CHAPTER V

Figs.55 to 60.—Profiles of Roman mouldings with their fillets.

Figs.61 to 66.—Profiles of Greek mouldings with their fillets.

purpose, they lack refinement. The Mediævals got their effects by deep undercutting, and by putting fillets or leaving arrises on such parts as were to tell bright;—Classic and Renaissance mouldings, however, are alone treated of here.

Fig. 67.—The ovolo or echinus from the Erechtheum, enriched.

Fig. 68.—The cavetto moulding.Fig. 69.—The cyma recta.

In the best periods of ancient art it was the invariable custom to adopt a form nearly like the profile or section of the moulding, and to double it for the basis of its decoration, and nothing could produce a morepleasing and artistic result, for then the moulding never lost its character, however elaborately it might be enriched. The diagrams from Figs. 67 to 78 will help to illustrate this: for instance, atFig. 67we have the Greek ovolo, ornamented with eggs, called

Fig. 70.—The Greek ogee with water leaf ornament.

by the Greeks “turnip stones,” which resemble the section of the moulding doubled; at 70 and 73 the Greek ogee is shown with the water leaf ornament

Fig. 71.—Roman variety of the ornament on the ogee.

used to enrich it, for which we have no distinctive name—it is called by the French “Rais de Cœur,” and resembles the section of the moulding doubled; at 71 is a Roman variation of this ornament; at 68, a Roman cavetto, or hollow; at 69, a “cyma recta.”Fig. 77is a curved “astragal” or bead moulding;and atFig. 78is the bead and reel ornament. (See also Figs.72and73for examples of Greek bead and reel ornament.) Figs.74,75, and76are examples of ornament used for flat bands or fascias. When these are sunk with semi-circular or elliptical channels they are called “fluted,” and when raised in relief “reeded.”

Fig. 72.—Decorated mouldings from the temple of Minerva Polias at Athens, ogee, ovolo, and beads.

We may next briefly speak of the ornamental treatment of floors, walls, and ceilings.

Beginning with the floor, it must be remembered that in floor decoration the sense of flatness should be preserved; raised and especially angular surfaces are to be avoided, and what is unpleasant to use is unpleasant to be suggested for use, though the Assyrians used relief on their floors. Whether the

Fig. 73.—Greek cyma reversa or ogee decorated with the water leaf, a fret ornament carved on upper fillet, and a bead and reel below.

74. From Jupiter Tonans.

75. From the Forum of Nerva.

76. From the Temple of Jupiter Stator.Figs.74 to 76.—Fluted ornaments.

76. From the Temple of Jupiter Stator.

Figs.74 to 76.—Fluted ornaments.

decoration be obtained by carpets, rugs, floor-cloth, inlaid marble or metal, mosaic, tiles, or parquetry, nothing should be introduced to disturb the flatness,

Figs. 76 Aand76 B.—Reeded ornaments for flat bands.

by shading the forms or by imitating mouldings, or a ridge and furrow. All realistic renderings of animals

Fig. 77.—Astragal or bead moulding.

Fig. 78.—Bead and reel.

or plants should be carefully avoided. The colour may be varied, but evenly distributed, and mostly sober; though the Romans sometimes used lapislazuli for their floors, or encrusted them with gems, and the Byzantines used gold or silver chased and enriched with niello. Mosaic work applied to floors was an early form of decoration, and is still of a high order in the scale of floor decorations, the highest

Fig. 79.—Opus Alexandrinum from a pavement in the Church of San Marco (Rome).

being marble inlaid with other marbles or with mastic, like those in the Baptistery at Florence and the Cathedral at Siena. The use of marble or tiles in this country is limited to the floors of museums, baths, halls and passages; on account of their coldness, they cannot be used with comfort inordinary rooms. Mosaic may be treated with borders and lines like the framing of a picture, with the field (or central space) either plain, powdered with spots of decoration, or covered with a pattern. Black and white is the most dignified treatment. If other colours are used, black with pale red or cream colour, or low-toned reds, greens, greys, and yellows are to be preferred. Opus Alexandrinum is one of the most magnificent floor decorations yet used; rectangular or circular slabs of porphyry are surrounded with bands composed of geometrical figures in purple, green, and black porphyry, on a white marble ground, though marble occasionally takes the place of porphyry in the smaller geometrical patterns. (SeeFig. 79.)

Floor-cloths and linoleums are of modern introduction. The decoration of these coverings is best when it is of subdued colours treated flatly.

In carpets, the pattern should, as a rule, radiate from geometric points; at least the more important spots should be on a circular, lozenge, or square basis, so that the eye should not be carried in one particular direction. If animals are used, they should have a simple outline, and should be treated flatly. Realistic flowers, birds, human figures, landscapes, and architecture are out of place on carpets. A border always improves a carpet, if properly designed to harmonize with the centre, or to enhance its value.

Walls may be decorated with metals or marbles; with wood panelling, either plain, moulded, inlaid, carved or incised; with plaster flatly embossed or sunk, or in which stones, shells or looking-glass, &c. is embedded; with plain colour, with painted or stencilled patterns; with furs or feather work; with hangings ofvelvet, satin, silk, or calico, either plain, enriched, or embroidered; by tapestry, matting, stamped leather or

Figs.80 to 83.—Improper arrangements for wall-papers or room decoration.

its imitations, and by paper-hangings. If pictures are to be hung on a wall, it is obvious that a low-toned decoration, that will set them off, is alone admissible; since the pictures themselves are the principal decoration, the walls should be treated as an unobtrusive background. The best decoration for appearance after simple colour or a painted pattern is silk or woven stuffs.[6]If paper-hangings be chosen,they should have a uniform pattern and be free from spots; for the eye should not be arrested by any particular form, nor be forcibly carried in any direction. In illustration of this, we may suppose the diagrams, Figs.80,81,82, and83, to represent decorated wall spaces. All these decorative arrangements are bad as wall-coverings; but by combining their elements, atFig. 84a tolerably good paper-hanging is produced that will form a background for furniture and pictures.

Fig. 84.—Arrangement for the lines of a wall-paper.

The diagram,Fig. 80, arrests the eye; 81 and 82 tend to exaggerate the height or breadth of the room; for patterns in which vertical or horizontal lines predominate will have the effect of lengthening or widening the surface of the wall; whilst the diagram 83, being composed of oblique lines, will not only give a look of weakness to the wall, but will lead the eye from one corner of the room to the other. A pattern, to be satisfactory as a background, should neither arrest the eye nor carry it in any particular direction.

The height of a real dado generally depends on the height of the chair-backs, but it may be influenced by the height of the ceiling, and partly by the use towhich the room is put; high wainscoting prevents small-sized pictures from being seen. If the wainscot

Figs.85 to 87.—Fillings of ceilings showing various schemes of all-over effects.

be higher than the centre of the wall, the upper part of the wall may have a stronger decoration with a more flowing pattern than would be admissible on a

Fig. 88.—Portion of the ceiling of vestibule of Sacristy of S. Spirito (Florence) by Sansovino.

wall with lower wainscoting. If there be a frieze in the room, a still freer and more pictorial treatment may be allowed on it. The Greeks called the frieze Zoophoros, or life-bearing, because it was generally

Fig. 89.—Ceiling from Serlio’s architecture.

adorned with figures of men or animals. Wall spaces need not be panelled in small rooms, as the window-openings, doors, and fireplaces mostly break up the space sufficiently. If the rooms, though small, are high, a dado and a frieze are improvements. On ceilings there is more room for variety and elaboration. There are many ways of decorating ceilings. We may take the cornice as the frame, and regard the ceiling as the space to decorate; the simplest way is to powder it (Fig. 85), or to cover it over with a scroll-work pattern (Fig. 86). An effective treatment consists in lightly covering the field with a pattern steadied by labels, shields, or medallions (Fig. 87).

In dividing a ceiling into panels, either by painting or by relief work, the centre panel or compartment should generally be larger than any of the others (seeFig. 89, and 92 at B), though there are excellent Renaissance ceilings divided into equal panels. When the ceiling is unequally divided, the spaces should be in harmonic proportion, so that no two series of panels shall be the same width; this, however, does not apply to the widths of the stiles and rails, which should be alike. Figs.88and89show such arrangements. Care must be taken in designing the subdivisions of ceilings that the panels, interspaces, and mouldings are well contrasted. A safe guide for the designer in obtaining the requisite proportions is to be found in the Roman ceilings, although those of which drawings are preserved were mostly vaulted. For flat ceilings, good examples may be studied of the best period of Italian Renaissance (Fig. 88), and in both cases the mouldings of the panels are usually given. Where a ceiling to be decorated is divided by beams, the panelling, if admissible, should be repeated in the different compartments. Ceilings of corridors or long rooms may be harmonically divided across at discretion.

Relief work or modelled ornament on ceilings should be so regulated that the light from windowsor from artificial illumination should cause little cast shadow, only enough to define the outline; the forms should be carefully rounded off in the more important masses to lessen the abruptness of cast shadow. A preponderance of light in the larger masses, connected and softened by lower tones, is commonly adopted.

On the carved surface itself, the play of light and shade should be quite secondary, and not compete in strength with the deeper shadows cast by the ornament on its ground. If this be not attended to, confusion and obscurity are apt to be produced.

A nice balancing of light and shade is of the greatest importance in relief ornament. It may here be remarked, that for outdoor work in a sunny climate, a lower relief in the carving and more delicacy in the mouldings is admissible, than in a misty one like ours, where strong sunlight rarely occurs; and for this reason a bolder treatment of relief is necessary, which allows of a coarser material being used. Before leaving the subject of relief ornament, it would be as well to state, that no carved decoration should be fastened on to a ceiling or panel, but should be worked out of the material itself; and also that where human figures are used on ceilings, they must be so arranged as to be seen from the heads at the most important point in the room; seen from the feet the figures appear to be upside down.

IN setting out spaces for decoration the chief aim should be to get them in harmonic proportion. The Greeks were the great masters of this art, the most subtle proportions being chosen by them, but there is not space here to enter into refinements. Roughly speaking, the proportion of 1¾ to 1 is fairly agreeable; when the space required approaches a double square, it looks better if it somewhat exceeds or falls short of that figure. As a rule, a marked preponderance in the height or length should be given to every oblong used in decoration, and with those rough rules, an educated eye can mostly, after a few trials, obtain harmonious proportions. Those forms about which there is an uncertainty always look feeble and unsatisfactory,e.g.an oblong that approaches the square, or an ellipse that approaches a circle. In the case of the square there should be no doubt about its being a square, so it is necessary that the ornamentation chosen be calculated to emphasize the shape and not give it the appearance of an oblong,i.e.the ornament should be symmetrical on both the axes, and it is often useful to accentuate the corners as well; if the square be surrounded bya border it is sometimes advisable to strengthen its corners by knees. If this be done it is necessary to have them at the four corners; if they be applied to the two upper or the two under corners, the square will be taken for an oblong. The repetition of squares is much more endurable than a repetition of similar oblongs. A common case of the monotonous effect of similar oblong panels is to be seen in a four-panelled door with the middle rail in the centre, so the middle rail is commonly put below the centre to get variety in the panels. Even in so graceful a form as the human figure, sculptors rarely represent it in a perfectly symmetrical attitude, particularly in bas-relief, unless it be to express some marked emotion, or for the sake of the composition; there are, however, a few figures in front view, symmetrically arranged, that form the centres of ornamental compositions: the front view of animals in bas-relief is still less admissible. The circle is by far the most beautiful and useful closed curve, but it is not always available, as in the case of a central feature in a very long ceiling or in oblong panels, and its place must be then supplied by an ellipse, which has this merit, that its proportions are infinite, the straight line and the circle being only extreme cases of the ellipse; but when the choice is unfettered the long (major) axis should so far exceed the short (minor) as to afford a contrast; an ellipse that differs but slightly from the circle too much resembles one that is ill-drawn. When an ellipse is placed with the long axis vertical, which is sometimes necessary in oblong panels, looking-glasses, &c., it should be tied to the vertical and horizontal framework to prevent an

Fig 90.—Vase by Stevens showing unequal divisions of the height, and strengthening horizontal bands.

appearance of instability, and when this cannot be done it should be supported by foliage.

In horizontally dividing objects circular in plan and curved in section, such as vases, with lines or bands, several things have to be considered. The lines themselves have a strengthening effect, but the question is where they are best applied: if the curves of the object vary considerably, the points at which the variations begin are the proper places, and in this case, as in all others, variety and the predominance of one division are to be adopted; if, however, the vase

Fig. 91.—Vase showing unequal divisions of the height, and strengthening horizontal bands.

is to be decorated, the predominant space for the most important decoration must be placed where the curve is nearly uniform, or else the ornament will be distorted. The Greek painted vases, with a few exceptions, are the best examples of excellence in their divisions (Figs.90and91). Due consideration must also be given to the placing of the vase; some of the Greek vases, intended to stand on the ground, have the main ornament confined to the shoulder.

In the division of objects in the round, it is a general rule that they should not be divided in the middle, but that the upper or under part should be distinctly predominant, and that the two parts should be different. There is, however, an exception to this rule, for when certain objects are wanted to be symmetrical on their horizontal axes, the upper and under forms should then be identical,e.g.in the case of certain vases, candlesticks, and balusters.

Fig. 92.—Panelling of ceilings showing at A a bad, and at B a better arrangement.

In the case of ornamental objects whose outline is a matter of taste, such as finger-plates, care must be taken that they neither have a weak outline wholly made up of curves, like A, nor one that istoo angular, like B; the design C seems to obviate both these defects (Fig. 94).

Fig. 93.—Door panels illustrating an ill-proportioned division at A, and a well-proportioned one at B.

Fig. 94.—Finger-plates for a door, of different outlines.

Compositions wholly formed of parallel straightlines, such as entablatures, and some door and window architraves, have a severity, that borders upon the monotonous, that is sometimes called dryness. The Greeks corrected this defect in their entablatures by introducing figures in the frieze, while the Romans mostly ornamented their friezes with festoons and foliage. In the door architrave at the Erechtheum circular pateræ are used on the fascia for this reason (Fig. 96); modern ornamentalists have introduced curved figures to correct the dryness. Archivolts to circular openings without imposts, and not enclosed by straight lines, lack firmness and rigidity, which may be imparted by inserting frets or flutes radiating from the centre, on the fascia of the archivolt (Fig. 95). Similar devices may be employed to correct weakness in planes of varied outline. In the shield of the savage (Fig. 97), made of black and yellow cane ornamented with cut shells, the two horizontal bands, just below the junction of the semicircles with the straight lines, strengthen the composition; there is a fair amount of contrast between the oblique lines of the ornaments, and the circular, slanting, and horizontal lines; though the circular cut shell-work of the ends is excessive and monotonous. Extreme repetition is a common fault of savage art.

When a surface requires ornament and yet to be kept flat, the painted or inlaid ornament upon it should not be shaded nor have cast shadows, or when carved it should be sunk: what beauty can be got by flat colours may be seen in the tiles from Rhodes, Cairo, and Damascus. On large surfaces the best forms of applying ornaments is within lines of checkers, network (Figs.98and99), ordiapers, and except in the case of very large surfaces, where striking variety may be introduced at set intervals, the ornament should be uniform in general

Fig. 95.—Contrasting decoration on rectangular and circular borders.

effect, leaving the varieties to be discovered by closer inspection. One of the best examples of this, though it is not in diapers, is in the Medici Chapel at Florence. Michael Angelo enriched a string there with copiesof antique masks; in looking at the sides of the chapel the masks seem all alike, but on going near them, each one is seen to be different. Innumerable examples of ornament within network, checkers, and diapers, maybe found in Saracenic, Moresque, Gothic, and Renaissance work.

Fig. 96.—Door case at the Erechtheum showing the pateræ on the fascia.

To adopt forms directly from nature for the shape of any article of use is rarely successful, though the best shapes have mostly been suggested by natural forms. The Orientals, especially those of the extreme East, have been very fond of this direct imitation, as in vessels made in imitation of a piece of bamboo, of gourds with both single and double bulbs, of eggs, cocoanuts, the horns and hoofs of animals including the horn of the rhinoceros, of shells, flowers, &c., but they mostly want stands or feet, which partly removes them from pure realism, except in the case of thebamboo, the form of which too is not particularly beautiful. When the ancient traditions had died out in England, and the proper application of ornament

Fig. 97.—Shield made of cane and ornamented with cut shells and zigzags.

to articles of use was unknown, it occurred to many that such objects might be directly imitated from nature. Sprays of fuchsia with a large flower on each were used for curtain hooks; branches of plantswere used for gas brackets with the flame coming from the flower; and vases made in imitation of the blossom of the arum. Sometimes nature itself was not vast enough for imitation; earthenware bowls and wine-coolers were made in imitation of wickerwork, gold brooches in imitation of twisted bread, and other adaptations were made that were equally incongruous. It is true that the Japanese sometimes protect their porcelain with an outer covering of woven cane, and wicker-covered bottles are not unknown here. The Kafirs, too, carry their milk in woven baskets; yet in spite of these cases, there is an apparent absurdity in such designs, not to speak of the poverty of invention they betray.

Figs. 98 and 99.—Carved checkers.

Such vagaries are happily disappearing, since the creation of museums and schools of ornamental art, but they are by no means extinct.

Every article, whether for use or ornament, should first be constructed as elegantly as possible for its purpose, or supposed purpose; and only be ornamented when the ornament does not appear incongruous, and does not interfere with its use, but onlyemphasizes its form or relieves it from monotony. Although this chapter is mainly confined to outlines and divisions of surfaces, something has been said about the application of ornament, so it may be remarked that the lower part of a wall should be treated with more severity and sobriety than the upper part; for the lower part is partly hidden by furniture, and is most liable to injury. The Romans and Byzantines mostly used marble for the lower parts of walls in magnificent buildings, though in houses of less magnificence marble was either imitated by painting, or else simple floral decoration was used. The Saracens also employed marble, but when that was not easy to obtain, tiles took its place. The Mediævals used marble, wood panelling, or tapestry, and when the walls were wholly painted, they often imitated the more costly materials. Geometrical figures or diapers are most appropriate for this part, when it is painted or papered. The part of the wall above this may be treated with greater freedom and elaboration. The part of the wall on a level with the eye should have greater finish bestowed on it, unless there be a frieze with figures or a higher class of ornament to a larger scale.

HAVING previously considered the principal elements of ornament, it is now advisable to classify ornament in accordance with the spaces it has to fill, and these may roughly be divided into six classes or great divisions, as follows:—

1. Uniform surfaces, as floors, walls, and ceilings.2. Horizontal bands, as friezes, &c.3. Perpendicular bands, as panels of piers, pilasters, stripes, &c.4. Symmetrical arrangements, as panels, either rectangular or of closed curved figures.5. Symmetrical arrangements composed of straight and curved lines or of compound curves, as spandrels, panels of curved and straight lines.6. Unsymmetrical spaces founded by straight or curved lines, or by both.

The uniform surfacesof large undivided areas are mostly decorated in the following ways: by all-over patterns, by diapering, checkering, powdering, or spotting. All-over patterns may be symmetrical, balanced, or one-sided, and are drawn, painted, modelled, or carved. The typical pattern, if symmetrical, has no

Fig. 100.—Waving pattern, stamped velvet, 16th century. Italian, showing Saracenic influence.

two pieces of the ornament alike in the one half; and if balanced or onesided has no two pieces alike; so that the whole is full of interest from its variety. It is, however, rarely seen, as, unless the artist does it for his own delight, few amateurs care to pay for it. It is simulated in paper-hangings by the repetition of a piece, the width of the paper (Fig. 143), called a repeat; by stencilling or pouncing the repeat, if painted; and by cast repeats, if in plaster. This is one of the cheap substitutes for the real thing which pervades European art. The Chinese formerly supplied paper-hangings that would cover a whole room without a repeat.

Adiaperpattern is properly one contained in some repeating geometrical figure not composed of straight lines. In Saracenic and Moresque work real diapers are mostly found, a geometrical framework being laid over some interlaced floral patterns (Fig. 101). The name diaper comes from jasper, through the Low Latindiasprum, Italiandiaspro, or Frenchdiapre, and was originally applied to woven stuffs from the East. (See Figs.101,106,107,109and110.) These were mostly of silk covered with small patterns in colour, that suggested the appearance of the flowering of jasper.

In vulgar parlance, it is now applied to all patterns enclosed in a repeating geometrical form. Dados in painted decoration were mostly diapered, as may be seen in one of the churches of St. Francis, Assisi; and at the Sainte Chapelle at Paris, the diapers are on painted hangings; at the Arena Chapel at Padua the dado is painted in imitation of marble panels.

Checkers and network enclosing carved patternsare found on the walls of Gothic cathedrals and churches (Figs.98,99). When the space covered with checkers, network, or diapers is not too large the patterns should so far resemble one another as to give a uniform appearance, the variations being only enough to prevent disgust on a near view. Two patterns may sometimes alternate, but in very large surfaces another distinct pattern should be introduced, at certain intervals, to relieve the monotony. Care must be taken to make the network and pattern of the proper scale for the building or room, and for the other decoration.

Fig. 101.—Moresque diaper.Fig. 102.—Japanese network.

Diapers are found in Chinese and Japanese decoration, although rectilinear network is more common (Fig. 102), but powdering is most favoured by them (Figs.Fig. 103-105). Sometimes it is put over a pattern (Fig. 104). Powdering was, too, a favourite method of ornamenting in the Middle Ages.

Thesecond divisionis ornament arranged in horizontal bands. The Greeks were pre-eminent in the use of horizontal bands in their sculptured and

Fig. 103.—Japanese powdering.Fig. 104.—Superimposed Japanese powdering.

Fig. 105.—Japanese powdering.Fig. 106.—Diaper, Italian brocade, 16th century.

Fig. 107.—Diaper in velvet brocade, 16th century. Italian (German origin).

painted decorations. The embroidered or woven patterns on their dresses, shawls, and curtains, and the beautiful ornament on their vases, were mainly

Fig. 108.—Construction lines ofFig. 109.

designed on this system. Thefriezeis a characteristic feature in Greek architecture; and if you take the band ornaments out of Greek work there is very little ornament left. Figs. 37, 42, 45, 49, 51, 52, 113,

Fig. 109.—Velvet brocade, 16th century. Italian.

114, and 115 are some of their favourite band patterns. Figs. 116 and 117 show some of the patterns on dresses taken from the Greek vases. The shawl (peplum) of Demeter on a vase at the British Museum has chariot races, winged cupids, animals, birds, and dolphins in the successive bands; the sacred shawls of Minerva at the Parthenon (pepla) are only known by description. One had the battle of the gods and giants woven or embroidered on it, and another was ornamented with the portraits of Antigonus and Demetrius Poliorcetes (Plutarch’s Demetrius).

Spotting at regular intervals was the favourite way of decorating the larger surface of dresses. The circular flower that usually formed the spot in Greek ornament was composed of a greater number of petals than the Roman, and is probably of Assyrian origin. (SeeFig. 116.) Saracen work also affords good examples of horizontal band treatment. (See Figs.Fig. 118andFig. 119.)

The third division: perpendicular bands are not so common in decoration as the former class; they are mostly architectural in character, and usually form divisions between wall-spaces in the shape of panels in piers and pilasters. Triglyphs in friezes may even be classed in this division, and so may the soffits of arches in the Classic and Renaissance styles; the decoration of the soffits of beams and of ribs and groins in Gothic, though some purists say it gives a look of weakness to the arch. When the soffits of arches are wide in proportion to their height they may be panelled, and if narrow be treated like pilaster panels, the bottom of each side

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