The zeal which was manifested a few years since for the discovery and exploration of the interior of Africa, and which seemed to have terminated with the Landers, and the unsuccessful voyage of the steamers up the Niger, has again shown itself, and we now find as much curiosity awakened, and as much zeal manifested for geographical discovery in this vast continent, and the solution of questions for ages in doubt, as has been exhibited at any former period.
The Travels of M. d'Abaddie, Dr. Beke, Isenberg, and others make known to us the immense extent and windings of the Bahr-el-Abiad and the Bahr-el-Azrek, or the white and blue Nile, but they have not yet been traced to theirrise, and the solution of the question of the true source of the Nile, remains still unsettled.
We have received from Mr. Jomard, member of the French Institute, a work entitled "Observations sur le voyage au Darfour" from an account given by the Sheikh Mohammed-el-Tounsy, accompanied by a vocabulary of the language of the people, and remarks on the white Nile by Mr. Jomard. This is a valuable contribution to our knowledge of a portion of the interior of Africa, only known to us by the visit of Mr. Browne in 1794, and forms a link in the chain between Lake Tchad and a region of country quite unexplored, and of which we have no knowledge whatever.
We have some information of interest, relating to Senegal, communicated to the Royal Geographical Society of London,[24]being a narrative of Mr. Thomson, linguist to the Church Missionary Society at Sierra Leone, from that place to Timbo, the capital of Futah Jallo. His place is about four hundred miles northeast of Sierra Leone. "The principal object of the mission, was to open a road for a regular line of traffic through that country, between the colony and the negro states on the Joliba or Niger."
Mr. Thomson's narrative is full of interest and shows the great hardships to be encountered in effecting a communication with the interior. No man could be better prepared for such an enterprize, both by knowledge of the languages of the country, and the manners of the people; zeal, perseverance, and courage, also were prominent traits in his character; yet his enterprize failed and death cut him off, when on the point of starting for the eastward.
An expedition more successful in its results, has been undertaken in Dahomey on the Guinea coast, the particulars of which are given in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London, (vol. 16.) This journey was performed by Mr. John Duncan, from Cape Coast toWhyddah, and from the latter about five hundred miles due north, through the Dahomey country to Adofoodiah. Although the king of Ashantee had refused permission for Mr. Duncan to pass through his territory, and had endeavored to prejudice the king of Dahomey against him, he was received with great kindness by the latter, and every facility given him to travel in his dominions. A guard of one hundred men was furnished to accompany him—a path was cleared for upwards of one hundred miles, and arrangements made so that at every village through which he passed, provisions were always waiting, ready cooked for them. Among the strange things seen by this traveller was a review of six thousand Female troops, well armed and accoutred. Their appearance, for an uncivilized nation, was surprising, and their performance still more so. The slave trade is carried on extensively in Dahomey. In the market of Adofoodiah, articles from the Mediterranean, and from Bornou in the interior were exposed for sale, showing the immense extent of the trade of the country. He met people from Timbuctoo and gathered some particulars of that remarkable city, as well as some information respecting Mungo Park's death. This enterprising traveller has lately been provided with the means to enable him to set out on a new journey with a determination to penetrate the country to Timbuctoo, from whence he will endeavour to follow the Niger to its mouth.
The American Missionaries at the Gaboon, (Western Africa), with a view of establishing a mission in the Pong-wee country have been preparing a grammar of the Pong-wee language, the peculiarities of which are such as to deserve notice. The Missionaries call it "one of the most perfect languages of which they have any knowledge. It is not so remarkable for copiousness of words as for its great and almost unlimited flexibility. Its expansions, contractions, and inflections though exceedingly numerous, and having, apparently, special reference to euphony, are all governedby grammatical rules, which seem to be well established in the minds of the people, and which enable them to express their ideas with the utmost precision. How a language so soft, so plaintive, so pleasant to the ear, and at the same time so copious and methodical in its inflections, should have originated, or how the people are enabled to retain its multifarious principles so distinctly in their minds as to express themselves with almost unvarying precision and, uniformity, are points which we do not pretend to settle. It is spoken coastwise nearly two hundred miles, and perhaps with some dialectic differences, it reaches the Congo river. How far it extends into the interior is not satisfactorily known."[25]
An attempt to penetrate this continent from the north has been made by Mr. James Richardson, by advices from whom it appears that on the 23d November, 1845, he had reached Ghadames, in the Great Desert, where he had been residing for three months, and whence he was to start on the following day, with a negro and a Moor, for Soudan. If successful in reaching that country, he intended to proceed to Timbuctoo and other parts of the interior. Mr. Richardson was well received by the people and Sultan of Ghadames; but his journey to Sackatoo the capital of Soudan, which would take three months to accomplish, through some of the wildest tribes and without any guarantee from the English or Ottoman government, was considered foolhardy and desperate.[26]
Later accounts state that Mr. Richardson had returned after a successful exploration in the very centre of the Great Zahara, and that he has collected important information relating to the slave trade, one of the objects of his undertaking. We shall look forward with interest to the publication of his travels.[27]
The details of the expedition under M. Raffenel of theFrench navy and other scientific gentlemen, up the Senegal, have just been published.[28]The party ascended the Senegal to the river Falémé, and from the mouth of the Falémé they penetrated the country to Sansanzig. They then visited the gold mines of Kenieba, on the Bambouk, the country of Galam, Bondou and Woolli, and returned by the river Gambia. Seven months were spent on this expedition. They found the country beautiful, but its cultivation neglected, and of course little was produced. They visited the place where the French were formerly established, with the view of making treaties with the natives for its occupation anew. Few traces of the colony were to be found. They were kindly received by the various tribes of aborigines, wherever they went; though when at the extreme point of their journey, owing to the wars among the natives, they did not think it safe to proceed farther. The results of the expedition are interesting to science, as well as to the friends of humanity, who wish to improve the condition of this people.
For the more complete exploration of this portion of the African continent, it has been proposed to send another expedition under M. Raffenel for the purpose. This gentleman has submitted a memoir to the Minister of Marine, by whom it was presented to the Geographical Society of Paris. The result was favorable, and Mr. Raffenel has been provided with instructions for his guidance in his proposed journey.
A journey of exploration and civilization in Soudan, is about to be undertaken by four Jesuits from Rome—Bishop Casolani, and Fathers Ryllo, Knoblica, and Vinco. Casolani and Ryllo will start from Cairo in January, 1847—having previously obtained a Firman from Constantinople; and, proceeding through Upper Egypt, Nubia, and thence by Kordofau and Darfour, they hope to reach Bornou,—and meet there their brethren, who travel bythe way of Tripoli and Mouryok. Should they be fortunate enough to meet, it will then be determined which route shall afterwards be followed. They have determined to accomplish what they have undertaken, or perish in the attempt. From the high character of all the parties, great hopes are entertained of the result of this journey. They are all men of extensive learning, and familiar with the languages, manners and customs of the East.[29]
A project is on foot in London and a prospectus has been issued for a new Expedition of Discovery to penetrate the interior of Africa from the eastern side. Many advantages are presented by beginning the work of exploration here; among them, the populousness and civilization of Eastern Africa, which is in general superior to that of the western coast. The languages of the former bear a close affinity to each other, and extend over a very large space, which is not the case with the latter. "The absence of foreign influence, (particularly of the Portuguese, by whom the slave trade is carried on), and the readiness of the Sultan of Muscat to listen to British counsels," are strong inducements to carry out the scheme proposed.[30]
Lieutenant Ruxton of the Royal Navy, who has lately made an interesting journey into Africa from the southwestern coast, near the island of Ichaboe, is about to undertake a second journey with the intention of crossing the continent from this point to the eastern coast, under the sanction of the British Government.
Some valuable contributions have been made to our knowledge of the geography of Southern Africa by Mr. Cooley[31]and Mr. McQueen,[32]which tend to elucidateportions of this continent hitherto enveloped in much obscurity. Mr. Cooley's investigations relate to the country extending from Loango and Congo, the Portuguese settlements in Western Africa, to the eastern coast between Zanzibar and Sofala, in lat. 20° South.
He commences by examining the statements of the Portuguese geographers of the 16th century, Lopez, Joao Dos Santos, Do Couto, and Pigafetta. "The information collected by Lopez, was elaborated by Pigafetta into a system harmonizing with the prevalent opinions of the age, and in this form was published in 1591. Yet in the midst of this editor's theories, we can at times detect the simple truth." Much confusion seems to have arisen by misapplying the names of lakes, rivers and people, as this information was in a great degree derived from natives, and not properly understood by the persons who received it from them. Mr. Cooley, by a rigid examination of these various statements, together with the accounts derived from later writers and from native traders, has been enabled to rectify the errors which had crept in, and clear up much that had been considered fabulous. The great lake called N'Yassi, and the natives occupying the country around it, are among the most interesting subjects of our author's enquiries. This lake, or sea, as it is called by the natives, is some five or six hundred miles from the eastern coast. Its breadth in some places is about fifteen miles, while in others, the opposite shores cannot be seen. Its length is unknown, neither extremity having been traced. It probably exceeds five hundred miles, according to the best authority. Numerous islands filled with a large population, are scattered among its waters. It is navigated by bark canoes, twenty feet long, capable of holding twenty persons. Its waters are fresh, and it abounds in fish. The people seem more advanced in civilization than any African nations south of the Equator, of which we have knowledge. Pereira, who spent six months at Cazembe, in 1796, describes the people as similar, in point of civilization, to the Mexicansand Peruvians, at the time of the conquest. The nation called the Monomoesi, or Mucaranga, north of the lake, as well as the Movisa, on its opposite shores, are a tall and handsome race, with a brown complexion. "They are distinguished for their industry, and retain the commercial habits for which they were noted two centuries and a half ago, when their existence was first known through the Portuguese. They descend annually to Zanzibar in large numbers. The journey to the coast and back again, takes nine or ten months, including the delay of awaiting the proper season for returning. They are clothed in cotton of their own manufacture; but the most obvious mark of their superiority above other nations of Eastern Africa is, that they employ beasts of burden, for their merchandize is conveyed to the coast laden on asses of a fine breed." Mr. Cooley believes that "the physical advantages and superior civilization of these tribes, who are not negroes," explain the early reports which led the Portuguese to believe that the empire of Prestor John was not far off.
Mr. M'Queen's memoirs consist of the details of a journey made by Lief Ben Saeid, a native of Zanzibar, to the great lake N'Yassi, or Maravi, alluded to in Mr. Cooley's memoir. This visit was made in the year 1831. The facts collected corroborate what has been stated by Mr. Cooley. He found the country level, filled with an active population, civil to strangers, and honest in their dealings. A very extensive trade was carried on in ivory, and a peculiar oil, of a reddish color. The Manumuse (Mono-moezi) are pagans, and both sexes go nearly naked. Near the lake there are no horses or camels, but plenty of asses, and a few elephants. The houses on the road and at the lake, are made of wood and thatched with grass. Dogs are numerous, and very troublesome. Some are of a very large kind.[33]
The region which forms the subject of the memoirs just alluded to, is doubtless one of the most interesting fields for exploration of any on the African continent. The languages spoken by the several nations between the two oceans, which are here separated by a space of sixteen or seventeen hundred miles, in a direct line, are believed to belong to one great family, or at least to present such traces of affinity, that an expedition, if sufficiently strong, aided by interpreters from the Zanzibar coast or the Monomoezi tribes, might traverse the continent without difficulty. Obstacles might be thrown in the way by the Portuguese traders, who would naturally feel jealous at any encroachments by rival nations; but by a proper understanding, these might be overcome, and this interesting and hitherto unknown portion of Central Africa be laid open to commerce and civilization.
The latest attempt to explore this region was that of M. Maizan, a young officer in the French navy, who towards the close of the year 1844, set out for the purpose. In April, 1845, he left Zanzibar, furnished with a firman from Sultan Said to the principal chiefs of the tribes of the interior, though in reality they enjoyed the most complete independence. Having been warned that a chief, named Pazzy, manifested hostile intentions towards him, he stopped some time on his way, and after having acquired information relating to the country he wished to survey, he made a granddétourround the territory over which this savage chief exercised his authority. After a march of twenty days, he reached the village of Daguélamohor, which is but three days' journey from the coast in a direct line, where he awaited the arrival of his baggage, which he had entrusted to an Arab servant. This man, it appears, had communication with Pazzy, and had informed him of the route his master had taken. Pazzy, with some men of his tribe, overtook M. Maizan towards the end of July, at Daguelamohor, and surrounded the house in which he lived. After tying him with cords to apalisade, the savage ordered his men to cut the throat of their unfortunate victim.[34]
Mr. M'Queen gives some particulars obtained from a native African relating to the country between Lake Tchad, or Tshadda and Calabar. This portion of the African continent has never been visited by Europeans, and although little can be gained of its geography from the statements of this man, there is much in them that is interesting on the productions of the country, the natives, their manners, customs, &c.
The publication by the French government of the results of the great scientific expedition to Algeria has thrown much light on the districts embraced in Algiers and the regency of Tunis, as well as on the countries far in the interior. Among the subjects which have received the particular attention of the commission, are, 1. An examination of the routes followed by the Arabs in the south of Algiers and Tunis; 2. Researches into the geography and commerce of Southern Algiers, by Capt. Carette; 3. A critical analysis of the routes of the caravans between Barbary and Timbuctoo, with remarks on the nature of the western Sahara, and on the tribes which occupy it, by M. Renou; 4. A series of interesting memoirs on the successive periods of the political and geographical history of Algiers from the earliest period to the present time, by M. Pelissier; 5. The History of Africa, translated from the Arabic of Mohammed-ben-Abi-el-Raini-el-Kairouani, by M. Remusat, giving a particular account of the earliest Musselman period.
Gen. Marey in an account of his expedition to Laghouat in Algeria, published in Algiers in 1845, has contributed important information on this country, which deserves arank with the great work of the scientific expedition.[35]In this work the author has corrected the erroneous opinion which has long been held, of the barrenness of the Sahara. Among the Arabs this wordSaharadoes not convey the idea which the world has generally given it, of a desert or uninhabitable place, but the contrary. Like every country, it presents some excellent and luxuriant spots, others of a medium quality as to soil, and others entirely barren, not susceptible of cultivation. BySahara, the Arabs mean a country of pastures, inhabited by a pastoral people; while, to the provinces between the Atlas mountains and the sea, they apply the name ofTell, meaning a country of cereals, and of an agricultural people.
M. Carette, in his exploration of this region, has also discovered the false notion long imbibed in relation to it. "The Sahara," says he, "was for a long time deformed by the exaggerations of geographers, and by the reveries of poets. Called by some the Great Desert, from its sterility and desolation, by others the country of dates, the Sahara had become a fanciful region, of which our ignorance increased its proportions and fashioned its aspect. From the mountains which border the horizon of Tell, to the borders of the country of the blacks, it was believed that nature had departed from her ordinary laws, renouncing the variety which forms the essential character of her works, and had here spread an immense and uniform covering, composed of burning plains, over which troops of savage hordes carried their devastating sway. Such is not the nature, such is not the appearance of the Sahara."
This region, occupying so large a portion of the African continent, "is a vast archipelago of oases, of which each presents an animated group of towns and villages. Around each is a large enclosure of fruit trees. The palm is the king of these plantations, not only from the elevation of its trunk, but from the value of its product, yet it does notexclude other species. The fig, the apricot, the peach and the vine mingle their foliage with the palm."
The Algerine Sahara has lately been the object of a special work of Col. Daumas who intends completing the researches begun by Gen. Marey and the members of the scientific commission. He has made an excursion to the borders of the desert, and has collected much that is new and interesting in ethnology, particularly relating to the Tuarycks, a great division of the Berber race whose numerous tribes occupy all the western part of the great desert.[36]
Among the interesting Ethnological facts which the late expeditions in this region have brought to light, is that of the existence of a white race, inhabiting the Aures mountains, (mons Aurarius) in the province of Constantine.[37]Dr. Guyon, of the French army of Africa, took advantage of an expedition sent out by General Bedeau to the Aures, to collect information about this people, to whom other travellers had referred. He describes them as having a white skin, blue eyes and flaxen hair. They are not found by themselves, but predominate more or less among various tribes. They hold a middle rank, and go but rarely with the Kabyles and the Arabs. They are lukewarm in observances of the Koran, on which account the Arabs esteem them less than the Kabyles. They are more numerous in the tribe of the Mouchaïas, who speak a language in which words of Teutonic origin have been recognized. In Constantine where they are numerous, they exercise the trades of butcher and baker. Late writers believe that they are the remains of the Vandals driven from the country by Belisarius.
M. Bory de Saint Vincent in making some observations to the Academy of Sciences, on the paper of Dr. Guyon, exhibited portraits of individuals of this white race, whichhad been engraved for the Scientific Commission, and stated his belief that they were evidently of the northern Gothic and Vandal type.[38]
In Northern Africa, an important discovery has lately been made of the ancient Libyan alphabet, by Mr. F. de Saulcy, member of the French Institute. This curious result has been produced, by a study of the bilingual inscription on the monument of Thugga, which is published in the first volume of the Transactions of the Ethnological Society of New York. The reading of the Phœnician part of this bilingual inscription having been established, the value of the Libyan or Numidian letters of the counter part, has been as clearly proved, as the hieroglyphic part of the Rosetta stone has been established, from a comparison with the Greek text of that bilingual inscription.
By this discovery, a vast progress has been made in the ethnography and history of ancient Africa. Two facts of the greatest consequence have been established by it:—That the Libyan language was that of Numidia, at the early period of its history, when the Phœnicians were settled there; that the Numidians of that early day, used their own peculiar letters for writing their own language. To these facts, may be added another of no less ethnographic value; that the present Numidian or Berber race of the great Sahara, who are called Tuarycks, make use of these identical letters at this day.
For this recent and valuable acquisition to science, we are again indebted to Mr. de Saulcy,[39]who has published a Tuaryck alphabet as communicated to him by Mr. Boisonnet, Captain of Artillery at Algiers. It was furnished to him by an educated native of the Oasis of Touat, in the great Sahara, and is called by himKalem-i-Tefinag.[40]What thewriting of Tefinagmeans, it would be curious to know. This Touatee, Abd-el-Kader, has promised more extended information, in relation to the writing of the Tuarycks, than which, no more valuable contribution to African ethnography can be imagined. He asserts that, the Tuarycks engrave or scratch on the rocks of the Sahara, numerous inscriptions, either historic or erotic. This subject has been alluded to by Mr. Hodgson, in his "Notes on Africa" in which he mentions the Tuaryck letters copied by Denham and Clapperton.
The impulse first given by our countryman Mr. Wm. B. Hodgson, in his researches into the Berber language, and the ethnographic facts which were the results of his elucidations, has extended to England, France and Germany, and the last two years have been productive of several valuable and important works, including grammars and dictionaries of the Berber language. These have added greatly to our previous knowledge of the ancient and primitive people, who at a remote period, coeval with that of the ancient Egyptians occupied the northern part of Africa.
Mr. de Saulcy has already unravelled the intricacy of the demotic writing of Egypt and the popular characters of ancient Libya. He is thus working at both ends of the Libyan chain. He will find the Berber thread at the Oasis of Ammon, and at Meröe. We shall thus probably find, that the Berber language was the original tongue of that part of Ethiopia. Dr. Lepsius found in that region, numerous inscriptions in the Egyptian demotic, and in Greek characters, but written in an unknown language. He strongly suspects, that the old Ethiopian blood will be found in the Berber veins; and that the Nubian language has strong affinities with the Berber. When these inscriptions in an unknown language are decyphered, it will be known how far the interpretation of Egyptian mythology and the local names, heretofore proposed by Mr. Hodgson, is to be received as plausible. He has proposed the Berber etymologies of Aman or Ammon as water; Themis as fire or purity; Thot as an eye; Edfou and Tadis as the sun.
Books on Algiers.Algeria and Tunis in 1845. An account of a journey made through the two Regencies, by Viscount Fielding and Capt. Kennedy. 2 vols, post 8vo. London, 1846.Le Maroc et ses Caravanes, ou Relations de la France avec cet Empire, par R. Thomassy. 8vo. Paris 1845.Exploration Scientifique de l'Algeria pendant les années 1840, 1841, 1842. Publié par l'ordre du gouvernment et avec le concours d'une commission Académique. 4 vols, folio. (now in the course of publication.)Recherches sur la constitution de la propriété territoriale dans le pays mussulmans et subsidiairement en Algeria; par M. Worms. 8vo. Paris, 1846.A visit to the French possessions in Algiers in 1845. By Count St. Marie. Post 8vo. London, 1846.Afrique(l') française, l'empire du Maroc et les déserts de Sahara. Histoire nationale des conquêtes, victoires et nouvelles découvertes des Français depuis la prise d'Alger jusqu'à nos jours; par P. Christian. 8vo.Algeria en 1846; par J. Desjobert. 8vo. Paris, 1846.Guide du voyageur en Algeria. Itinéraire du savant, de l'artiste, de l'homme du monde et du colon; par Quetin. 18mo. Paris, 1846.Le Sahara Algerien. Etude geographiques, statistiques et historiques sur la region au sud des établissements Françaises en Algérie; par Col. Daumas 8vo. Paris, 1845.L'Afrique Française l'Empire de Maroc et les deserts de Sahara, conquêtes et découvértes des Français. Royal 8vo.Dictionnaire de Géographie économique, politique et historique de l'Algérie. Avec une carte. 12mo. Paris, 1846.Géographie populaire de l'Algérie, avec cartes. 12mo. 1846.Histoire de nos Colonies Françaises de l'Algérie et du Maroc; par M. Christian. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1846.The following list embraces the latest publications on Africa generally.Voyage dans l'Afrique Occidentale, comprenant l'exploration du Senegal depuis St. Louis jusqu'à la Félemé jusqu'à Sansandig; des mines d'or de Keniéba, dans le Bambouk; des pays de Galam, Boudou et Wooli; et de la Gambia; par A. Raffenel. 8vo. and folio atlas. Paris, 1846.Viaggi nell' Africa Occidentale, diToto Omboni, gia medico di consiglié nel regno d'Angola e sue dispendenze, 8vo. Milan, 1845.A visit to the Portuguese possessions in South Western Africa. By Dr. Tams. 2 vols. 8vo.Life in the Wilderness; or, Wanderings in South Africa. By Henry W. Methuen. Post 8vo. London, 1846.Voyage au Darfour par le Cheykh Mohammed Ebn-Omar El-Tounsy; traduit de l'Arabe par Dr. Perron; publié par les soins de M. Jomard. Royal 8vo. Maps. Paris, 1845.Observations sur le Voyage au Darfour suivies d'un Vocabulaire de la langue des habitans et de remarques sur le Nil Blanc Supérieur; par M. Jomard. 1846.Essai historique sur les races anciennes et modernes de l'Afrique Septentrionale, leurs origines, leurs mouvements et leurs transformations depuis l'antiquité jusqu'à nos jours; par Pascal Duprat. 8vo. Paris, 1845.
Books on Algiers.
Algeria and Tunis in 1845. An account of a journey made through the two Regencies, by Viscount Fielding and Capt. Kennedy. 2 vols, post 8vo. London, 1846.
Le Maroc et ses Caravanes, ou Relations de la France avec cet Empire, par R. Thomassy. 8vo. Paris 1845.
Exploration Scientifique de l'Algeria pendant les années 1840, 1841, 1842. Publié par l'ordre du gouvernment et avec le concours d'une commission Académique. 4 vols, folio. (now in the course of publication.)
Recherches sur la constitution de la propriété territoriale dans le pays mussulmans et subsidiairement en Algeria; par M. Worms. 8vo. Paris, 1846.
A visit to the French possessions in Algiers in 1845. By Count St. Marie. Post 8vo. London, 1846.
Afrique(l') française, l'empire du Maroc et les déserts de Sahara. Histoire nationale des conquêtes, victoires et nouvelles découvertes des Français depuis la prise d'Alger jusqu'à nos jours; par P. Christian. 8vo.
Algeria en 1846; par J. Desjobert. 8vo. Paris, 1846.
Guide du voyageur en Algeria. Itinéraire du savant, de l'artiste, de l'homme du monde et du colon; par Quetin. 18mo. Paris, 1846.
Le Sahara Algerien. Etude geographiques, statistiques et historiques sur la region au sud des établissements Françaises en Algérie; par Col. Daumas 8vo. Paris, 1845.
L'Afrique Française l'Empire de Maroc et les deserts de Sahara, conquêtes et découvértes des Français. Royal 8vo.
Dictionnaire de Géographie économique, politique et historique de l'Algérie. Avec une carte. 12mo. Paris, 1846.
Géographie populaire de l'Algérie, avec cartes. 12mo. 1846.
Histoire de nos Colonies Françaises de l'Algérie et du Maroc; par M. Christian. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1846.
The following list embraces the latest publications on Africa generally.
Voyage dans l'Afrique Occidentale, comprenant l'exploration du Senegal depuis St. Louis jusqu'à la Félemé jusqu'à Sansandig; des mines d'or de Keniéba, dans le Bambouk; des pays de Galam, Boudou et Wooli; et de la Gambia; par A. Raffenel. 8vo. and folio atlas. Paris, 1846.
Viaggi nell' Africa Occidentale, diToto Omboni, gia medico di consiglié nel regno d'Angola e sue dispendenze, 8vo. Milan, 1845.
A visit to the Portuguese possessions in South Western Africa. By Dr. Tams. 2 vols. 8vo.
Life in the Wilderness; or, Wanderings in South Africa. By Henry W. Methuen. Post 8vo. London, 1846.
Voyage au Darfour par le Cheykh Mohammed Ebn-Omar El-Tounsy; traduit de l'Arabe par Dr. Perron; publié par les soins de M. Jomard. Royal 8vo. Maps. Paris, 1845.
Observations sur le Voyage au Darfour suivies d'un Vocabulaire de la langue des habitans et de remarques sur le Nil Blanc Supérieur; par M. Jomard. 1846.
Essai historique sur les races anciennes et modernes de l'Afrique Septentrionale, leurs origines, leurs mouvements et leurs transformations depuis l'antiquité jusqu'à nos jours; par Pascal Duprat. 8vo. Paris, 1845.
Madagascar.—The island of Madagascar has recently attracted and continues to occupy attention in France. In 1842 M. Guillian, in command of a French corvette, was sent by the governor of the isle of Bourbon to this island, to select a harbor safe and convenient of access, and to obtain information relative to the country and its inhabitants. After visiting various parts of the island on its western side, in which fourteen months were spent, M. Guillian returned to Bourbon, and in 1845 the results of his visit were published in Paris. The first part of this work gives a history of the Sakalave people, who occupy the western parts of the island. The second details the particulars of the voyage made in 1842 and 1843, embracing the geography, commerce and present condition of the country, an abstract of which is given in the Bulletin of the Geographical Society of Paris, Feb. 1846.
So important were the results of the visit of M. Guillian that a new expedition has been sent to Madagascar under his direction, with instructions for a more extended examination, particularly in relation to its animal and vegetable productions. A more extensive work by M. de Froberville, is preparing for publication in Paris, in which more attention will be given to the ethnography of this important island.
Documents sur l'histoire, la géographie et le commerce de la partie occidentale de l'île de Madagascar; recueillis et redigés par M. Guillian, 8vo. Paris, 1845.Histoire d'établissement Français de Madagascar, pendant la restauration, précédée d'une description de cette île, et suivie de quelques considérations politiques et commerciales sur l'expédition et la colonisation de Madagascar. Par M. Carayon, 8vo. Paris, 1845.Histoire et Géographie de Madagascar, depuis la découverte de l'île en 1506, jusqu'au récit des derniers événements de Tamative; par M. Descartes. 8vo. Paris, 1846.Madagascar expedition de 1829. Par M. le Capitaine de frégate Jourdain.Revue de l'Orient, tom. ix. April, 1846.A short memoir on Madagascar is contained in the "Bulletin de la Société de Géographie, July, 1845," by M. Bona Christave.Etchings of a Whaling Voyage, with notes of a sojourn in the Island of Zanzibar, and a history of the whale fishery, by J. R. Browne. 8vo. New York, 1846.
Documents sur l'histoire, la géographie et le commerce de la partie occidentale de l'île de Madagascar; recueillis et redigés par M. Guillian, 8vo. Paris, 1845.
Histoire d'établissement Français de Madagascar, pendant la restauration, précédée d'une description de cette île, et suivie de quelques considérations politiques et commerciales sur l'expédition et la colonisation de Madagascar. Par M. Carayon, 8vo. Paris, 1845.
Histoire et Géographie de Madagascar, depuis la découverte de l'île en 1506, jusqu'au récit des derniers événements de Tamative; par M. Descartes. 8vo. Paris, 1846.
Madagascar expedition de 1829. Par M. le Capitaine de frégate Jourdain.Revue de l'Orient, tom. ix. April, 1846.
A short memoir on Madagascar is contained in the "Bulletin de la Société de Géographie, July, 1845," by M. Bona Christave.
Etchings of a Whaling Voyage, with notes of a sojourn in the Island of Zanzibar, and a history of the whale fishery, by J. R. Browne. 8vo. New York, 1846.
I have hesitated, in the superficial view I propose to take in noticing the ethnological and archæological researches of the day, as to whether I ought to speak of the land of the Pharaohs. The explorations have been on so grand a scale, and the results so astounding, that one is lost in amazement in attempting to keep pace with them.
In England, France, Germany and Italy, Egyptian archæology is the most fruitful topic among the learned.In Paris, it forms the theme of lectures by the most distinguished archæologists, and the subject absorbs so much interest in Germany, that the King of Prussia has established a professorship at the Royal University for Egyptian antiquities and history, which he has assigned to Professor Lepsius, the most accomplished scholar in Egyptian learning, and who was at the head of the scientific commission sent by his majesty to explore the valley of the Nile.
It will be remembered that in addition to the immense and costly work published by Napoleon, there have since been published the great national works of Champollion, by the French government, and of Rossellini by the Tuscan government. These are to be immediately followed by the great work of Lepsius, who has just returned from Egypt, laden with innumerable treasures, the results of three years of most laborious and successful explorations. This undertaking is at the expense of the King of Prussia, one of the most enlightened monarchs of Europe, and who, at the present moment, is doing more in various parts of the world for the advancement of science than any now living.
But the French government, which has always been foremost in promoting such explorations, is determined not to be superseded by the learned Prussian's researches in Egyptian lore. An expedition has been organized under M. Prisse, for a new survey and exploration of Egypt. Mr. Prisse is an accomplished scholar, versed in hieroglyphical learning, and author of a work on Egyptian Ethnology. He will be accompanied by competent artists, will go over the same ground as Lepsius, and make additional explorations.
As regards the eminent men who have won brilliant distinction in the career of Egyptian studies, it is out of the question here to analyze their books: it must suffice to state, that all have marched boldly along the road opened byChampollion, and that the science which owedits first illustration to Young, to the Champollions, to the Humboldts, to Salvolini, to Rosellini, to Nestor L'Hote, and to whose soundness the great De Sacy has furnished his testimony, counts at this day as adepts and ardent cultivators, such scholars as Letronne, Biot, Prisse, Bunsen, Lepsius, Burnouf, Pauthiér, Lanci, Birch, Wilkinson, Sharpe, Bonomi, and many more.[41]
A few important results of the late explorations in Egypt, and researches into her hieroglyphics and history, it may be well to mention.
Prof. Schwartze, of Berlin, is publishing a work on Egyptian philology, entitledDas Alte Ægypten. Some idea may be formed of the erudition of German philologists, and the extent to which their investigations are carried, when we state that this savant has completed the first part of the first volume of this work, which embraces 2200 quarto pages! and this is but a beginning.
De Saulcy has made great advances in decyphering the Demotic writing of Egypt, in which, from Champollion's death to 1843, little had been done. He has now translated the whole of the Demotic text on the Rosetta stone, so that we may consider this portion of Egyptian literature as placed on a firm basis.
Farther elucidations of the Coptic language have been made. This, it will be remembered, is the language into which the ancient Egyptian merged, and is the main instrument by which a knowledge of the latter must be obtained. Recently a discovery has been made by Arthur de Rivière, at Cairo, in an ancient Coptic MS. containing part of the Old Testament. The manuscript was very large and thick, and on separating the leaves was found to contain a pagan manuscript in the same language, the only one yet discovered.[42]On a farther examination ofthis manuscript, it proved to be a work on the religion of the ancient Egyptians. The translation of this curious document is looked for with much interest.
M. Prisse is publishing at the expense of the French Government, the continuation of Champollion's great work on Egypt and Nubia—50 plates are in press.
Mr. Birch, of London, has nearly ready for the press a work on the titles of the officers of the Pharaonic court. He has discovered in hieroglyphical writing those of thechief butler,chief baker, and others, coeval with the pyramids and anterior to Joseph. He has also discovered upon a tablet at the Louvre (age of Thotmes III. B.C. 1600) his conquest of Nineveh, Shinar, and Babylon, and with thetributeexacted from those conquered nations. The intense interest which Egyptian archæology is exciting in Europe will be seen from the list of new books on the subject.
The most remarkable discoveries, and in which the greatest advances has been made, are in monumental chronology. Through the indefatigable labors of the Prussian savant, Lepsius, primeval history has far transcended the bounds to which Champollion and Rosellini had carried it. They fixed the era of Menes, the first Pharaoh of Egypt, at about 2750, B.C. Böckh, of Berlin, from astronomical calculations, places it at 5702 B.C.
Henry of Paris, in his "L'Égypte Pharaonique," from historical deductions, places the era at 5303 B.C.
Barucchi, of Turin, from critical investigations, at 4890 B.C., and Bunsen, in his late work entitled "Egypt's Place in the World's History," from the most laborious hierological and critical deductions, places the era of Menes at 3643 B.C.
I should do wrong to speak of the labors of foreignsavans, without alluding to what has been done in this country. Dr. Morton, it is known, has published a work on Egyptian Ethnography, from crania in his possession furnished by Mr. Gliddon, which reflects great credit on his scholarship, and has been highly commended in Europe. The late Mr. Pickering, of Boston, was one of the few who cultivated hieroglyphical literature in America. But perhaps the American people, as a mass, owe a deeper debt of gratitude to Mr. Geo. R. Gliddon, for his interesting lectures on Egypt and her literature, and to his work entitled Chapters on Egyptian Antiquities and Hieroglyphics, than to any other man. Mr. Gliddon, by a long residence in Egypt, and by a close study subsequently of her monuments, has been enabled to popularize the subject, and by the aid of a truly magnificent and costly series of illustrations of the monuments, the sculptures, the paintings and hieroglyphics of Egypt, to make this most interesting and absorbing subject, comprehensive to all.
The results of these Egyptian investigations will doubtless be startling to many; for if the facts announced are true, and we see no reason to believe otherwise, it places the creation of man far, very far, beyond the period usually assigned to him in the chronology of the Hebrew Bible. But again, it must be observed that the common chronology gives the shortest period for that event. If other scriptural chronologies are adopted, we gain two or three thousand years for the creation of man, which gives us quite time enough to account for the high state of civilization and the arts in Egypt, four thousand years B.C.
But we do not fear these investigations—truth will prevail, and its attainment can never be detrimental to the highest interests of man.
I must also acknowledge the obligation I am under for the use of many splendid and valuable books relating to Egypt, from Mr. Richard K. Haight. This gentleman, with an ample fortune at his command, and with a taste for archæological studies, acquired by a personal tour among the monuments of Egypt, has collected a large and valuable library of books on Egypt, including all the great works published by the European governments on that country. This costly and unique collection, which few but princes or governments possess, he liberally places at the command of scholars, who, for purposes of study, may require them.Mr. Haight's interest in archæological researches has been noticed in Paris, in an article by De Saulcy, member of the Institute of France, in a memoir entitled, "L'Etude des Hieroglyphics." Speaking of Mr. Gliddon's success in the United States in popularizing hieroglyphical discoveries, De Saulcy justly remarks—"Il a été puissamment secondé, dans cette louable entreprise, par une de ces nobles intelligences dont un pays s'honore; M. Haight, l'ami, le soutien, dévoué de tous les hommes de science, n'a pas peu contribué, par sa généreuse assistance, a répandre aux Etats-Unis les belles découvertes qui concernent les temps pharaoniques."Revue des Deux Mondes.Paris, June 15, 1846.The following list embraces the late works relating to Egypt:The Oriental Album; or Historical, Pictorial, and Ethnographical Sketches, illustrating the human families in the Valley of the Nile: by E. Prisse. folio. London, 1846.The History of Egypt, from the earliest times till the conquest by the Arabs, A.D. 640. By Samuel Sharpe. 8vo. London, 1846.A Pilgrimage to the Temples and Tombs of Egypt, Nubia, and Palestine, in 1845-'46, by Mrs. Romer. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1846.L'Égypte au XIX siècle, histoire militaire et politique, anecdotique et pittoresque de Mehemet Ali, etc.; par E. Gouin. Illustrée de gravures.Panorama d'Égypte et de Nubie avec un texte orné, de vignettes; par Hector Horeau. folio.Recherches sur les arts et métiers de la vie civile et domestique des anciens peuples de l'Égypte, de la Nubie et de l'Éthiopie, suivi de détails sur les mœurs et coûtumes des peuples modernes des mêmes contrées; par M. Frederic Cailliand. folio. Paris, 1831-'47. 100 plates.Das Tödtenbuch der Ægypten nach dem Hieroglyphischen Papyrus in Turin, von Dr. R. Leipsius. Leipsig.Schwartze. Das alte Ægypten, oder Sprache, Geschichte, Religion und Verfassung d. alt. Ægypt. 2 vols. 4to. Leipsig.Ægyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte: Von Carl J. Bunsen. 3 vols. 8vo.Manetho und die Hundssternperiode, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Pharaonen: Von August Böckh. 8vo. Berlin, 1845.Macrizi's Geschichte der Copten. Aus den Handschriften zu Gotha und Wién, mit Übersetzungen and Anmerkungen. Von Wüstenfeld. 4to. Göttingen, 1845.Monuments de l'Égypte et de la Nubie. Notices descriptives conformes aux manuscrits autographes rédigés sur les lieux par Champollion le jeune. folio. Paris, 1845-'46.L'Égypte Pharaonique, ou Histoire des institutions qui régirent les Égyptiens sous leur Rois nationaux. par D.M.J. Henri. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1846.Discorso Critici sopra la Cronologia Egizia; del Prof. Barucchi. 4to. Turin.Voyage en Égypte, en Nubie, dans les déserts de Beyonda, des Bycharís, et sur les côtes de la Mer Rouge: par E. Combes. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1847.
I must also acknowledge the obligation I am under for the use of many splendid and valuable books relating to Egypt, from Mr. Richard K. Haight. This gentleman, with an ample fortune at his command, and with a taste for archæological studies, acquired by a personal tour among the monuments of Egypt, has collected a large and valuable library of books on Egypt, including all the great works published by the European governments on that country. This costly and unique collection, which few but princes or governments possess, he liberally places at the command of scholars, who, for purposes of study, may require them.
Mr. Haight's interest in archæological researches has been noticed in Paris, in an article by De Saulcy, member of the Institute of France, in a memoir entitled, "L'Etude des Hieroglyphics." Speaking of Mr. Gliddon's success in the United States in popularizing hieroglyphical discoveries, De Saulcy justly remarks—"Il a été puissamment secondé, dans cette louable entreprise, par une de ces nobles intelligences dont un pays s'honore; M. Haight, l'ami, le soutien, dévoué de tous les hommes de science, n'a pas peu contribué, par sa généreuse assistance, a répandre aux Etats-Unis les belles découvertes qui concernent les temps pharaoniques."Revue des Deux Mondes.Paris, June 15, 1846.
The following list embraces the late works relating to Egypt:
The Oriental Album; or Historical, Pictorial, and Ethnographical Sketches, illustrating the human families in the Valley of the Nile: by E. Prisse. folio. London, 1846.
The History of Egypt, from the earliest times till the conquest by the Arabs, A.D. 640. By Samuel Sharpe. 8vo. London, 1846.
A Pilgrimage to the Temples and Tombs of Egypt, Nubia, and Palestine, in 1845-'46, by Mrs. Romer. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1846.
L'Égypte au XIX siècle, histoire militaire et politique, anecdotique et pittoresque de Mehemet Ali, etc.; par E. Gouin. Illustrée de gravures.
Panorama d'Égypte et de Nubie avec un texte orné, de vignettes; par Hector Horeau. folio.
Recherches sur les arts et métiers de la vie civile et domestique des anciens peuples de l'Égypte, de la Nubie et de l'Éthiopie, suivi de détails sur les mœurs et coûtumes des peuples modernes des mêmes contrées; par M. Frederic Cailliand. folio. Paris, 1831-'47. 100 plates.
Das Tödtenbuch der Ægypten nach dem Hieroglyphischen Papyrus in Turin, von Dr. R. Leipsius. Leipsig.
Schwartze. Das alte Ægypten, oder Sprache, Geschichte, Religion und Verfassung d. alt. Ægypt. 2 vols. 4to. Leipsig.
Ægyptens Stelle in der Weltgeschichte: Von Carl J. Bunsen. 3 vols. 8vo.
Manetho und die Hundssternperiode, ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Pharaonen: Von August Böckh. 8vo. Berlin, 1845.
Macrizi's Geschichte der Copten. Aus den Handschriften zu Gotha und Wién, mit Übersetzungen and Anmerkungen. Von Wüstenfeld. 4to. Göttingen, 1845.
Monuments de l'Égypte et de la Nubie. Notices descriptives conformes aux manuscrits autographes rédigés sur les lieux par Champollion le jeune. folio. Paris, 1845-'46.
L'Égypte Pharaonique, ou Histoire des institutions qui régirent les Égyptiens sous leur Rois nationaux. par D.M.J. Henri. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1846.
Discorso Critici sopra la Cronologia Egizia; del Prof. Barucchi. 4to. Turin.
Voyage en Égypte, en Nubie, dans les déserts de Beyonda, des Bycharís, et sur les côtes de la Mer Rouge: par E. Combes. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1847.
Borneo.—Among the most remarkable and successful attempts to open a communication with the natives of the East India Islands, is that of Mr. James Brooke. This gentleman, prompted solely by a desire to improve the condition of the people of Borneo, and at the same time to explore this hitherto unknown region, has established himself at Sarawak, on the northwestern part of the island, 427 miles from Singapore. Such was the interest manifested by him on his arrival in the country to promote the good of the people, and to suppress the piracies which have been carried on for many years by the Malays, and certain tribes associated with them, that the then reigning Rajah, Muda Hassim, resigned to him his right and title to the government of the district, in which he was afterwards established by the Sultan of Borneo. The success that has attended Mr. Brooke's government, among a barbarous people, whose intercourse with foreigners had been confined to the Malays and Chinese, is most remarkable. Possessed of an independent fortune, of the most enlarged benevolence; familiar with the language, manners, customs and institutions of the people by which he is surrounded, with a mind stored with knowledge acquired from extensive travel and intercourse with various rude nations, he seems to have been prepared by Providence for the task which he has attempted, and which has thus far been crowned with success.
Capt. Keppel's Narrative of his expedition to Borneo, and Mr. Brooke's Journal, furnish some interesting ethnological facts. The Dyaks, or aboriginal inhabitants of Borneo, are divided into numerous lesser tribes, varying in a slight degree in their manners and customs. Their language belongs to the Polynesian stock, on which has been ingrafted, particularly along the coast, a large number of Malayan words. It also exhibits evidences of migrations from India at remote periods. In speaking of the Sibnowans, Mr. Brooke observes that "they have no idea of a God, and though they have a name for the Deity, (Battara, evidently of Hindoo origin), with a faint notion of a future state, the belief seems a dead letter among them. They have no priests, say no prayers, make no offerings to propitiate the Deity; and of course have no occasion for human sacrifices, in which respect they differ from all other people in the same state of civilization, who bow to their idols with the same feelings of reverence and devotion, of awe and fear, as civilized beings do to their invisible God."[43]From their comparatively innocent state, Mr. Brooke believes they are capable of being easily raised in the scale of society. "Their simplicity of manners, the purity of their morals and their present ignorance of all forms of worship, and all idea of future responsibility, render them open to conviction of truth and religious impression, when their minds have been raised by education."[44]It is a well known fact, that since the establishment of Europeans in the Eastern Archipelago, the tendency of the Polynesian races has generally been to decay. The case of Mr. Brooke, however, now warrants us in hoping that such a result need not necessarily and inevitably ensue.
While success has attended this gentleman at the north, the American missionaries, among the Dutch possessions farther south, have totally failed in their objects. They attribute the unwillingness of the Dyaks to submit to their instruction, to the influence of the Malays, whose interests are necessarily opposed to those of the missionaries, for, it is evident that once under the guidance of the latter, the Dyaks will see their own degraded and oppressed condition, and submit to it nolonger. Mr. Youngblood says that "so prejudiced are the Dyaks, that I have been unable to obtain a few boys to instruct, of which I was very desirous."[45]
The Dutch have long had trading establishments in Borneo, but they had made no efforts either to suppress the piracies, or improve the moral and social condition of its inhabitants. Its great value has now become so apparent, that unless they keep pace with, and follow the example set by the English, they will be in danger of having it wrested from their hands by the more enlightened policy of the latter.
Borneo produces all the valuable articles of commerce common to other islands of the Eastern Archipelago. Its mineral productions are equally rich, and include gold dust, diamonds, pearls, tin, copper, antimony, and coal. The interior is quite unknown. It is three times larger than Great Britain, and is supposed to contain about 3,000,000 of people.
I have purposely avoided speaking of the trade and commerce of the islands of the Eastern Archipelago, as they are subjects which do not fall within the sphere of our enquiries, in a review like the present; although the productions, the trade and commerce of nations are properly a branch of ethnological enquiry, in a more enlarged view. An interesting pamphlet, embodying much valuable information on the commerce of the East, has been lately published by our townsman, Mr. Aaron H. Palmer. This gentleman is desirous that the United States government should send a special mission to the East Indies, as well as to other countries of Asia, with a view to extend our commercial relations. The plan is one that deserves the attention of our people and government, and I am happy to state that it has met with favor from many of our merchants engaged in the commerce of the East, as well as from some distinguishedfunctionaries of the government.[46]England, France, Prussia, Denmark, and Holland, have at the present moment, expeditions in various parts of the East Indies and Oceanica, planned for the pursuit of various scientific enquiries and the extension of their commerce. With the exception of Prussia, these nations seem to be desirous to establish colonies; and they have, within a few years, taken up valuable positions for the purpose.
Is it not then the duty of our government to be represented in this new and wide field? Our dominions now extend from ocean to ocean, and we talk of the great advantages we shall possess in carrying on an eastern trade; but how greatly would our advantages be increased by having a depot or colony on one of the fertile islands contiguous to China, Java, Borneo, Japan, the Philippines, &c. An extended commerce demands it, and we hope the day is not distant when our government may see its importance.
England, France, Spain, Portugal and Holland have possessions in the East. The former, always awake to her commercial interests, now has three prominent stations in the China Sea,—Singapore, Borneo, and Hongkong. But even these important points do not satisfy her, and she looks with a longing eye towards Chusan, a point of great importance, commanding the trade of the northern provinces of China, and contiguous to Corea and Japan. The "Friend of India," a leading paper, "is possessed with a most vehement desire," says the editor of the "China Mail," "that the British, without infringing their 'political morality,' could contrive some meansof obtaining the cession of Chusan, which, in their hands, he believes, could be converted into a second Singapore, and become one of the largest mercantile marts of the East."[47]
It is evident from what has been stated, and from the opinions expressed in foreign journals, that the attention of the civilized world has been suddenly attracted to the Eastern Archipelago, and it is only surprising, considering the knowledge possessed by the European nations, of the rich productions of these islands, and the miserable state in which a large portion of their inhabitants live, that efforts have not before been made to colonize them, and bring them under European rule.
The Spaniards contented themselves with the Philippines, but the Dutch, more enterprising, as well as more ambitious, extended their conquests to Sumatra, Java, the Moluccas, and recently to Bali, Sumbawa, Timor and Celebes. But these are not all, for wherever our ships push their way through these innumerable islands, they find scattered, far and wide, their unobtrusive commercial stations, generally protected by a fort and a cruiser.
It is said that the natives feel no attachment for their Dutch rulers, which, as they possess so wide spread a dominion in the Archipelago, is much to be regretted; for this feeling of animosity against them, may effect the relations that may be hereafter formed between the aboriginal races and other Christian people. Attempts will doubtless be made to prejudice the natives against the English, but the popularity of Mr. Brooke at Sarawak, in Borneo, his kindness to the natives, and the destruction of the pirates by the British, will no doubt gain for them throughout the Archipelago, a name and an influence which the jealousies of other nations cannot counteract. The natives of these islands except those of the interior, are strictly a trading and commercial people. Addicted to a seafaring life, andtempted by a love of gain, they traverse these seas in search of the various articles of commerce which are eagerly sought after by traders for the European, India, and Chinese markets. Piracy, which abounds in this region, grows out of this love of trade—this desire for the accumulation of wealth—and we believe that nothing would tend to suppress crime so effectually as the establishment of commercial ports throughout the Archipelago.
It is said that the population embraced in the twelve thousand islands of which Polynesia consists, amounts to about forty millions. No part of the world equals it in the great variety and value of its products. There is scarcely an island but is accessible in every direction, abounding in spacious bays and harbors, and the larger ones in navigable rivers. The people are generally intelligent, and susceptible of a higher degree of cultivation than the natives of Africa, or of many parts of the adjacent continent.
To obtain a station or an island in this vast Archipelago, we should require neither the outlay of a large sum of money, nor the loss of human life; no governments would be subjected, or kings overthrown. Civilization and its attendant blessings would take the place of barbarism, idolatry would be supplanted by christianity, and the poor natives, now bowed down by cruelty and oppression, would, under the care of an enlightened government, become elevated in the scale of social existence.
The cultivation of spices in the Archipelago, and the acts by which the monopoly is secured by the Dutch in the Moluccas, reflect little credit on human nature. "No where in the world have the aboriginal tribes been treated with greater cruelty; and in some cases literal extermination has overtaken them. Their tribe has been extinguished, they have been cut off to a man, and that merely lest, in order to obtain a humble subsistence, they should presume to trade on their own account in those costly spices, the sale of which, without right or reason, Holland hashitherto thought proper to appropriate to herself. No form of servitude, moreover, equals the slavery of those who are engaged in the culture of the nutmeg-tree. They toil without hope. No change ever diversifies their drudgery; no holiday gladdens them; no reward, however trifling, repays extra exertion, or acts as a stimulus for the future. The wretched slave's life is one monotonous round, a mere alternation of toil and sleep, to be terminated only by death."[48]The northern portions of New Guinea, as well as other islands, are in the same latitude as Banda and Amboyna, and produce the nutmeg and other spices. They might be extensively cultivated by the natives, if encouragement was given them; and a sufficient supply obtained for all the markets of Europe and America.
The Island of Bali, lying east of Java, from which it is separated by a narrow strait, has recently been subjected by the Dutch. Some difficulty growing out of the commerce with the people, is the alleged cause. It is an island of great importance to Holland, and would seriously injure her commerce with Java, should any other European nation take it under its protection, or plant a colony there. A slight pretext therefore sufficed for its annexation.
New Caledonia Islands.Later information has been received from the Catholic Missionaries in New Caledonia; for it seems that even in those distant and barbarous islands both Protestant and Catholic are represented. The Propaganda annals contain some interesting accounts of the natives of these islands, and of other facts of importance in Ethnology. Two Catholic missionaries, the Rev. Mr. Rougeyron and the Rev. Mr. Colin, had been twenty months on these islands, during which time they had accomplished nothing in the way of conversions, andbut little towards improving the moral condition of the natives. It was hardly time to expect much, as they had only then begun to speak the language of the country, which they found very difficult to acquire. The natives are a most lazy and wretched people. They cultivate the ground with the aid of a piece of pointed wood, or with their nails, but never in proportion to their wants. For the greater part of the year they are compelled to live upon a few fish, shell-fish, roots and the bark of trees, and at times when pressed by hunger, worms, spiders and lizards are eagerly devoured by them. They are cannibals in every sense of the word, and openly feed on the flesh of their enemies. Yet they possess the cocoa, banana and yam, with a luxuriant soil, from which, with a little labor, an abundance could be raised.
Among no savage tribes are the women worse treated than here. They are completely at the mercy of their cruel and tyrannical husbands. Compelled to carry burdens, to collect food, and cultivate the fields, their existence promises them but little enjoyment; and when there is any fruit or article of delicacy procured, it is at oncetabooedby the husband, so that she cannot touch it but at the peril of her life.
The missionaries had begun to expostulate with the natives on the horrors of eating their prisoners, and other vices to which they were addicted, and observe that "a happy change has already taken place among them; that they were less disposed to robbery, and that their wars are less frequent."[49]They are beginning to understand the motive which brought the missionaries to them, and already show a desire to be instructed.
The protestant missions have not accomplished any more than the Catholic's among these savages. The latest accounts state that four of the native teachers who had been converted to Christianity, had been cruelly murdered, and that such was the hostility of the chiefs at the isle of Pines, that the prospects of the missionaries were most discouraging.[50]
Sooloo Islands.—Mr. Itier, attaché to the French mission in China, has recently visited a cluster of islands lying to the northeast of Borneo, between that island and Mindanao.[51]His researches on the natural history and geology of these islands, are of much interest. The soil is exceedingly fertile, and the climate more healthy than is usual in intertropical climates. The sugar cane, cocoa, rice, cotton, the bread fruit, indigo, and spices of all kinds, are among their products. Fruits and vegetables of a great variety, are abundant, and of a superior quality. Nine-tenths of the soil is still covered with the primitive forest, of which teak-wood, so valuable in shipbuilding, forms a part. A considerable commerce with China and Manilla is carried on, and from ten to twelve thousand Chinese annually visit the island of Basilan, the most northerly of the group, to cultivate its soil, and take away its products. The peculiar situation of these islands, and their contiguity to the Philippines, to Celebes, Borneo, Manilla, China, and Singapore, make them well adapted for a European colony. In fact, there do not appear to be any islands of the East Indies of equal importance, and there can be no doubt that with the present desire manifested by European nations for colonizing, this desirable spot will ere long be secured by one of them. The Sooloo group embraces sixty inhabited islands, governed by a Sultan, residing at Soung. One of these would be an advantageous point for an American colony or station.
The same gentleman has presented to the Geographical Society of Paris, the journal of a voyage and visit to the Philippine islands, from which it appears that that largeand important croup is not inferior in interest to the Sooloo islands. The natural history and geology, the soil and its products, the manners and customs of the people, their commerce and political history, are described in detail.[52]The group embraces about twelve hundred islands, with a population of 4,000,000, of whom about 8,000 are Chinese, 4,000 Spaniards, 120,000 of a mixed race, and the remainder natives.
The Nicobar Islands, a group nineteen in number, in the Bay of Bengal, have again attracted the attention of the Danish government, by which an expedition has been sent with a view to colonize them anew. The Danes planted a colony there in 1756, but were compelled to abandon it in consequence of the insalubrity of the climate. Subsequently the French made an attempt with no better success.
Recent publications on the Eastern Archipelago and Polynesia.Ethnology and Philology. By Horatio Hale, Philologist of the U. S. Exploring Expedition, imp. 4to. Philadelphia, 1846.Reise nach Java, und Ausflüge nach den Inseln Mudura und S. Helena; von Dr. Edward Selberg, 8vo. Oldenburg, 1845.Philippines (les), histoire, géographie, mœurs, agriculture, industrie et commerce des colonies espagnoles dans l'Océanie; parJ. Mallat, 2 vols. 8vo., avec un atlas in folio. Paris, 1846.The expedition of H.M.S. Dido, for the suppression of piracy; by the Hon. Capt. Keppell, with extracts from the journal of James Brooke, Esq. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1846. Reprinted in New York.Trade and Travel in the Far East; or recollections of twenty-one years passed in Java, Singapore, Australia and China, by G.F. Davidson, post 8vo. London, 1846.Typee: Narrative of a four months' residence among the natives of the Marquesas islands, by Herman Melville. 12mo. New York, 1846.Besides these, The Missionary Herald, the Baptist Missionary Magazine, The London Evangelical Magazine, the Annals of the Society for the Propagation of the Faith, as well as other similar journals, contain many articles of great interest on the various islands of the Eastern Archipelago and the South Sea Islands.
Recent publications on the Eastern Archipelago and Polynesia.
Ethnology and Philology. By Horatio Hale, Philologist of the U. S. Exploring Expedition, imp. 4to. Philadelphia, 1846.
Reise nach Java, und Ausflüge nach den Inseln Mudura und S. Helena; von Dr. Edward Selberg, 8vo. Oldenburg, 1845.
Philippines (les), histoire, géographie, mœurs, agriculture, industrie et commerce des colonies espagnoles dans l'Océanie; parJ. Mallat, 2 vols. 8vo., avec un atlas in folio. Paris, 1846.
The expedition of H.M.S. Dido, for the suppression of piracy; by the Hon. Capt. Keppell, with extracts from the journal of James Brooke, Esq. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1846. Reprinted in New York.
Trade and Travel in the Far East; or recollections of twenty-one years passed in Java, Singapore, Australia and China, by G.F. Davidson, post 8vo. London, 1846.
Typee: Narrative of a four months' residence among the natives of the Marquesas islands, by Herman Melville. 12mo. New York, 1846.
Besides these, The Missionary Herald, the Baptist Missionary Magazine, The London Evangelical Magazine, the Annals of the Society for the Propagation of the Faith, as well as other similar journals, contain many articles of great interest on the various islands of the Eastern Archipelago and the South Sea Islands.
Australia.This vast island continues to attract the attention of geographers and naturalists. Its interior remains unknown, notwithstanding the various attemptswhich have been made from various points to penetrate it. The explorations of scientific men during the last four years have been productive of valuable information relating to its geography, ethnography, geology and natural history.
Among the most eminent and successful in this field, is the Count de Strzelecki. This gentleman, as early as the year 1840, made an extensive tour into the southwestern part of Australia, in which he discovered an extensive tract called Gipp's Land, containing an extent of five thousand six hundred square miles, a navigable lake and several rivers, and from the richness of the soil, presenting an inviting prospect to settlers. His explorations were continued during the years 1842 '43 and '44, and in the following year the results were given to the public,[53]"comprehending the fruits of five years of continual labor during a tour of seven thousand miles on foot. This work treats, within a moderate compass, of the history and results of the surveys of those countries, of their climate, their geology, botany and zoology, as well as of the physical, moral and social state of the aborigines, and the state of colonial agriculture, the whole illustrated by comparisons with other countries visited by himself in the course of twelve years travel through other parts of the world." For these extensive explorations and discoveries, and for his valuable work in which they are embodied, the Royal Geographical Society of London awarded the "Founders" gold medal to Count Strzelecki.[54]
Additional information to our knowledge of Australia is contained in Capt. Stokes's late work detailing the discoveries made by himself and other officers attached to H.M.S. Beagle. These discoveries consist of a minute examination of a large part of the coast of that island, ofseveral rivers on its northern and northwestern sides, and of expeditions into the interior. Natives were seen in small numbers in various parts, all of whom were in the lowest state of barbarism. A remarkable diversity of character was noticed, however, among the natives of different localities, some being most kindly disposed, and approaching the strangers without fear, as though they were old acquaintances, whilst others manifested the greatest hostility and aversion. In the instances referred to, they had never seen white men before. Capt. Stokes says his "whole experience teaches him that these were not accidental differences, but that there is a marked contrast in the disposition of the various tribes, for which he will not attempt to account."[55]The natives at Port Essington, on the north, appear to be in some respects superior to those in other parts of the island. Their implements of war and their canoes show a connexion with the Malays. They also have a musical instrument made of bamboo, the only one yet found among them.[56]The rite of circumcision was practised on the northern coast near the gulf of Carpentaria. On the southern coast, at the head of the Australian bight, it had before been noticed by Mr. Eyre.[57]For the practice of this ancient rite at such remote distances, and confined to within such narrow limits, we can only account, by some early migration or visit of people by whom it was practised. Nothing has yet been done towards a comparison of the languages spoken by the Australian tribes. In the late cruise of Capt. Stokes, natives of the south were taken to the northern parts of the island, but in their intercourse with the people of the latter, they were unable to make themselves understood. It is possible, however, that like the languages of the American Indians, though they may exhibit a wide difference in words for similar objects, the grammatical structure may be the same. This is a moreimportant test in ethnological comparison, and should be applied before any of the aboriginal tribes of Australia are extinct.
By far the most important journey yet accomplished for the exploration of Australia, is that of Dr. Leichardt. This gentleman, accompanied by Mr. Gilbert, a naturalist, and six others, started from Moreton Bay, on the southeastern shore of the island, in October, 1844, to penetrate to Port Essington, on its most northerly point; in order, if possible, to open a direct route to Sydney. Several months after the party left, reports were brought to Moreton Bay that they had been cut off by the natives. This was proved to be untrue by an expedition sent out for the purpose, who traced the travellers four hundred miles into the interior. Dr. Leichardt found it impossible to penetrate into the interior in a direct course, on account of high table-land, and the absence of water; and this circumstance compelled him to keep within six or seven degrees of the coast. Their six months' provisions being exhausted, the only resource of the party was the horses and stock bullocks,—and with these the strictest economy was necessary. One was killed as provision for a month—sometimes a horse, at others a bullock. For six months prior to reaching Port Essington, the party were reduced to a quarter of a pound of meat per day—frequently putrescent—unaccompanied with salt, bread, or any kind of vegetable. In the neighborhood of the Gulf of Carpentaria, Mr. Gilbert, the naturalist, was surprised by the natives, and killed. The remainder reached Port Essington on the 2d of December, 1845.[58]
The narrative of Dr. Leichardt's expedition has not yet been published in detail. The report[59]which has appeared consists chiefly of notices of the geography of theregion traversed, the soil, productions, climate, &c. He encountered natives in many places, sometimes in considerable numbers. By some they were kindly received, by others treated as enemies. Their characteristics are not noticed. The most extraordinary feature in Dr. Leichardt's narrative is the constant succession of water. Although the season was an exceedingly dry one, no rain having fallen for seven months, yet from the commencement to the close of his year and a half's expedition, throughout the whole length and breadth of the vast region he traversed, he was continually meeting with fresh water, in the forms of "pools, lagoons, brooks, wells, water-holes, rocky basins, living springs, swamps, streams, creeks or rivers." The soil in many places was of the best kind, covered with luxuriant grass and herbs. Of the former, some twenty kinds were seen. In lat. 18° 48' he found a level country, openly timbered, with fine plains, extending many miles in length and breadth. The flats bordering the creeks and rivers were covered with tall grass, and the table-lands presented equally attractive features. "The whole country along the east coast of the Gulf of Carpentaria is highly adapted for pastoral pursuits. Cattle and horses would thrive exceedingly well, but the climate and soil are not adapted to sheep. Large plains, limited by narrow belts of open forest land; fine grassy meadows along frequent chains of lagoons, and shady forest land along the rivers, render this country inviting to the squatter." Dr. Leichardt thinks there are many districts suitable for the cultivation of rice and cotton.
In regard to a communication between the settlements, it is the decided opinion of the Doctor, that no line of road can be effected direct from Fort Bourke to the northern settlement. A route from Moreton bay to the gulf of Carpentaria will be easily constructed. The whole coast is backed by ranges of mountains, consisting, nearest the sea, generally of granite and basaltic rocks, which hecalls the granite range; behind this is a second range of sandstone. Descending from this and again rising, they entered upon the table-land; which they could nowhere penetrate, so as to determine what might be the character of the central country. It was covered with a dense shrub, had no water; and frequently there was difficulty in descending from it, owing to the perpendicular cliffs and deep ravines. They passed several rivers all of which ran easterly towards the coast. After reaching the Gulf of Carpentaria, they again ascended the table-land, and suffered extremely for want of water. The country beneath them was delightful to look at, but they were unable to descend to it, until they reached the dip towards the Alligaters. Here the country surpassed in fertility any thing that they had seen.