series of the simplest operations, and far beyond the powers of art to effect or otherwise imitate; yet from indifference to the familiar, and the paucity of skill required in the construction, there is nothing less noticed with philosophic acumen. The mechanism and materials to be wrought are the same; which consist in a slender, compact, portable cylinder of tallow, within which is included an equal length of wick. The various operations of de-electrising, fluidifying, and gas-making, are performed in silent, regular succession, unretarded by friction and unincumbered with containing vessels, Nature furnishes the power. The wick answers the purpose of service-pipes, through which the half-wrought materials are conveyed in a gaseous form to the refining fire, within which they remain as in a gasometer of supply, to be graduallydiffused through the surrounding flame, and there receive the finishing lustrous polish. The new formation is now a refinery to the work in progress, and is curiously situated over the materials where only it could serve the numerous requisite purposes. Nor does the gradual consumption of the machinery derange the order of operation, work and wear being carried on simultaneously to the end. The many-coloured tissue wrought, of starlight shine and of expanded base, is tastefully tapered as if to please in appearance, as well as lighten our darkness. Thus by natural means, operating on almost uncostly materials, mankind are supplied with that by which darkness is turned to day—the candle flame.All combustion is on the same principle, previous de-electrisation the commencement, and, by the same cause continued, the centrifugal pressure, which is on the increase from being derived from the general pressure. Flame, or the electric spark, de-electrises the gases, oxygen and hydrogen, before their conversion to water takes place; compression effects the same. The inflammable air in mines becomes exploded from the de-electrising consequence of flame, when inadvertently exposed; and at times the de-electrisation is effected by the atmosphere, as in spontaneous combustion. The mine explosion, promoted by the atmosphere, is a case of spontaneous detonation, if not combustion, which, from sad experience taught, should be anticipated by the application of a rocket fired by a train. The foul air should be got rid of timely, notleft to accumulate, and the weather dictates when. "The Davy" may be said to insulate the flame of the lamp from the electric matter of the air within the mine. The flame, when exposed, de-electrises the foul air, and in fluent medium of space causes the explosion.

A piece of wood, like everything else when placed within the medium of fire, suffers de-electrisation andacquiresmedium of space: this twofold procedure continuing, the wood becomes split or burst asunder, and its elements gradually forced out bythe centrifugal pressure; some of which are precipitated, some contribute to the medium of fire, others are recombined differently and exist for a short space of time as flame, and others, with matter from the air, form soot. Such is the most rational theory of combustion, consistent with theinertiaof matter and the absence of heat.

Friction rubs away electric matter, percussion forces it out, combustion and ignition follow, and without being promoted by either heat or fire. The kindling matter of a coal-laid fire requires the de-electrising spark at first, and the de-electrised kindling de-electrises the coal; the wood fire, effected by means of friction, is independent of even the spark of fire for its commencement, from having been otherwise de-electrised at first. Within the fire, one part de-electrises another, and the centrifugal pressure decomposes the whole.

Animal combustion is consequent on the internal organs and flesh being de-electrised, the stomach first, by means of spirituous liquors, which, like fire in so doing, promote the sensation of heat. The stomach and adjacent organs, from being thus de-electrised, are prepared to receive the decomposing medium; and from oxygen, to exclude electric matter, being absent, the flesh is brought to the state of smothered combustion and charred: it may now be considered in the light of amortuum caput.

The spontaneous combustion of greasy clothes, damp hay and other things, is promoted by the limited quantity of air in which such articles are confined. To the hand the air seems warm beforecombustion has commenced, which indicates deficiency of electric matter, but which, in time, the air acquires from greasy clothes, and from damp hay, the removal of which is succeeded by the destroying medium, by which the elements of the combustible become separated, set free, and dispersed.

In summer, when the atmosphere is greatly deficient of what may be termed winter electric matter, all woodwork is in a desiccated condition; and the slight friction of limb against limb is sufficient to make space for medium of space to enter in excess, and convert to fire, tree after tree, the whole of a forest.

The combustion of a candle is well worthy the philosopher's attention. The candle while burning, comprises a series of the simplest operations, and far beyond the powers of art to effect or otherwise imitate; yet from indifference to the familiar, and the paucity of skill required in the construction, there is nothing less noticed with philosophic acumen. The mechanism and materials to be wrought are the same; which consist in a slender, compact, portable cylinder of tallow, within which is included an equal length of wick. The various operations of de-electrising, fluidifying, and gas-making, are performed in silent, regular succession, unretarded by friction and unincumbered with containing vessels, Nature furnishes the power. The wick answers the purpose of service-pipes, through which the half-wrought materials are conveyed in a gaseous form to the refining fire, within which they remain as in a gasometer of supply, to be graduallydiffused through the surrounding flame, and there receive the finishing lustrous polish. The new formation is now a refinery to the work in progress, and is curiously situated over the materials where only it could serve the numerous requisite purposes. Nor does the gradual consumption of the machinery derange the order of operation, work and wear being carried on simultaneously to the end. The many-coloured tissue wrought, of starlight shine and of expanded base, is tastefully tapered as if to please in appearance, as well as lighten our darkness. Thus by natural means, operating on almost uncostly materials, mankind are supplied with that by which darkness is turned to day—the candle flame.

All combustion is on the same principle, previous de-electrisation the commencement, and, by the same cause continued, the centrifugal pressure, which is on the increase from being derived from the general pressure. Flame, or the electric spark, de-electrises the gases, oxygen and hydrogen, before their conversion to water takes place; compression effects the same. The inflammable air in mines becomes exploded from the de-electrising consequence of flame, when inadvertently exposed; and at times the de-electrisation is effected by the atmosphere, as in spontaneous combustion. The mine explosion, promoted by the atmosphere, is a case of spontaneous detonation, if not combustion, which, from sad experience taught, should be anticipated by the application of a rocket fired by a train. The foul air should be got rid of timely, notleft to accumulate, and the weather dictates when. "The Davy" may be said to insulate the flame of the lamp from the electric matter of the air within the mine. The flame, when exposed, de-electrises the foul air, and in fluent medium of space causes the explosion.

WATER.Water is the most compound of fluids, although when pure it promotes little or no sensation, which is owing to the certain proportion of its elements to each other. It seems to have, as constituents, a portion of each of the general elements; of which, when any are in excess or deficiency, the fluid differs from common pure water, but still is an aqueous fluid. All aqueous fluids which differ from pure water, do so from elementary disproportion in their constitution. Ancient philosophers considered water the parent of all things, because it contributes matter of substance and increase, they said, to all kinds of bodies, and because there is nothing elementary belonging to bodies which is not obtainable, by one means or other, from water or its productions. It contributes increase to the whole of the vegetable kingdom, and through vegetable matter to the increase of animal flesh. From the vegetable world are obtainable, by means of art, earths, metals, salts, acids, alkalies, even flame; the primitives of which are of the same kind as the initials of water; also of the atmosphere, which is convertible to water, but is not water, by reason of not only elementary disproportion, but the enormous excess of medium of space in which its elements are involved.The constitution of water being unknown, and supposed to consist of only the gases, hydropathy is condemned, like mesmerism, through the ignorance and intolerance of professionals, themselves falsely educated at best. As alimentary, water is the most wholesome drink under heaven; as medicinal, far beyond comparison with extracts from metals and minerals, from which deduct the water, the remainder kills. The hydropathic perspiration cleanses the flesh from head to foot; physic, the intestines and stomach only. Water is the elixir of both body and mind; witness the persons who are teetotallers. A patient declared to the present writer, he would rather have run naked into the street, were he not bound up by the wet sheets, than endure the fog and stench from his body by the cold water perspiration. Yet doctors insist that hydropathy is not medicinal or curative, or why not adopt the practice?Water is formed by detonating the gases, oxygen and hydrogen, by which theirelementsbecome combined in the form of water; which is the only formative mode pursued in the laboratory of art; whereas, in that of nature, it is variously formed: the number of elements determines the number of modes. Suppose six the number of the natural elements, then any five and the remaining one, any four and the remaining two, or any three and the other three, met and compressed within the atmosphere, the product is water. On the meeting ofcertain clouds, wherethe gasescould not have equal elevation, water is formed; and on walls and wainscots, under cover, in humid weather, it is formed from the electric matter on their surface and the complement of elements contributed by the atmosphere: the same walls, in the same weather, would have no water, if kept de-electrised by stoves. It is formed similarly on furs, woollens, and the spider's web, all of which are retainers of electric matter; and on the leaves of plants asdew, but on the side only which is covered with the like electric matter. Dew-water is neither a precipitation nor exhalation, but a formation on that where it is found.Water is formed on glass and metallic vessels, however closely covered, as long and no longer than the included water gives out electric matter through the pores of the vessel. In the air of the tropics, the dew or water running down the outside of covered and uncovered vessels, cannot be considered humidity of the air condensed by cold. In proof of the foregoing, the hitherto unexplained experiment is opportune.A plate of glass, covered on one side with tin foil, has much dew on the naked side when uppermost, and none, when the covered side is uppermost, of equal dewy nights. The foil acquires electric matter from the ground, which the glass or naked upper side receives and retains; but when the naked side is next the ground, the portion of electric matter it acquires is conducted off by the foil at top; and as where there is no electric matterthere is no dew, the upper coated side is dry, and under circumstances which would have left much dew on the glass side if uppermost.Within the animal system various aqueous fluids and humidities are formed, and, as in the former instances, without oxygen and hydrogen being present; namely, hydrocephalus, the stomach juices, liquor pericardium, water of blister, milk, tears: to these add the juices of fruit, the chymists' aqueous fluids, together with the variety of formative modes, and the complex constitution of water remains unquestionable. Lavoisier's experiments proved the same, by the endless variety in the residue and product, from decomposing and recomposing the same water several times. Davy states, that, when experimenting on different substances, water frequently appeared, when there was nothing sensibly present to which it could be attributed, if not to nitrogen, which disappeared simultaneously with the water appearing: electric matter is everywhere present, although not sensibly discoverable.From which it is obvious that the alchymists of old mistook the road toEl Dorado. Instead of aiming at turning the grosser metals into gold, they should have alchymised on water, taking its elements as the money-changer does those of the numeration table, and by the rules of transposition made the valueless stand in the place of most value.Water in the boiler loses electric matter to the fire beneath, and is expanded by influent medium of space; the excess of the latter throws out the elements of the superior stratum, which, with anenormous influx of medium of space, are the constituents of steam and the power of steam. The so-acquired medium of space, by the pressure from without which it is under, is the cause of the elasticity and force of steam. Steam is not water, nor is it ever condensed by "cold." It consists in the elements of water, less that which the water lost to the fire: both, with a reduced or proportional quantity of medium of space, make the original stratum of water. What but electric matter can steam receive from the pipes it may be passed through, and is discharged from as water? Insulated, "centrifugally repellant heat," without fulcrum, is a most inconsiderable substitute forthe pressure of natureby the all-pervading medium of space, and but a shadowy substitute in accounting for the powerful effects of steam. There is no repellant force in the flame of a candle; and what but influent medium of space can make a pint of water fill and overflow a quart vessel.Water loses its fluidity and is made solid or congealed, upon losing the imponderable oxygenating element. Priestley through his experiments made the discovery, that, "air, purer than atmospheric, is given out by water at the instant of congelation,"—which must be oxygen air. From which we learn, that oxygen is the natural hinderance against the waters of the globe being solid; with which experimental practice and experience agree, it being well known that oxygen added to a freezing solution, retards congelation; and that, to facilitate the freezing of water, a smart tap is given to the sideof the vessel, hitherto unknown why, but seems as if to shake out the oxygen. The following observed circumstances exhibit the congelation of water throughout all its stages. The air in a chamber being favourable for the reception of oxygen from water, the water in a cylindrical earthen pitcher became frozen; a plate of ice was formed, which equalled the area of the vessel, and firmly fixed to the sides one full inch higher than the water had been at first. The bottom of the vessel was blown out, the sides remained whole, and the ice not broken or moved.The circumstances of the case admits of the following illustration. Medium of space, by its pressure, forced out the oxygen; additional increments of the same medium entered, collapsed the elements of the deoxydated stratum of water, and so forcibly expanded the rest of the water as to make it explode the bottom of the vessel, all at the same instant. As all excess of medium of space retired from the water, the latter sunk to the original height; and had not the water escaped, it would have been an inch separate from the plate of ice. A river thus frozen, flows freely beneath the ice from the same circumstances. The bomb-shell at Hudson Bay was exploded by the expanded water, not by the newly-formed ice; or else the sides, not the bottom of the earthen vessel, would have been exploded.Ice is deoxygenated water, and abounds with electric matter, hence it floats; and ice-water is at the minimum of density from being deficient ofoxygen. Ice, in a Florence flask, hung over a lamp, yields abundance of electric matter, towards the formation of lamp-black on the outside of the bottom of the flask, which, to the miniature painter may be preferable, from being the freest of grit. In all cases of combustion, the elements of lamp-black are present; so that, in combustion of the diamond, the same kind of soot being formed, affords no information of the constituents of this highly-prized crystal. With more reason than that of pure carbon, (which is but another name for the electric matter which is the principal constituent of ice, and lamp-black) being the base of diamond, it may be assumed, that, diamond is a crystalized oxyde of water. The electrician's opposite characteristics of the two, diamond and ice, accord with the suggestion.

Water is the most compound of fluids, although when pure it promotes little or no sensation, which is owing to the certain proportion of its elements to each other. It seems to have, as constituents, a portion of each of the general elements; of which, when any are in excess or deficiency, the fluid differs from common pure water, but still is an aqueous fluid. All aqueous fluids which differ from pure water, do so from elementary disproportion in their constitution. Ancient philosophers considered water the parent of all things, because it contributes matter of substance and increase, they said, to all kinds of bodies, and because there is nothing elementary belonging to bodies which is not obtainable, by one means or other, from water or its productions. It contributes increase to the whole of the vegetable kingdom, and through vegetable matter to the increase of animal flesh. From the vegetable world are obtainable, by means of art, earths, metals, salts, acids, alkalies, even flame; the primitives of which are of the same kind as the initials of water; also of the atmosphere, which is convertible to water, but is not water, by reason of not only elementary disproportion, but the enormous excess of medium of space in which its elements are involved.

The constitution of water being unknown, and supposed to consist of only the gases, hydropathy is condemned, like mesmerism, through the ignorance and intolerance of professionals, themselves falsely educated at best. As alimentary, water is the most wholesome drink under heaven; as medicinal, far beyond comparison with extracts from metals and minerals, from which deduct the water, the remainder kills. The hydropathic perspiration cleanses the flesh from head to foot; physic, the intestines and stomach only. Water is the elixir of both body and mind; witness the persons who are teetotallers. A patient declared to the present writer, he would rather have run naked into the street, were he not bound up by the wet sheets, than endure the fog and stench from his body by the cold water perspiration. Yet doctors insist that hydropathy is not medicinal or curative, or why not adopt the practice?

Water is formed by detonating the gases, oxygen and hydrogen, by which theirelementsbecome combined in the form of water; which is the only formative mode pursued in the laboratory of art; whereas, in that of nature, it is variously formed: the number of elements determines the number of modes. Suppose six the number of the natural elements, then any five and the remaining one, any four and the remaining two, or any three and the other three, met and compressed within the atmosphere, the product is water. On the meeting ofcertain clouds, wherethe gasescould not have equal elevation, water is formed; and on walls and wainscots, under cover, in humid weather, it is formed from the electric matter on their surface and the complement of elements contributed by the atmosphere: the same walls, in the same weather, would have no water, if kept de-electrised by stoves. It is formed similarly on furs, woollens, and the spider's web, all of which are retainers of electric matter; and on the leaves of plants asdew, but on the side only which is covered with the like electric matter. Dew-water is neither a precipitation nor exhalation, but a formation on that where it is found.

Water is formed on glass and metallic vessels, however closely covered, as long and no longer than the included water gives out electric matter through the pores of the vessel. In the air of the tropics, the dew or water running down the outside of covered and uncovered vessels, cannot be considered humidity of the air condensed by cold. In proof of the foregoing, the hitherto unexplained experiment is opportune.

A plate of glass, covered on one side with tin foil, has much dew on the naked side when uppermost, and none, when the covered side is uppermost, of equal dewy nights. The foil acquires electric matter from the ground, which the glass or naked upper side receives and retains; but when the naked side is next the ground, the portion of electric matter it acquires is conducted off by the foil at top; and as where there is no electric matterthere is no dew, the upper coated side is dry, and under circumstances which would have left much dew on the glass side if uppermost.

Within the animal system various aqueous fluids and humidities are formed, and, as in the former instances, without oxygen and hydrogen being present; namely, hydrocephalus, the stomach juices, liquor pericardium, water of blister, milk, tears: to these add the juices of fruit, the chymists' aqueous fluids, together with the variety of formative modes, and the complex constitution of water remains unquestionable. Lavoisier's experiments proved the same, by the endless variety in the residue and product, from decomposing and recomposing the same water several times. Davy states, that, when experimenting on different substances, water frequently appeared, when there was nothing sensibly present to which it could be attributed, if not to nitrogen, which disappeared simultaneously with the water appearing: electric matter is everywhere present, although not sensibly discoverable.

From which it is obvious that the alchymists of old mistook the road toEl Dorado. Instead of aiming at turning the grosser metals into gold, they should have alchymised on water, taking its elements as the money-changer does those of the numeration table, and by the rules of transposition made the valueless stand in the place of most value.

Water in the boiler loses electric matter to the fire beneath, and is expanded by influent medium of space; the excess of the latter throws out the elements of the superior stratum, which, with anenormous influx of medium of space, are the constituents of steam and the power of steam. The so-acquired medium of space, by the pressure from without which it is under, is the cause of the elasticity and force of steam. Steam is not water, nor is it ever condensed by "cold." It consists in the elements of water, less that which the water lost to the fire: both, with a reduced or proportional quantity of medium of space, make the original stratum of water. What but electric matter can steam receive from the pipes it may be passed through, and is discharged from as water? Insulated, "centrifugally repellant heat," without fulcrum, is a most inconsiderable substitute forthe pressure of natureby the all-pervading medium of space, and but a shadowy substitute in accounting for the powerful effects of steam. There is no repellant force in the flame of a candle; and what but influent medium of space can make a pint of water fill and overflow a quart vessel.

Water loses its fluidity and is made solid or congealed, upon losing the imponderable oxygenating element. Priestley through his experiments made the discovery, that, "air, purer than atmospheric, is given out by water at the instant of congelation,"—which must be oxygen air. From which we learn, that oxygen is the natural hinderance against the waters of the globe being solid; with which experimental practice and experience agree, it being well known that oxygen added to a freezing solution, retards congelation; and that, to facilitate the freezing of water, a smart tap is given to the sideof the vessel, hitherto unknown why, but seems as if to shake out the oxygen. The following observed circumstances exhibit the congelation of water throughout all its stages. The air in a chamber being favourable for the reception of oxygen from water, the water in a cylindrical earthen pitcher became frozen; a plate of ice was formed, which equalled the area of the vessel, and firmly fixed to the sides one full inch higher than the water had been at first. The bottom of the vessel was blown out, the sides remained whole, and the ice not broken or moved.

The circumstances of the case admits of the following illustration. Medium of space, by its pressure, forced out the oxygen; additional increments of the same medium entered, collapsed the elements of the deoxydated stratum of water, and so forcibly expanded the rest of the water as to make it explode the bottom of the vessel, all at the same instant. As all excess of medium of space retired from the water, the latter sunk to the original height; and had not the water escaped, it would have been an inch separate from the plate of ice. A river thus frozen, flows freely beneath the ice from the same circumstances. The bomb-shell at Hudson Bay was exploded by the expanded water, not by the newly-formed ice; or else the sides, not the bottom of the earthen vessel, would have been exploded.

Ice is deoxygenated water, and abounds with electric matter, hence it floats; and ice-water is at the minimum of density from being deficient ofoxygen. Ice, in a Florence flask, hung over a lamp, yields abundance of electric matter, towards the formation of lamp-black on the outside of the bottom of the flask, which, to the miniature painter may be preferable, from being the freest of grit. In all cases of combustion, the elements of lamp-black are present; so that, in combustion of the diamond, the same kind of soot being formed, affords no information of the constituents of this highly-prized crystal. With more reason than that of pure carbon, (which is but another name for the electric matter which is the principal constituent of ice, and lamp-black) being the base of diamond, it may be assumed, that, diamond is a crystalized oxyde of water. The electrician's opposite characteristics of the two, diamond and ice, accord with the suggestion.

Back to IndexNext