[19]Philosophical Transactions, 1809.
[19]Philosophical Transactions, 1809.
It has long been a disputed point whether the system of breedingin-and-inor the opposite one of frequent crossing has the greater tendency to maintain or improve the character of stock. The advocates of both systems are earnest and confident of being in the right. The truth probably is, as in some other similar disputes, that both are right and both wrong—to a certain extent, or within certain limits.
The termin-and-inis often very loosely used and is variously understood; some, and among these several of the best writers, confine the phrase to the coupling of those of exactly the same blood, i.e. brothers and sisters; while others include in it breeding from parents and offspring, and others still employ the term to embrace those of more distant relationship. For the latter, the term breeding in, or close breeding, is deemed more fitting.
The prevalent opinion is decidedly against the practice of breeding from any near relationships; it being usually found that degeneracy follows, and often to aserious degree; but it is not proved that this degeneracy, although very common and even usual, is yet a necessary consequence. That ill effects follow in a majority of cases is not to be doubted, but this is easily and sufficiently accounted for upon other grounds. In a state of nature animals of near affinities interbreed without injurious results, and it is found by experience that where domesticated animals are of a pure race, or of a distinct, well defined and pure breed, the coupling of those of near affinities is not so often followed by injurious effects as when they are crosses, or of mixed or mongrel origin, like the great majority of the cattle in the country at large. In the latter case breeding in-and-in isusuallyfound to result in decided and rapid deterioration. We should consider also that few animals in a state of domestication are wholly free from hereditary defects and diseases, and that these are propagated all the more readily and surely when possessed by both parents, and that those nearly related are more likely than others, to possess similar qualities and tendencies.
If such is to be regarded as the true explanation, it follows that the same method would be also efficacious in perpetuating and confirming good qualities. Such is the fact; and it is well known that nearly all who have achieved eminence as breeders, have availedthemselves freely of its benefits. Bakewell, the Messrs. Colling, Mr. Mason, Mr. Bates and others, all practiced it. Mr. Bates' rule was, "breed in-and-in from a bad stock and you cause ruin and devastation, they must always be changing to keep even moderately in caste; butif a good stockbe selected, you may breed in-and-in as much as you please."[20]Bakewell originated his famous sheep by crossing from the best he could gather from far or near; but when he had obtained such as suited him, he bred exclusively from within his own. As in all breeding from crosses, it was needful to throw out as weeds, a large proportion of the progeny, but by rigidly doing so, and saving none to breed from but such as became more and more firmly possessed of the forms and qualities desired, the weeds gradually became fewer, until at length he fully established the breed; and he continued it, and sustained its high reputation during his life by in-breedingconnected with proper selections for coupling. After his death, others, not possessing his tact and judgment in making selections, were less fortunate, and in some hands the breed degenerated seriously, insomuch that it was humorously remarked, "there was nothing but a little tallow left." In others it has been maintained by the same method.Mr. Valentine Barford of Foscote, has the pedigree of his Leicester sheep since the day of Bakewell, in 1783, and since 1810, he has bred entirely from his own flock, sire and dam, without an inter-change of male or female from any other flock. He observes "that his flock being bred from the nearest affinities—commonly called in-and-in breeding—has not experienced any of the ill effects ascribed to the practice." W.C. Spooner, V.S., speaking of Mr. Barford's sheep says, "His flock is remarkably healthy and his rams successful, but his sheep are small."
Mr. Charles Colling, after he procured the famous bull Hubback, selected cows most likely to develop his special excellencies, and from the progeny of these he bred very closely. From that day to this, the Short-horns as a general thing, have been very closely bred,[21]and the practice has been carried so far, the selections not always being the most judicious possible, as toresult in many cases in delicacy of constitution, and in some where connected with pampering, in sterility.[22]
Col. Jaques, of the Ten Hills Farm near Boston, imported a pair of Bremen geese in 1822. They were bred together till 1830, when the gander was accidentally killed. Since then the goose bred with her offspring till she was killed by an attack of dogs in 1852. Great numbers were bred during this time, and of course there was much of the closest breeding, yet there wasno deterioration, and in fact some of the later ones were larger and better than the first pair.
The same gentleman also obtained a pair of wild geese from Canada in 1818, which with their progeny were bred from without change until destroyed by dogs with the above named in 1852. They continued perfect as at first.
Among gregarious ruminating animals in a state of nature, all who associate in a herd acknowledge a chieftain, or head, who maintains his position by virtue of physical health, strength and general superiority. He not only directs all their movements but is literally the father of the herd. When a stronger than he comes, the post of chieftain and sire is yielded, but in all probability his successor is one of his own sons, who in turn begets offspring by his sisters. The progeny inheriting full health, strength and development, the herd continues in full power and vigor,[23]and does not degenerate as often happens when man assumes to make the selections, and chooses according to fancy or convenience. The continuance of health, strength and perfectphysical development is believed to depend on thewisdom of the selection, upon the presence of the desirable hereditary qualities, and the absence of injurious ones, and not upon relationship whether near or remote.
It has fallen within the observation of most persons that in the human race frequent intermarriages in the same family for successive generations often tend to degeneracy of both mind and body; size and vigor diminishing, and constitutional defects and diseases being perpetuated and aggravated; but neither in this case is the result believed to be a necessary and inevitable consequence. Else how could it be, that Infinite Wisdom, whose operations are ever in accordance with the laws of his own institution, in originating a "peculiar people," chosen to be the depositories of intellectual and physical power, wealth and influence, and who, in spite of oppression without parallel in the world's history, have ever maintained the possession of a goodly share of all these,—would have allowed their first progenitor, Abraham, to marry his near kinswoman Sarah, a half sister, niece or cousin, and Isaac their son to wed his first cousin Rebecca, and Jacob who sprang from that union, to marry first cousins, and their offspring for long generations to intermarry within their own people and tribes alone? At a later period, marriages within certain degrees of consanguinity wereforbidden by Divine authority, but not until the peculiar race was fully established, and so far multiplied, as to allow departure from close breeding without change of characteristics, and not improbably the prohibition was even then based more upon moral reasons, or upon man's ignorance or recklessness regarding selection, than upon physical law.
Such laws exist among us at present, and it is well they do, inasmuch as for the reasons already given there is greater probability of degeneracy by means of such connections than among those not so related by blood. But they present an instance of the imperfection of human laws, it being impossible for any legal enactments to prevent wholly the evil thus sought to be avoided. It would be better far, if such a degree of physiological knowledge existed and such caution was exercised among the community generally, as would prevent the contraction of any marriages, where, from the structure and endowments of the parties, debility, deformity, insanity or idiocy must inevitably be the portion of their offspring whether they are more nearly related than through their common ancestor, Noah, or not.
If we adopt Mr. Walker's views, it is easy to see how parents of near affinities may produce offspring perfect and healthy, or the reverse. He holds, that to securesatisfactory results from any union, there should be some inherent, constitutional, or fundamental difference; some such difference as we often see in the human family to be the ground of preference and attachment; as men generally prefer women of a feminine rather than a masculine type. All desire, in a mate, properties and qualities not possessed by themselves. Now assuming as Mr. Walker holds, that organization is transmitted by halves, and that, in animals of the same variety, either parent may give either series of organs, we can see in the case of brother and sister that if one receives the locomotive system of the father and the nutritive system of the mother, and the other the locomotive system of the mother and the nutritive system of the father, they are essentially unlike, there is scarcely any similarity between them, although, as we say, of precisely the same blood; and their progeny if coupled might show no deterioration; whereas, if both have the same series of organs from the same parents, they would be essentially the same, a sort of quasi identity would exist between them, and they are utterly unfit to be mated. There might be impotency, or barrenness, or the progeny, if any, would be decidedly inferior to the parents; and the same applies, more or less, to other relatives descended from a common ancestry, but more distant than brother and sister.Mr. Walker also holds that where the parents are not only of the same variety but of the same family in the narrowest sense, the female always gives the locomotive system and the father the nutritive; in which case the progeny is necessarily inferior to the parents.
A careful consideration of the subject brings us to the following conclusions, viz:
That in general practice, with the grades and mixed animals common in the country,close breeding should be scrupulously avoidedas highly detrimental. It is betteralwaysto avoid breeding from near affinities whenever stock-getters of the same breed and of equal merit can be obtained which are not related. Yet, where this is not possible, or where there is some desirable and clearly defined purpose in view, as the fixing and perpetuating of some valuable quality in a particular animal not common to the breed, and the breeder possesses the knowledge and skill needful to accomplish his purpose, and the animals are perfect in health and development, close breeding may be practiced with advantage.
[20]Mr. Bates, although eminent as a breeder, was not infallible in making his selections, and after long continued close breeding, he was compelled to go out of his own herd to procure breeding animals.
[20]Mr. Bates, although eminent as a breeder, was not infallible in making his selections, and after long continued close breeding, he was compelled to go out of his own herd to procure breeding animals.
[21]Probably few who have not critically examined the facts regarding close breeding in the improved Short-horns are aware of the extent to which it has been carried. On the 28th of March, 1860, at a sale of Short-horns at Milcote, near Stratford upon Avon (England) thirty-one descendants of a cow called "Charmer," bred of Mr. Colling's purest blood, and praised in the advertisement as "capital milkers and very prolific,not having been pampered," sold for £2,140, averaging about $350 each, and many of them were calves. The stock was also praised as "offering to the public as much of the pure blood of 'Favorite' as could be found in any herd." With reference to this sale, which also comprised other stock, the Agricultural Gazette, published a few days previous, had some remarks from which the following is extracted:"It is unquestionable that the ability of a cow or bull to transmit the merit either may possess does in a great degree depend upon its having been inherited by them through a long line of ancestry. Nothing is more remarkable than the way in which the earlier improvers of the Short-horn breed carried out their belief in this. They were indeed driven by the comparative fewness of well bred animals to a repeated use of the same sire on successive generations of his own begetting, while breeders now-a-days have the advantage of fifty different strains and families from which to choose the materials of their herd, but whether it were necessity or choice it is certain that the pedigree of no pure bred Short-horn can be traced without very soon reaching many an illustration of the way in which 'breeding in-and-in' has influenced its character, deepened it, made it permanent, so that it is handed down unimpaired and even strengthened in the hands of the judicious breeder. What an extraordinary influence has thus been exerted by a single bull on the fortunes of the Short-horn breed! There is hardly a single choice pure-bred Short-horn that is not descended from 'Favorite' (252) and not only descended in a single line—but descended in fifty different lines. Take any single animal, and this bull shall occur in a dozen of its preceding generations and repeatedly up to a hundred times! in the animals of some of the more distant generations. His influence is thus so paramount in the breed that one fancies he has created it and that the present character of the whole breed is due the 'accidental' appearance of an animal of extraordinary endowments on the stage in the beginning of the present century. And yet this is not so;—he is himself an illustration of the breeding in-and-in system—his sire and dam having been half brother and sister, both got by 'Foljambe.' And this breeding in-and-in has handed down his influence to the present time in an extraordinary degree. Take for instance, the cow 'Charmer,' from which as will be seen elsewhere, no fewer than thirty-one descendants are to be sold next Wednesday. She had of course two immediate parents, four progenitors in the second generation, eight in the third, sixteen in the fourth, the number necessarily doubling each step farther back. Of the eight bulls named in the fourth generation from which she was descended, one was by 'Favorite.' She is one-sixteenth 'Favorite' on that account, but the cow to which he was then put was also descended from 'Favorite,' and so are each of the other seven bulls and seven cows which stand on the same level of descent with the gr. gr. g. dam of 'Charmer.' And in fact it will be found on examination that in so far as 'Charmer's' pedigree is known, which it is in some instances to the sixteenth generation, she is not one-sixteenth only but nearly nine-sixteenths of pure Favorite blood. This arises from 'Favorite' having been used repeatedly on cows descended from himself. In the pedigree of 'Charmer' we repeatedly meet with 'Comet'—'Comet' was by 'Favorite' and his dam 'Young Phœnix' was also by 'Favorite;' with 'George'—'George' was by 'Favorite' and his dam 'Lady Grace' was also by 'Favorite;' with 'Chilton'—'Chilton' was by 'Favorite' and his dam was also by 'Favorite;' with 'Minor'—'Minor' was by 'Favorite' and his dam also was by 'Favorite;' with 'Peeress'—she was by 'Favorite' and her dam also by 'Favorite;' with 'Bright Eyes'—she was by 'Favorite' and her dam also by 'Favorite;' with 'Strawberry'—she was by 'Favorite' and her dam by 'Favorite;' 'Dandy,' 'Moss Rose,' among the cows and 'North Star' among the bulls are also of similar descent.There is no difficulty therefore in understanding how this name appears repeatedly in any given generation of the pedigree of any given animal of the Short-horn breed."
[21]Probably few who have not critically examined the facts regarding close breeding in the improved Short-horns are aware of the extent to which it has been carried. On the 28th of March, 1860, at a sale of Short-horns at Milcote, near Stratford upon Avon (England) thirty-one descendants of a cow called "Charmer," bred of Mr. Colling's purest blood, and praised in the advertisement as "capital milkers and very prolific,not having been pampered," sold for £2,140, averaging about $350 each, and many of them were calves. The stock was also praised as "offering to the public as much of the pure blood of 'Favorite' as could be found in any herd." With reference to this sale, which also comprised other stock, the Agricultural Gazette, published a few days previous, had some remarks from which the following is extracted:
"It is unquestionable that the ability of a cow or bull to transmit the merit either may possess does in a great degree depend upon its having been inherited by them through a long line of ancestry. Nothing is more remarkable than the way in which the earlier improvers of the Short-horn breed carried out their belief in this. They were indeed driven by the comparative fewness of well bred animals to a repeated use of the same sire on successive generations of his own begetting, while breeders now-a-days have the advantage of fifty different strains and families from which to choose the materials of their herd, but whether it were necessity or choice it is certain that the pedigree of no pure bred Short-horn can be traced without very soon reaching many an illustration of the way in which 'breeding in-and-in' has influenced its character, deepened it, made it permanent, so that it is handed down unimpaired and even strengthened in the hands of the judicious breeder. What an extraordinary influence has thus been exerted by a single bull on the fortunes of the Short-horn breed! There is hardly a single choice pure-bred Short-horn that is not descended from 'Favorite' (252) and not only descended in a single line—but descended in fifty different lines. Take any single animal, and this bull shall occur in a dozen of its preceding generations and repeatedly up to a hundred times! in the animals of some of the more distant generations. His influence is thus so paramount in the breed that one fancies he has created it and that the present character of the whole breed is due the 'accidental' appearance of an animal of extraordinary endowments on the stage in the beginning of the present century. And yet this is not so;—he is himself an illustration of the breeding in-and-in system—his sire and dam having been half brother and sister, both got by 'Foljambe.' And this breeding in-and-in has handed down his influence to the present time in an extraordinary degree. Take for instance, the cow 'Charmer,' from which as will be seen elsewhere, no fewer than thirty-one descendants are to be sold next Wednesday. She had of course two immediate parents, four progenitors in the second generation, eight in the third, sixteen in the fourth, the number necessarily doubling each step farther back. Of the eight bulls named in the fourth generation from which she was descended, one was by 'Favorite.' She is one-sixteenth 'Favorite' on that account, but the cow to which he was then put was also descended from 'Favorite,' and so are each of the other seven bulls and seven cows which stand on the same level of descent with the gr. gr. g. dam of 'Charmer.' And in fact it will be found on examination that in so far as 'Charmer's' pedigree is known, which it is in some instances to the sixteenth generation, she is not one-sixteenth only but nearly nine-sixteenths of pure Favorite blood. This arises from 'Favorite' having been used repeatedly on cows descended from himself. In the pedigree of 'Charmer' we repeatedly meet with 'Comet'—'Comet' was by 'Favorite' and his dam 'Young Phœnix' was also by 'Favorite;' with 'George'—'George' was by 'Favorite' and his dam 'Lady Grace' was also by 'Favorite;' with 'Chilton'—'Chilton' was by 'Favorite' and his dam was also by 'Favorite;' with 'Minor'—'Minor' was by 'Favorite' and his dam also was by 'Favorite;' with 'Peeress'—she was by 'Favorite' and her dam also by 'Favorite;' with 'Bright Eyes'—she was by 'Favorite' and her dam also by 'Favorite;' with 'Strawberry'—she was by 'Favorite' and her dam by 'Favorite;' 'Dandy,' 'Moss Rose,' among the cows and 'North Star' among the bulls are also of similar descent.
There is no difficulty therefore in understanding how this name appears repeatedly in any given generation of the pedigree of any given animal of the Short-horn breed."
[22]Journal Royal Agricultural Society, volume 20, page 297.
[22]Journal Royal Agricultural Society, volume 20, page 297.
[23]It may be said with truth, that the average health and vigor of a wild herd is much higher than it would be if the feebler portion of the young were reared, as in a state of domestication, instead of being destroyed by the stronger, or perishing from hardship; but if close breeding be, of itself and necessarily, injurious, the whole herd should gradually fail, which is not found to be the case.
[23]It may be said with truth, that the average health and vigor of a wild herd is much higher than it would be if the feebler portion of the young were reared, as in a state of domestication, instead of being destroyed by the stronger, or perishing from hardship; but if close breeding be, of itself and necessarily, injurious, the whole herd should gradually fail, which is not found to be the case.
The practice of crossing, like that of close breeding, has its strong and its weak side. Substantial arguments can be brought both in its favor and against it. Judiciously practiced, it offers a means of procuring animalsfor the butcher, often superior to and more profitable than those of any pure breed. It is also admissible as the foundation of a systematic and well considered attempt to establish a new breed. Such attempts, however, as they necessarily involve considerable expense, and efforts continued during a long term of years, will be rarely made. But when crossing is practiced injudiciously and indiscriminately, and especially when so done for the purpose of procuringbreeding animals, it cannot be too severely censured, and is scarcely less objectionable than careless in-and-in breeding.
The following remarks, from the pen of W.C. Spooner, V.S., are introduced as sound and reliable, and as comprising nearly all which need be said on the subjectof crossing breeds possessing distinctive characteristics:
"Crossing is generally understood to refer to the alliance of animals of different breeds, such as between a thorough-bred and a half-bred among horses or a South Down and Leicester among sheep. Now the advantages or disadvantages of this system depend entirely on the object we have in view, whether merely to beget an animal for the butcher, or for the purpose of perpetuating the species. If the latter is the object, then crossing should be adopted gradually and with care, and by no means between distant or antagonistic qualities, as for example a thorough-bred and a cart-horse. The result of the latter connection is generally an ill-assorted and unfavorable animal, too heavy perhaps for one purpose, and too light for another. If we wish to instil more activity into the cart-horse breed, it is better to do so by means of some half-bred animal, whilst the latter can be improved by means of the three-parts-bred horse and this again by the thorough-bred. There is a remarkable tendency, in breeding, for both good qualities and bad to disappear for one or two generations, and to reappear in the second and third; thus an animal often resembles the grand dam more than the dam. This peculiarity is itself an objection to the practice of crossing, as it tends to prevent uniformity and to encourage contrarieties; and thus we find in many flocks and herds that the hopes of the breeders have been entirely baffled and a race of mongrels established.The first cross is generally successful—a tolerable degree of uniformity is produced, resembling in external conformation the sire, which is usually of a superior breed; and thus the offspring are superior to the dams. These cross-bred animals are now paired amongst each other, and what is the consequence? Uniformity at once disappears; some of the offspring resemble the grandsire, and others the grandams, and some possess the disposition and constitution of the one and some of the other; and consequently a race of mongrels is perpetuated. If, however, the cross is really a good and desirable one, then, by means of rigorous and continued selection, pursued for several generations, that is, by casting aside, as regards breeding purposes, every animal that does not exhibit uniformity, or possess the qualifications we are desirous of perpetuating, a valuable breed of animals may in the course of time be established. By this system many varieties of sheep have been so far improved as to become almost new breeds; as for instance the New Oxford Downs which have frequently gained prizes at the great Agricultural Meetings as being the best long wooled sheep.To cross, however, merely for crossing sake—to do so without that care and vigilance which we have deemed so essential—is a practice which cannot be too much condemned. It is in fact a national evil and a sin against society, that is, if carried beyond the first cross, or if the cross-bred animals are used for breeding. A useful breed of animals may thus be lost, and a generation of mongrels established in their place, a resultwhich has followed in numerous instances amongst every breed of animals.The principal use of crossing, however, is to raise animals for the butcher. In this respect it has not (with sheep) been adopted to the extent which it might to advantage. The male being generally an animal of a superior breed and of a vigorous nature, almost invariably stamps his external form, size and muscular development on the offspring, which thus bear a strong resemblance to him, whilst their internal nature derived from the dam, well adapts them to the locality, as well as to the treatment to which their dams have been accustomed.With regard to cattle, the system cannot be so advantageously pursued (except for the purpose of improving the size and qualities of the calf, where veal is the object) in as much as every required qualification for breeding purposes can be obtained by using animals of the pure breeds. But with sheep, where the peculiarities of the soil as regards the goodness of feed, and exposure to the severities of the weather, often prevent the introduction of an improved breed, the value of using a new and superior ram is often very considerable, and the weight of mutton is materially increased, without its quality being impaired, while earlier maturity is at the same time obtained. It involves, however, more systematic attention than farmers usually like to bestow, for it is necessary to employ a different ram for each purpose; that is, a native ram for a portion of the ewes to keep up the purity of the breed, anda foreign ram to raise the improved cross-bred animals for fatting either as lambs or sheep. This plan is adopted by many breeders of Leicester sheep, who thus employ South Down rams to improve the quality of the mutton. One inconvenience attending this plan, is the necessity of fatting the maiden ewes as well as the wethers; they may however be disposed of as fat lambs, or the practice of spaying might be adopted, so as to increase the fatting disposition of the animal. Crossing, therefore, should be adopted with the greatest caution and skill where the object is to improve the breed of animals; it should never be practiced carelessly or capriciously, but it may be advantageously pursued with a view to raising superior and profitable animals for the butcher."
"Crossing is generally understood to refer to the alliance of animals of different breeds, such as between a thorough-bred and a half-bred among horses or a South Down and Leicester among sheep. Now the advantages or disadvantages of this system depend entirely on the object we have in view, whether merely to beget an animal for the butcher, or for the purpose of perpetuating the species. If the latter is the object, then crossing should be adopted gradually and with care, and by no means between distant or antagonistic qualities, as for example a thorough-bred and a cart-horse. The result of the latter connection is generally an ill-assorted and unfavorable animal, too heavy perhaps for one purpose, and too light for another. If we wish to instil more activity into the cart-horse breed, it is better to do so by means of some half-bred animal, whilst the latter can be improved by means of the three-parts-bred horse and this again by the thorough-bred. There is a remarkable tendency, in breeding, for both good qualities and bad to disappear for one or two generations, and to reappear in the second and third; thus an animal often resembles the grand dam more than the dam. This peculiarity is itself an objection to the practice of crossing, as it tends to prevent uniformity and to encourage contrarieties; and thus we find in many flocks and herds that the hopes of the breeders have been entirely baffled and a race of mongrels established.
The first cross is generally successful—a tolerable degree of uniformity is produced, resembling in external conformation the sire, which is usually of a superior breed; and thus the offspring are superior to the dams. These cross-bred animals are now paired amongst each other, and what is the consequence? Uniformity at once disappears; some of the offspring resemble the grandsire, and others the grandams, and some possess the disposition and constitution of the one and some of the other; and consequently a race of mongrels is perpetuated. If, however, the cross is really a good and desirable one, then, by means of rigorous and continued selection, pursued for several generations, that is, by casting aside, as regards breeding purposes, every animal that does not exhibit uniformity, or possess the qualifications we are desirous of perpetuating, a valuable breed of animals may in the course of time be established. By this system many varieties of sheep have been so far improved as to become almost new breeds; as for instance the New Oxford Downs which have frequently gained prizes at the great Agricultural Meetings as being the best long wooled sheep.
To cross, however, merely for crossing sake—to do so without that care and vigilance which we have deemed so essential—is a practice which cannot be too much condemned. It is in fact a national evil and a sin against society, that is, if carried beyond the first cross, or if the cross-bred animals are used for breeding. A useful breed of animals may thus be lost, and a generation of mongrels established in their place, a resultwhich has followed in numerous instances amongst every breed of animals.
The principal use of crossing, however, is to raise animals for the butcher. In this respect it has not (with sheep) been adopted to the extent which it might to advantage. The male being generally an animal of a superior breed and of a vigorous nature, almost invariably stamps his external form, size and muscular development on the offspring, which thus bear a strong resemblance to him, whilst their internal nature derived from the dam, well adapts them to the locality, as well as to the treatment to which their dams have been accustomed.
With regard to cattle, the system cannot be so advantageously pursued (except for the purpose of improving the size and qualities of the calf, where veal is the object) in as much as every required qualification for breeding purposes can be obtained by using animals of the pure breeds. But with sheep, where the peculiarities of the soil as regards the goodness of feed, and exposure to the severities of the weather, often prevent the introduction of an improved breed, the value of using a new and superior ram is often very considerable, and the weight of mutton is materially increased, without its quality being impaired, while earlier maturity is at the same time obtained. It involves, however, more systematic attention than farmers usually like to bestow, for it is necessary to employ a different ram for each purpose; that is, a native ram for a portion of the ewes to keep up the purity of the breed, anda foreign ram to raise the improved cross-bred animals for fatting either as lambs or sheep. This plan is adopted by many breeders of Leicester sheep, who thus employ South Down rams to improve the quality of the mutton. One inconvenience attending this plan, is the necessity of fatting the maiden ewes as well as the wethers; they may however be disposed of as fat lambs, or the practice of spaying might be adopted, so as to increase the fatting disposition of the animal. Crossing, therefore, should be adopted with the greatest caution and skill where the object is to improve the breed of animals; it should never be practiced carelessly or capriciously, but it may be advantageously pursued with a view to raising superior and profitable animals for the butcher."
In another paper on this subject, after presenting many interesting details regarding British breeds of sheep and the results of crossing, Mr. Spooner says:
"We cannot do better, in concluding our paper, than gather up and arrange in a collected form, the various points of our subject, which appear to be of sufficient importance to be again presented to the attention of our readers. We think, therefore, we are justified in coming to the conclusions:1st. That there is a direct pecuniary advantage in judicious cross-breeding; that increased size, disposition to fatten, and early maturity, are thereby induced.2d. That while this may be caused for the most part, by the very fact of crossing, yet it is principally due tothe superior influence of the male over the size and external appearance of the offspring; so that it is desirable, for the purpose of the butcher, that the male should be of a larger frame than the female, and should excel in those peculiarities we are desirous of reproducing. Let it be here however, repeated, as an exceptional truth, that though as a rule the male parent influences mostly the size and external form, and the female parent the constitution, general health and vital powers, yet that the opposite result sometimes takes place.3d. Certain peculiarities may be imparted to a breed by a single cross. Thus, the ponies of the New Forest exhibit characteristics of blood, although it is many years since that a thorough-bred horse was turned into the forest for the purpose. So, likewise, we observe in the Hampshire sheep the Roman nose and large heads, which formed so strong a feature in their maternal ancestors, although successive crosses of the South Down were employed to change the character of the breed. * * *4th. Although in the crossing of sheep for the purpose of the butcher, it is generally advisable to use males of a larger breed, provided they possess a disposition to fatten; yet, in such cases, it is of importance that thepelvisof the female should be wide and capacious, so that no injury should arise in lambing, in consequence of the increased size of the heads of the lambs. The shape of the ram's head should be studied for the same reason. In crossing, however, for the purpose ofestablishing a new breed, the size of the male must give way to other more important considerations; although it will still be desirable to use a large female of the breed which we seek to improve. Thus the South Downs have vastly improved the larger Hampshires, and the Leicester the huge Lincolns and the Cotswolds.5th. Although the benefits are most evident in the first cross, after which, from pairing the cross-bred animals, the defects of one breed or the other, or the incongruities of both, are perpetually breaking out—yet, unless the characteristics and conformation of the two breeds are altogether averse to each other, nature opposes no barrier to their successful admixture; so that in the course of time, by the aid of selection and careful weeding, it is practicable to establish a new breed altogether. This, in fact, has been the history of our principal breeds. * * *We confess that we cannot entirely admit either of the antagonistic doctrines held by the rival advocates of crossing and pure breeding. The public have reason to be grateful to the exertions of either party; and still more have they respectively reason to be grateful to each other. * * * *Let us conclude by repeating the advice that, when equal advantages can be attained by keeping a pure breed of sheep, such pure breed should unquestionably be preferred; and that, although crossing for the purpose of the butcher may be practiced with impunity, and even with advantage, yet no one should do so for the purpose of establishing a new breed, unless he has clear and well defined views of the object he seeks toaccomplish, and has duly studied the principles on which it can be carried out, and is determined to bestow for the space of half a life-time his constant and unremitting attention to the discovery and removal of defects."
"We cannot do better, in concluding our paper, than gather up and arrange in a collected form, the various points of our subject, which appear to be of sufficient importance to be again presented to the attention of our readers. We think, therefore, we are justified in coming to the conclusions:
1st. That there is a direct pecuniary advantage in judicious cross-breeding; that increased size, disposition to fatten, and early maturity, are thereby induced.
2d. That while this may be caused for the most part, by the very fact of crossing, yet it is principally due tothe superior influence of the male over the size and external appearance of the offspring; so that it is desirable, for the purpose of the butcher, that the male should be of a larger frame than the female, and should excel in those peculiarities we are desirous of reproducing. Let it be here however, repeated, as an exceptional truth, that though as a rule the male parent influences mostly the size and external form, and the female parent the constitution, general health and vital powers, yet that the opposite result sometimes takes place.
3d. Certain peculiarities may be imparted to a breed by a single cross. Thus, the ponies of the New Forest exhibit characteristics of blood, although it is many years since that a thorough-bred horse was turned into the forest for the purpose. So, likewise, we observe in the Hampshire sheep the Roman nose and large heads, which formed so strong a feature in their maternal ancestors, although successive crosses of the South Down were employed to change the character of the breed. * * *
4th. Although in the crossing of sheep for the purpose of the butcher, it is generally advisable to use males of a larger breed, provided they possess a disposition to fatten; yet, in such cases, it is of importance that thepelvisof the female should be wide and capacious, so that no injury should arise in lambing, in consequence of the increased size of the heads of the lambs. The shape of the ram's head should be studied for the same reason. In crossing, however, for the purpose ofestablishing a new breed, the size of the male must give way to other more important considerations; although it will still be desirable to use a large female of the breed which we seek to improve. Thus the South Downs have vastly improved the larger Hampshires, and the Leicester the huge Lincolns and the Cotswolds.
5th. Although the benefits are most evident in the first cross, after which, from pairing the cross-bred animals, the defects of one breed or the other, or the incongruities of both, are perpetually breaking out—yet, unless the characteristics and conformation of the two breeds are altogether averse to each other, nature opposes no barrier to their successful admixture; so that in the course of time, by the aid of selection and careful weeding, it is practicable to establish a new breed altogether. This, in fact, has been the history of our principal breeds. * * *
We confess that we cannot entirely admit either of the antagonistic doctrines held by the rival advocates of crossing and pure breeding. The public have reason to be grateful to the exertions of either party; and still more have they respectively reason to be grateful to each other. * * * *
Let us conclude by repeating the advice that, when equal advantages can be attained by keeping a pure breed of sheep, such pure breed should unquestionably be preferred; and that, although crossing for the purpose of the butcher may be practiced with impunity, and even with advantage, yet no one should do so for the purpose of establishing a new breed, unless he has clear and well defined views of the object he seeks toaccomplish, and has duly studied the principles on which it can be carried out, and is determined to bestow for the space of half a life-time his constant and unremitting attention to the discovery and removal of defects."
The term crossing is sometimes used in a much more restricted sense, as in the remark of Mr. Boswell in his essay quoted on page 69 where he says, "When I praise the advantage of crossing I would have it clearly understood that it is only to bring together animalsnot nearly relatedbut always ofthe same breed." It is evident that such crossing as this is wholly unobjectionable; no one but an avowed and ultra advocate of close breeding could possibly find any fault with it.
There is yet another style of crossing which when practicable, may, it is believed, be made a means to the highest degree of improvement attainable, and especially in the breeding of horses. The word "breed" is often used with varying signification. In order to be understood, let me premise that I use it here simply to designate a class of animals possessing a good degree of uniformity growing out of the fact of a common origin and of their having been reared under similar conditions. The method proposed is to unite animalspossessing similarity of desirable characteristics, with difference of breed; that is to say, difference of breed in the sense just specified. From unions based uponthis principle, the selections being guided by a skillful judgment and a discriminating tact, we may expect progeny possessing not only a fitting and symmetrical development of the locomotive system, but also an amount and intensity of nervous energy and power unattainable by any other method.
Such was in all probability the origin of the celebrated horse Justin Morgan; an animal which not only did more to stamp excellence and impart value to the roadsters of New England than any other, but was the originator of the only distinct, indigenous breed of animals of which America can boast;—a breed which as fast and durable road horses and for any light harness work, is not equalled by any other, any where. In the present state of our knowledge it is scarcely conceivable how an animal possessing the endowments of Justin Morgan could have originated in any other way than from such a parentage as above indicated. On the other hand it is very certain thatcontrast in character, as well as in breed, has occasioned much of the disappointment of which breeders have had occasion to complain.
The principle here laid down is one of broad application, and should never be lost sight of in attempts at improvement by crossing. Another point worthy special attention is that all crossing, to insuresuccessful results, should be gentle rather than violent; that is, never couple animals possessing marked dissimilarity, but endeavor to remedy faults and to effect improvement by gradual approaches. Harmony of structure and a proper balancing of desirable characteristics, "an equilibrium of good qualities," as it has been happily expressed, can be secured only in this way.
It may not be out of place here to say, that much of the talk aboutbloodin animals, especially horses, is sheer nonsense. When a "blood horse" is spoken of, it means, so far as it means any thing, that his pedigree can be traced to Arabian or Barbary origin, and so is possessed of the peculiar type of structure and great nervous energy which usually attaches to "thorough-bred" horses. When a bull, or cow, or sheep is said to be of "pure blood," it means simply that the animal is of some distinct variety—that it has been bred from an ancestry all of which were marked by the same peculiarities and characteristics.
So long as the term "blood" is used to convey the idea of definite hereditary qualities it may not be objectionable. We frequently use expressions which are not strictly accurate, as when we speak of the sun's rising and setting, and so long as every body knows that we refer to apparent position and not to any motion of the sun, no false ideas are conveyed. But tosuppose that the hereditary qualities of an animal attach to the blood more than to any other fluid or to any of the tissues of the body, or that the blood of a high-bred horse is essentially different from that of another, is entirely erroneous. The qualities of an animal depend upon its organization and endowments, and the blood is only the vehicle by which these are nourished and sustained;—moreover the blood varies in quality, composition and amount, according to the food eaten, the air breathed and the exercise taken. If one horse is better than another it is not because the fluid in his veins is of superior quality, but rather because his structure is more perfect mechanically, and because nervous energy is present in fitting amount and intensity.
For illustration, take two horses—one so built and endowed that he can draw two tons or more, three miles in an hour; the other so that he can trot a mile in three minutes or less. Let us suppose the blood coursing in the veins of each to be transferred to the other; would the draft horse acquire speed thereby, or the trotter acquire power? Just as much and no more as if you fed each for a month with the hay, oats and water intended for the other.
It is well to attend to pedigree, for thus only can we know what are the hereditary qualities, but it is notwell to lay too much stress upon "blood," What matters it that my horse was sired by such a one or such a one, if he be himself defective? In breeding horses,structureis first, and endowment with nervous energy is next to be seen to, and then pedigree—afterwards that these be fittingly united, by proper selection for coupling, in order to secure the highest degree of probability which the nature of the case admits, that the offspring may prove a perfect machine and be suitably endowed with motive power.
"The body of an animal is a piece of mechanism, the moving power of which is the vital principle, which like fire to the steam engine sets the whole in motion; but whatever quantity of fire or vital energy may be applied, neither the animal machine nor the engine will work with regularity and effect, unless the individual parts of which the machine is composed are properly adjusted and fitted for the purposes for which they are intended; or if it is found that the machine does move by the increase of moving power, still the motion is irregular and imperfect; the bolts and joints are continually giving way, there is a continued straining of the various parts, and the machine becomes worn out and useless in half the time it might have lasted if the proportions had been just and accurate. Such is the case with the animal machine. It is not enough that itis put in motion by the noblest spirit or that it is nourished by the highest blood; every bone must have its just proportion; every muscle or tendon its proper pulley; every lever its proper length and fulcrum; every joint its most accurate adjustment and proper lubrication; all must have their relative proportions and strength, before the motions of the machine can be accurate, vigorous and durable. In every machine modifications are required according as the purposes vary to which it is applied. The heavy dray horse is far from having the arrangement necessary for the purposes of the turf, while the thorough-bred is as ill adapted for the dray. Animals are therefore to be selected for the individual purposes for which they are intended, with the modifications of form proper for the different uses to which they are to be applied; but for whatever purpose they may be intended, there are some points which are common to all, in the adjustment of the individual parts. If the bones want their due proportions, or are imperfectly placed—if the muscles or tendons want their proper levers—if the flexions of the joints be interrupted by the defectiveness of their mechanism, the animal must either be defective in motion or strength; the bones have irregular pressure, and if they do not break, become diseased; if the muscles or tendons do not become sprained or ruptured, theyare defective in their action; if friction or inflammation does not take place in the joints, the motions are awkward and grotesque. As in every other machine, the beauty of the animate, whether in motion or at rest, depends upon the arrangement of the individual parts."
The preferable style of breeding for the great majority of farmers to adopt, is neither to cross, nor to breed from close affinities, (except in rare instances and for some specific and clearly understood purpose,) but tobreed in the line, that is, select the breed or race best adapted to fulfill the requirements demanded, whether it be for the dairy, for labor or for beef in cattle, or for such combination of these as can be had without too great sacrifice of the principal requisite; whether for fine wool as a primary object and for meat as a secondary one, or for mutton as a primary and wool for a secondary object, and then procure apure bredmale of the kind determined on, and breed him to the females of the herd or of the flock; and if these be not such as are calculated to develop his qualities, endeavor by purchase or exchange to procure such as will. Let the progeny of these be bred to anotherpure bredmale of the same breed, but as distantly related to the first as may be. Let this plan be steadily pursued, and although we cannot, without the intervention of well bredfemales, obtain stock purely of kind desired, yet in several generations, if proper care be given in the selection of males, that each one be such as to retain and improve upon the points gained by his predecessor, the stock for most practical purposes will be as good as if thorough-bred. Were this plan generally adopted, and a system of letting or exchange of males established, the cost might be brought within the means of most persons, and the advantages which would accrue would be almost beyond belief.
The writer on Cattle in the Library of Useful Knowledge well remarks:—"At the outset of his career, the farmer should have a clear and determined conception of the object that he wishes to accomplish. He should consider the nature of his farm; the quality, abundance or deficiency of his pasturage, the character of the soil, the seasons of the year when he will have plenty or deficiency of food, the locality of his farm, the market to which he has access and the produce which can be disposed of with greatest profit, and these things will at once point to him the breed he should be solicitous to obtain. The man of wealth and patriotism may have more extensive views, and nobly look to the general improvement of cattle; but the farmer, with his limited means and with the claims that press upon him, regards his cattle as a valuable portion of his own littleproperty, and on which every thing should appear to be in natural keeping, and be turned to the best advantage. The best beast for him is that which suits his farm the best, and with a view to this, he studies, or ought to study, the points and qualities of his own cattle, and those of others. The dairyman will regard the quantity of milk—the quality—its value for the production of butter and cheese—the time that the cow continues in milk—the character of the breed for quietness, or as being good nurses—the predisposition to garget or other disease, or dropping after calving—the natural tendency to turn every thing to nutriment—the ease with which she is fattened when given up as a milker, and the proportion of food requisite to keep her in full milk or to fatten her when dry. The grazier will consider the kind of beast which his land will bear—the kind of meat most in demand in his neighborhood—the early maturity—the quickness of fattening at any age—the quality of the meat—the parts on which the flesh and fat are principally laid—and more than all the hardihood and the adaptation to the climate and soil.
In order to obtain these valuable properties the good farmer will make himself perfectly master of the characters and qualities of his own stock. He will trace the connection of certain good qualities and certain bad ones, with an almost invariable peculiarity of shape andstructure; and at length he will arrive at a clear conception, not so much of beauty of form (although that is a pleasing object to contemplate) as of that outline and proportion of parts with whichutilityis oftenest combined. Then carefully viewing his stock he will consider where they approach to, and how far they wander from, this utility of form; and he will be anxious to preserve or to increase the one and to supply the deficiency of the other. He will endeavor to select from his own stock those animals that excel in the most valuable points, and particularly those which possess the greatest number of these points, and he will unhesitatingly condemn every beast that manifests deficiency in any one important point. He will not, however, too long confine himself to his own stock, unless it be a very numerous one. The breeding from close affinities has many advantages to a certain extent. It was the source whence sprung the cattle and sheep of Bakewell and the superior cattle of Colling; and to it must also be traced the speedy degeneracy, the absolute disappearance of the New Leicester cattle, and, in the hands of many agriculturists, the impairment of constitution and decreased value of the New Leicester sheep and of the Short-horns. He will therefore seek some change in his stock every second or third year, and that change is most conveniently effected byintroducing a new bull. This bull should be of the same breed, and pure, coming from a similar pasturage and climate, but possessing no relationship—or, at most, a very distant one—to the stock to which he is introduced. He should bring with him every good point which the breeder has labored to produce in his stock, and if possible, some improvement, and especially in the points where the old stock may have been somewhat deficient, and most certainly he should have no manifest defect of form; and that most essential of all qualifications, a hardy constitution, should not be wanting.
There is one circumstance, however, which the breeder occasionally forgets, but which is of as much importance to the permanent value of his stock as any careful selection of animals can be—and that is, good keeping. It has been well said that all good stock must be both bred with attention and well fed. It is necessary that these two essentials in this species of improvement should always accompany each other; for without good resources of keeping, it would be vain to attempt supporting a valuable stock. This is true with regard to the original stock. It is yet more evident when animals are absurdly brought from a better to a poorer soil. The original stock will deteriorate if neglected and half-starved, and the improved breed will lose ground even more rapidly, and to a far greater extent."
A very brief resumé of the preceding remarks may be expressed as follows:
The Law of Similarity teaches us to select animals for breeding which possess the desired forms and qualities in the greatest perfection and best combination.
Regard should be had not only to the more obvious characteristics, but also to such hereditary traits and tendencies as may be hidden from cursory observation and demand careful and thorough investigation.
From the hereditary nature of all characteristics, whether good or bad, we learn the importance of having all desirable qualities and propertiesthoroughly inbred; or, in other words, so firmly fixed in each generation, that the next is warrantably certain to present nothing worse,—that no ill results follow from breeding back towards some inferior ancestor,—that all undesirable traits or points be, so far as possible,bred out.
So important is this consideration, that in practice, it is decidedly preferable to employ a male of ordinary external appearance, provided his ancestry be all which is desired, rather than a grade or cross-bred animal, although the latter be greatly his superior in personal beauty.
A knowledge of the Law of Divergence teaches us to avoid, for breeding purposes, such animals as exhibit variations unfavorable to the purpose in view; and to endeavor to perpetuate every real improvement gained;also to secure as far as practicable, the conditions necessary to induce or to perpetuate any improvement, such as general treatment, food, climate, habit, &c.
Where the parents do not possess the perfection desired, selections for coupling should be made with critical reference to correcting the faults or deficiencies of one by corresponding excellence in the other.
But to correct defects too much must not be attempted at once. Pairing those very unlike, oftener results in loss than in gain. Mating a horse for speed with a draft mare, will more likely beget progeny good for neither, than for both. Avoid all extremes, and endeavor by moderate degrees to obtain the object desired.
Crossing, between different breeds, for the purpose of obtaining animals for the shambles, may be advantageously practiced to considerable extent, but not for the production of breeding animals. As a general rule cross-bred males should not be employed for propagation, and cross-bred females should be served by thorough-bred males.
In ordinary practice, breeding from near relationships is to bescrupulously avoided; for certain purposes, under certain conditions and circumstances, and in the hands of a skillful breeder, it may be practiced with advantage, but not otherwise.
In a large majority of cases (other things being equal) we may expect in progeny the outward form and general structure of the sire, together with the internal qualities, constitution and nutritive system of the dam; each, however, modified by the other.
Particular care should always be taken that the male by which the dam first becomes pregnant is the best which can be obtained; also, that at the time of sexual congress both are in vigorous health.
Breeding animals should not be allowed to become fat, but always kept in thrifty condition; and such as are intended for the butcher should never be fat but once.
In deciding with what breeds to stock a farm, endeavor to select those best adapted to its surface, climate, and degree of fertility; also with reference to probable demand and proximity to markets.
No expense incurred in procuring choice animals for propagation, or any amount of skill in breeding, can supersede, or compensate for, a lack of liberal feeding and good treatment. The better the stock, the better care they deserve.