FOOTNOTES:

The admiration of the Chinese characters, led in time to the invention of a second syllabary, having the same sounds but far more difficult to learn from the number of characters in it and their complicated forms. It is calledhirakana, or "equal writing," because it is intelligible without the addition of Chinese characters; it is now the common medium of communication, in epistolary composition of all kinds, story books, and other everyday uses. There are one hundred and one characters in thehirakana, or nearly three modes of writing each of the forty-eight syllables, and they are run together as rapidly and far more fancifully than in our own running-hand, when that is compared with the Roman character. The characters are mostly contractions of Chinese characters used simply as phonetic symbols, without any more reference to their meaning than in thekatakana. The more ancientof the two is now usually employed in dictionaries, by the side of Chinese characters in books to explain them to the reader, or at their bottom to indicate the case of the word. In reading a Chinese book, a good Japanese scholar makes a kind of running translation into his own vernacular, sometimes giving the sound, and sometimes giving the sense, and thekatakanais used in the latter case, to indicate the tense, or case of the native word. Having the Chinese language as well as its native stores to draw from, the Japanese is both copious and flexible, and by its syllabic construction, also euphonious and mellifluous, in these respects being far superior to the Chinese. The following stanza is from one of the Dutch writers; it is written with thirty-one syllables.

Kokorodani makotono,Michi ni kanai naba,Inorazu totemo kamiyaMamoran.

There are still two other syllabaries, one calledManyo-kana, and the otherYamato-kana, both of which are formed of still more complicated Chinese characters, also used phonetically. Neither of these syllabaries is generally used entirely alone, but the three are joined together or interchanged somewhat according to the fancy of the writer, in a manner similar to Archdeacon Wrangham's famous echo poem. Such a complicated mode of writing has this unfortunate result, however, of so seriously obstructing the avenues to the temple of science, that the greatest part of the common people are unable to enter, and must be content with admiring the structure afar off. Most of them content themselves with learning to write and read in thehirakana, and get as much knowledge of Chinese as will enable them to read the names of places, signs, people, &c., for which those characters are universally used. Besides the phonetic use of Chinese charactersin these syllabaries, they are employed very extensively as words, with their own meanings, partly because they are more nervous and expressive in the estimation of the writer than the vernacular, and partly to show his learning and shorten his labor. Commonly, characters so used are called by their Japanese meanings, but sometimes too by their Chinese names.[110]

The connection between the Chinese and Japanese, therefore, is very intimate, and presents a curious instance of assimilation between a symbolic and syllabic language, though at the cost of much hard study and labor to acquire the mongrel compound. It is another example of Asiatic toil upon the media of thought, rather than investigations in the world of thought and science itself; for no people who possessed invention, research, or science, would ever have encumbered themselves with so burdensome a vehicle of communication. The Chinese do not attend to the Japanese language, and have no knowledge of its structure, or the principles on which it has combined with their own. Their intercourse with Japan is entirely commercial; that of the Japanese with them, chiefly literary.

The Coreans have also adopted the Chinese character, but without many of the elaborate modifications in use among the Japanese. They have had more intercourse with the Chinese, but have not been able to make their polysyllabic words assimilate with the monosyllables of the Chinese. They have invented an alphabet, the letters of which combine to form syllables, and these syllabic compounds are then used like the Japanese characters to express their own words. The original letters consist of fifteen consonants, calledka,na,ta,laorra,maorba,pa,saorsha,nga,tsaorcha,ts´aorch´a,k´a,t´a,p´a,ha, andwa; and eleven vowels,a,ya,o,yo,oh,yoh,ú,yú,u,í, andâh. The combinations of these form altogether one hundredand sixty-eight syllables, the last fourteen of which are triply combined by introducing the sound ofwbetween the consonants and some of the vowels, askwa,ts´hwo, &c. The sounds and meanings of Chinese characters are expressed in this syllabary in the duoglott works prepared by the Coreans for learning Chinese; while it is used by itself in works intended for the natives. The Coreans have not, like the Japanese, unnecessarily increased the difficulty of their own language by employing a great number of signs for the same sound, but are content with one series. It is to be hoped that this facility results in a greater diffusion of knowledge among the people. The Japanese have the inflections of cases, moods, tenses and voices, in their language; but these features are denoted in Corean by the collocation of the words, and the words themselves remain unchanged as in Chinese. The sounds of the Corean are pleasant, and both it and the Japanese allow many alterations and elisions for the sake of euphony. Further investigation will probably show some connection originally between the Corean and Manchu languages, though the former of these has been more modified by the Chinese than the latter.[111]

The people of Annam have adopted the Chinese characters without making a syllabary or alphabet to express their own vernacular. The inhabitants of this country are evidently of the same race as the Chinese, and now acknowledge a nominal subjection to the emperor of China by sending a triennial embassy to Peking, partly commercial and partly tributary. The sounds given to the Chinese characters are, however, so unlike those given them in China, that the two nations cannot converse with each other. The Annamese have many sounds in their spoken language which no Chinese can enunciate. The court dialect is learned by educated men, and books are written and printed in Chinese. The sounds given to thecharacters are all monosyllabic, and slight analogies can be traced running through the variations; but they offer very little assistance to any one, who, knowing only one mode of pronunciation, wishes to learn the other.

Much of the interest connected with the investigation of the Chinese and its cognate tongues, arises from the immense multitudes which speak and write them; and from the influence which China has, through the writings of her sages, exerted over the minds and progress of her neighbors. There is nothing like it in European history; but the spell cast over the intellects of the millions in eastern Asia, by the writings of Confucius, Mencius, and their disciples, is likely erelong to be broken by the infusion of Christian knowledge, the extension of commerce, and a better understanding of their political and social rights by the multitudes who now adopt them.

For much of the information embraced in this memoir on China, Japan, and the adjacent countries, I am indebted to the Chinese Repository, (a monthly journal printed at Canton), and more especially to one of its accomplished editors, Mr. S. Wells Williams. This gentleman during a residence of twelve years in China, has made himself familiar with the written and spoken language of the Chinese, and is ranked, by some of the eminent Sinologists of Europe, among the profoundest adepts in that branch of literature and philology. Mr. Williams has also studied the Japanese language, which he reads and speaks; and is probably the only man in America familiar with the languages of China and Japan. Several natives of Japan, driven by adverse winds from their native shores, found their way to China, and were subsequently taken by an American ship to Yedo, but were not permitted to land. From these men, Mr. Williams has learned the spoken Japanese, and as much of the written language as they could impart. This gentleman is at present in New York making arrangements for getting founts of Chinese, Japanese, and Manchu type, for printing in these languages.

The Chinese Repository is a monthly journal, printed at Canton, and is edited by the Rev. Dr. Bridgman and Mr. Williams. It contains much valuable information relating to China, Japan, and the eastern Archipelago, and frequently memoirs, translated from the Japanese and Chinese. On the whole, it may with truth be said to embody more information than any other work extant, on these countries.

Mr. Williams has now in press a new work on the Chinese empire, which will contain an account of its general political divisions, including Manchuria, Mongolia, Ili and Tibet, their geographical and topographical features. The natural history of China; its government, laws, literature, language, science, industry and arts. Social and domestic life—History and Chronology—Religion; Christian missions; intercourse with other nations; and a full account of the late war with England.

The history of the introduction of Christianity into China, in the seventh century of the Christian era, the traces of which still exist; and of the Jews in China, are subjects which are now attracting attention. It would occupy too much space to give any particulars in this brief memoir. In the list of late works on China, will be found references to such books as treat of the subject, to which the attention of the reader is directed.

The Syrian monument which has been often referred to, is one of great interest, and is believed by all who have examined the subject, to be genuine. This monument was discovered by some Chinese workmen, in the year 1625, in or near the city of Singan, the capital of the province of Shensi, and once the metropolis of the empire. The monument was found covered with rubbish, and was immediately reported to the magistrate, who caused it to be removed to a pagoda, where it was examined by both natives and foreigners, Christians and Pagans. It was a slab of marble, about ten feet long and five broad. It contained on one side a Chinese inscription, which wastranslated by Father Kircher into Latin, and by Dalquié into French. Mr. Bridgman has given an English translation, and has published the three versions, accompanied by the original Chinese, with explanatory notes. This inscription commemorates the progress of Christianity in China, and was erected in the year of the Christian era 718. Mr. Bridgman who is one of the most learned in the Chinese language, says in conclusion, that "there are strong internal evidences of its being the work of a professor of Christianity, and such we believe it to be."[112]

Other portions of this memoir might be very much enlarged, but would extend it beyond the bounds of theresumé, which it is intended to give. There are besides other countries and people, accounts of which it would be desirable to give place to, particularly those of Central Asia, but they are unavoidably passed over from the space that would be required to do them justice. The object of this paper is to awaken the attention of readers to the geographical and ethnographical discoveries made within the last few years, all of which have a bearing on the history and progress of the human race. If the author has succeeded in so doing, he will feel abundantly repaid for his labor.

The recent works on China are embraced in the following list.China; Political, Commercial and Social; with descriptions of the consular ports of Canton, Amoy, Ningpo and Shanghai, etc., etc. By R. Montgomery Martin. London, 1847.Chinese Commercial Guide. Macao, 1844.Voyage of the Nemesis; By W.D. Barnard. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1843. 2d ed. 12mo. 1846.Events in China. By Granville Loch, R.N. 1844.War in China. By Lieut. Ochterlony. 1844.The Land of Sinim, with a brief account of the Jews and Christians in China, By a missionary. 12mo. N.Y., 1846.Sketches of China. By J.F. Davis. 2 vols. 12mo. 1845.The Jews in China. By J. Finn. 12mo. London, 1844.Les Juifs de la Chine, par H. Hirsch, (extrait des Israélites de France). 1844.Relation des Voyages faits par les Arabes et les Persans dans l'Inde et à la Chine, dans le IXth siècle de l'ère Chrétienne,par M. Reinaud. Paris, 1845. 2 vols. 18mo.Three years wanderings in China. By Robert Fortune. 8vo. London, 1847.The philological and other works on China, by M. Pauthier, a distinguished French scholar, are among the most valuable works in this department of learning. They embrace the following.Sinico-Ægyptiaca, essai sur l'origine et la formation similaire des écritures figuratives Chinoise et Égyptienne, etc. 8vo.De l'origine des différents systèmes d'écriture. 4to.Examen méthodique des faits qui concernent le Thian-Tchu ou l'Inde; traduit du Chinois. 8vo.Documents statistiques officiels sur l'empire de la Chine; traduits du Chinois. 8vo.La Chine, avec 73 planches. 8vo.La Chine ouverte, aventures d'un Fan-kouei dans le pays de Tsin; illustré par Auguste Borget. 8vo. Paris, 1845.La Chine et les Chinois, par le même. 8vo. Paris, 1844.Systema Phoneticum Scripturæ Sinicæ, auctore. J.M. Callery. 2 vols. royal 8vo. Macao, 1842.Narrative of the second campaign in China, by R.S. Mackenzie. 12mo. London.A work by G. Tradescant Lay; and another by Professor Kid, have also been published on China.

The recent works on China are embraced in the following list.

China; Political, Commercial and Social; with descriptions of the consular ports of Canton, Amoy, Ningpo and Shanghai, etc., etc. By R. Montgomery Martin. London, 1847.

Chinese Commercial Guide. Macao, 1844.

Voyage of the Nemesis; By W.D. Barnard. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1843. 2d ed. 12mo. 1846.

Events in China. By Granville Loch, R.N. 1844.

War in China. By Lieut. Ochterlony. 1844.

The Land of Sinim, with a brief account of the Jews and Christians in China, By a missionary. 12mo. N.Y., 1846.

Sketches of China. By J.F. Davis. 2 vols. 12mo. 1845.

The Jews in China. By J. Finn. 12mo. London, 1844.

Les Juifs de la Chine, par H. Hirsch, (extrait des Israélites de France). 1844.

Relation des Voyages faits par les Arabes et les Persans dans l'Inde et à la Chine, dans le IXth siècle de l'ère Chrétienne,par M. Reinaud. Paris, 1845. 2 vols. 18mo.

Three years wanderings in China. By Robert Fortune. 8vo. London, 1847.

The philological and other works on China, by M. Pauthier, a distinguished French scholar, are among the most valuable works in this department of learning. They embrace the following.

Sinico-Ægyptiaca, essai sur l'origine et la formation similaire des écritures figuratives Chinoise et Égyptienne, etc. 8vo.

De l'origine des différents systèmes d'écriture. 4to.

Examen méthodique des faits qui concernent le Thian-Tchu ou l'Inde; traduit du Chinois. 8vo.

Documents statistiques officiels sur l'empire de la Chine; traduits du Chinois. 8vo.

La Chine, avec 73 planches. 8vo.

La Chine ouverte, aventures d'un Fan-kouei dans le pays de Tsin; illustré par Auguste Borget. 8vo. Paris, 1845.

La Chine et les Chinois, par le même. 8vo. Paris, 1844.

Systema Phoneticum Scripturæ Sinicæ, auctore. J.M. Callery. 2 vols. royal 8vo. Macao, 1842.

Narrative of the second campaign in China, by R.S. Mackenzie. 12mo. London.

A work by G. Tradescant Lay; and another by Professor Kid, have also been published on China.

FOOTNOTES:[1]In a paper read by Mr. Schoolcraft before the American Ethnological Society, it was clearly shown by existing remains, in Michigan and Indiana, plans of which were exhibited, that vast districts of country, now covered by forests and prairies, bear incontestable proofs of having been subject to cultivation at a remote period and before the forest had begun its growth.[2]This figure of an extended hand is the most common of all the symbols of the aboriginal tribes of America. It is found on the ancient temples, and within the tombs of Yucatan. At the earliest period it was used by the Indians, in the United States, and at the present time, it is employed by the roving bands and large tribes from the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains, and from Texas northward.[3]"Bottoms" and "bottom lands," are terms applied to the flat lands adjoining rivers. In the State of New York they are called "flats"—as the "Mohawk flats."[4]Second Note sur une pierre gravée trouvé dans un ancien tumulus Americain, et à cette occasion, sur l'idiome Libyen, par M. Jomard. 8vo. Paris, 1846.[5]See Mr. Catherwood's paper on the Thugga monument and its inscriptions, in the Ethnolg. Trans. Vol. I. p. 477.[6]Notes on Africa. p.[7]The essay here alluded to, was the reply of Mr. Jomard to a note addressed to him by Mr. Eugene Vail, in 1839, announcing the discovery of the inscribed tablet in the Grave-creek mound, and requesting his opinion in relation to it. In this reply, Mr. Jomard stated that they were of the same character with the inscriptions found by Major Denham in the interior of Africa, as well as in Algiers and Tunis. This note was inserted in Mr. Vail's work entitled "Notice sur les Indiens de l'Amerique du Nord." Paris, 1840. This work is scarcely known in the United States.[8]I am aware that many believe the sculptures on the Dighton rock to contain several alphabetic characters. Prof. Rafn in his learned and ingenious memoir on this inscription, supports this view. In fact, Mr. Jomard himself hints at their Phœnician origin.[9]Histoire Naturelle des Canaries. Tom. I. p. 23[10]Scenes in the Rocky Mountains, Oregon, California, &c., by a New Englander. p. 198.[11]Scenes in the Rocky Mountains, California, &c. by a New Englander. p. 180.[12]Auburn (New York) Banner, 1837.[13]Political Essay on New Spain. Vol. 2, p. 315. (London ed. in 4 vols. 8vo.)[14]Life and Travels in California. p. 372.[15]Dr. Lyman states, that "in the autumn of 1841, an American trader with thirty-five men, went from Bents fort to the Navijo country, built a breastwork with his bales of goods, and informed the astonished Indians, that he had 'come into their country to trade or fight, which ever they preferred.' The campaigns of the old trappers were too fresh in their memory to allow hesitation. They chose to trade, and soon commenced a brisk business."[16]Humboldt's Political Essay on New Spain. Vol. 2, p. 316. On the testimony of the missionaries of theCollegio de Queretaro, versed in the Aztec language, M. Humboldt states, that the language spoken by the Moqui Indians is essentially different from the Mexican language. In the seventeenth century, missionaries were established among the Moquis and Navijos, who were massacred in the great revolt of the Indians in 1680.[17]Clavigero, Hist. Mexico. Vol. 1, p. 151. Humboldt's Polit. Essay on New Spain, Vol. 2. p. 300. A more detailed account of these remains, may be found in the Appendix to Castaneda's "Relation du Voyage de Cibola en 1540," published in the "Relations et memoirs originaux" of Ternaux-Compans. The state of the country, the manners and customs of the Indians, and their peculiar state of civilization are given at length, and are interesting in this enquiry. The notice of the "Grande Maison, dite de Moctezuma," is extracted from the journal of Father Pedro Font, who traversed this country to Monterey, on the Pacific, in 1775.[18]Report to the Royal Geographical Society, London, Nov. 9, 1846.[19]Nouvelles Annales des Voyages. Feb. 1846. p. 146.[20]London Athenæum, Aug. 8, 1846, in which is a condensed account of this journey.[21]Simmond's Colonial Magazine. Vol. V. p. 87.[22]There is evidently some mistake in these dimensions, which would give a mass of masonry many times larger than the great pyramid at Ghizeh.[23]London Athenæum, Nov. 9. 1846.[24]Journal of the Geographical Society. Vol. 16.[25]Missionary Herald, vol. 41. p. 218.[26]London Athenæum, March 7, 1846.[27]Ibid. Oct. 31, 1846.[28]Bulletin de la Société de Géographie. Rapport par M. Roger. 1846. p. 321.[29]London Athenæum, July 4, 1846.[30]London Athenæum, July, 1845.[31]The Geography of N'Yassi, or the Great Lake of Southern Africa, investigated, with an account of the overland route from the Quanza, in Angola, to the Zambezi, in the government of Mozambique, by Wm. Desbrough Cooley, in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, London. Vol. xv.[32]Notes on African Geography, by James M'Queen.—Ibid.Contributions towards the Geography of Africa, by James McQueen, in Simmond's Colonial Magazine, Vol. vi.[33]Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, Vol. 15, p. 371.[34]Nouvelles Annales des Voyages: May, 1846, p. 139.[35]Bulletin de la Société de Géographie de France, for 1845, p. 251.[36]Notice sur le Progrès des découvertes Géographiques pendant l'année, 1845, par V. de St. Martin. Bulletin de la Société de Géographie, p. 245.[37]Nouvelles Annales des Voyages. Notes Ethnologiques, sur la race blanche des Aures. Par M. Guyon. Janvier, 1846, p. 116.[38]Comptes-Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, 29 Dec. 1845.[39]Revue Archæologique, Nov. 1845.[40]The incident which led to the discovery of this alphabet is deserving of notice. An Algerine named Sidy-Hamdan-Ben-Otsman-Khodja, who had gained the confidence of the Duke of Rovigo, then Governor of Algiers, was in correspondence with the Bey of Constantine. The Hadji Ahmed, to render this correspondence more sure, wrote his letters in conventional signs, known among certain Arabs by the name ofromouz.Ali the son of Sidy-Hamdan, who was the bearer of these Missives, had lived a long time in France as an officer in the employ of the Sublime Porte; and in his hands M. Boisonnet one day discovered the letters of Hadji Ahmed. On glancing his eye over one of these documents he discovered at the top (en vedette) two groups of signs, which, from their situation, he readily imagined might be the equivalents of the Arab sacramental words,Praise be to God, with which all good Musselmen generally begin an epistle. With this supposition he applied the alphabetic value to each character, and thus obtained the value of six of these strange cyphers. The next day he obtained two of these documents or letters from Ali, who little suspected what use he intended making of them. With these materials he diligently applied himself, and on the following morning sent him a complete translation of the letters. Ali was greatly alarmed that Mr. Boisonnet had solved the enigma, but more so that he had thereby become acquainted with the correspondence.Struck with the analogy between these characters and the Lybian characters on the Thugga monument, he applied the alphabet discovered by him, and the result is known.—Revue Archæologique, November, 1845.[41]See De Saulcy. Revue des deux Mondes, June, 1846.[42]The accident which led to this second discovery deserves to be mentioned. The person into whose hands the manuscript fell, while examining the leaves which were remarkably thick, accidentally spilt a tumbler of water on it. In order to dry it he placed it in the sun in a window, when the parchment that was wet separated. He opened the leaves which had been sealed and found the Pagan manuscript between them. A farther examination showed that the entire volume was similarly formed.[43]Keppell's Borneo, vol. I. p. 233.[44]Keppell's Borneo, vol. I. p. 59.[45]Missionary Herald, vol. 42, p. 100.[46]Letter to the Hon. C.J. Ingersoll, chairman of the committee on foreign affairs, containing some brief notices respecting the present state, productions, trade, commerce, &c. of the Comoro Islands, Abyssinia, Persia, Burma, Cochin China, the Indian Archipelago, and Japan; and recommending that a special mission be sent by the government of the United States, to make treaties and extend our commercial relations with those countries: by Aaron H. Palmer, councillor of the Supreme Court of the United States.[47]See "China Mail" newspaper, for March 26, 1846.[48]Frazer's Magazine, 1846. In this Magazine is an article of much interest on the commercial relations of the Indian Archipelago.[49]Annals of the Propagation of the Faith. Sept. 1846.[50]London Evangelical Magazine, August, 1846.[51]Bulletin de la Société de Géographie, 1846. Extrait d'une description de l'archipel des îles Solo, p. 311.[52]Bulletin de la Société de Géographie, for 1846, p. 365.[53]Physical description of New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land.[54]Address of Lord Colchester to Count Strzelecki on presenting him with the medal.[55]Discoveries in Australia, vol. 1. p. 252.[56]p. 394.[57]vol. 2. p. 10.[58]London Athenæum, July 25, 1846. Ibid. Aug. 8, 1846.[59]Report of Dr. Leichardt's Expedition, Simmonds' Colonial Magazine, vol. 2, 1845.[60]London Athenæum. Nov. 3, 1846.[61]Simmond's Colonial Magazine, Nov. 1846.[62]Herodotus, in speaking of the subjugation of Lycia, by Cyrus and Harpagus, says; "When Harpagus led his army towards Xanthus, the Lycians boldly advanced to meet him, and, though inferior in numbers, behaved with the greatest bravery. Being defeated and pursued into their city, they collected their wives, children and valuable effects, into the citadel, and there consumed the whole in one immense fire.... Of those who now inhabit Lycia, calling themselves Xanthians,the whole are foreigners, eighty families excepted."—Clio, 176. See alsoClio, 171-173.Herodotus further states that the Lycians originated from the Cretans, a branch of the Hellenic race; and Strabo, in a fragment preserved from Ephorus, states that the Lycians were a people of Greek origin, who had settled in the country previously occupied by the barbarous tribes of Mylians and Solymi.Homer briefly alludes to the Lycians, who, at the siege of Troy, assisted the Trojans under certain rulers whose names are mentioned.—Iliad, b. v. and xii.[63]Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London. Vol. IX.[64]Ibid. Vol. XV. p. 104.[65]Wellsted's Travels in Arabia, Vol. I. p. 92.[66]Particulars read to the meeting of Royal Geographical Society of London, November 9, 1846.—London Ath.[67]Les Steppes de la mer Caspienne, le Caucase, la Crimée et la Russie méridionale; voyage Pittoresque, Historique et Scientifique; par X. Hommaire de Hell. 3 vols. royal 8vo. and folio atlas of Plates. Paris, 1845.[68]I feel warranted in going back and tracing the progress of these discoveries, as so little is known of it by English readers. The translation of Grotefend's essay in Heeren's Researches, was the only accessible original treatise on the subject, until the recent publications of Major Rawlinson and Prof. Westergaard. In Germany, much has been written and some in France. These papers are chiefly in antiquarian or philological Transactions and are scarcely known here. A full account of the discovery in question, of its progress and present state, seems therefore necessary.[69]Grotefend's Essay on the cuneiform inscriptions, in Heeren's Asiatic Nations. Vol. II. p. 334.[70]The Zendavesta is one of the most ancient as well as remarkable books that has come down to us from the East. It was first made known in Europe in the year 1762, by Anquetil du Perron, who brought it from Surat in India, whither he went expressly to search for the ancient books of the East. He spent many years (seventeen it is said) in making a translation, which he accompanied with valuable notes, illustrative of the doctrines of Zoroaster, and in elucidation of the Zend language, in which this book was written. A great sensation was produced in Europe among the learned at the appearance of the work. Examined as a monument of the ancient religion and literature of the Persians, it was differently appreciated by them. Sir William Jones[A]and others, not only questioned its authenticity, but denounced the translator in very harsh terms. But later writers, among these some of the most distinguished philologists of Europe, are willing to let it rank among the earliest books of the East, and as entitled to an antiquity at least six centuries anterior to the Christian era.The Zendavesta (fromzendliving, andavestaword, i. e. "the living word") consists of a series of liturgic services for various occasions, and bears the same reference to the books of Zoroaster that our breviaries and common-prayer books do to the Bible. It embraces five books. 1. TheIzechné, "elevation of the soul, praise, devotion;" 2. theVispered, "the chiefs of the beings there named;" 3. theVendidad, which is considered as the foundation of the law; 4. theYeshts Sades, or "a collection of compositions and of fragments;" 5. the bookSiroz, "thirty days," containing praises addressed to the Genius of each day; and which is a sort of liturgical calendar.[B]The doctrines inculcated in the Zendavesta are "the existence of a great first principle. Time without beginning and without end. This incomprehensible being is the author of the two great active powers of the universe—Ormuzd the principle of all good, and Ahriman the principle of all evil. Ormuzd is the first creative agent produced by the Self-Existent. He is perfectly pure, intelligent, just, powerful, active, benevolent,—in a word, the precise image of the Element; the centre and author of the perfections of all nature." Ahriman is the opposite of this. He is occupied in perverting and corrupting every thing good; he is the source of misery and evil. "Ordained to create and govern the universe, Ormuzd received the Word, which in his mouth became an instrument of infinite power and fruitfulness."[C]"The first created man was composed of the four elements,—fire, air, water, and earth. "Ormuzd to this perishable frame added an immortal spirit, and the being was complete." The soul of man consists of separate parts, each having peculiar offices. "1. The principle of sensation. 2. The principle of intelligence. 3. The principle of practical judgment. 4. The principle of conscience. 5. The principle of animal life." After death, "the principle of animal life mingles with the winds," the body being regarded as a mere instrument in the power of the will. The first three are accountable for the deeds of the body, and are examined at the day of judgment. "This law or religion is still professed by the descendants of the Persians, who, conquered by the Mohammedans, have not submitted to the Koran; they partly inhabit Kirman and partly the western coast of India, to the north and south of Surat."[D]The traces which are apparent in the Zendavesta of Hindoo superstitions, indicate that its author borrowed from the sacred books of India, while its sublime doctrines evidently point to the Pentateuch.Mr. Eugene Burnouf is now publishing at Paris a new translation of the Zendavesta from a Sanscrit version under the title of "Commentaire sur le Yaçna," in which he has embodied a vast deal of oriental learning, illustrative of the geography, history, religion and language of ancient Persia. The first volume was published in 1833.[A]Sir William Jones's Works. Vol. X. p. 403.[B]See note to the "Dabistan." Pub. for the Oriental Translations Fund. Vol. I. p. 225.[C]Frazer's History of Persia. p. 150-157.[D]Note to the "Dabistan." Vol. 1. p. 222. by its editor, A. Troyer.[71]The modern title of the sovereign of Persia,Shah, is at once recognised in the ancient nameKsheorKshaof the monuments.[72]Mémoire sur deux Inscriptions cuneiforms, trouvées près d'Hamadan. Paris, 1836.[73]Die Alt-Persischen Keil-Inschriften von Persepolis. Bonn, 1836. The other papers of Prof. Lassen may be found in the "Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes," a periodical work published at Bonn, exclusively devoted to Oriental subjects. It is the most learned work on Oriental Philology and Archæology published in Europe.[74]While Major Rawlinson was occupied in Persia, the subject was attracting much attention among the Orientalists of Europe. Burnouf and Lassen, as we have seen, then published the results of their investigations, which were afterwards found to be almost identical with those of Major R. Neither of these scholars was aware at the time of the others' labors. This is an interesting fact, and establishes the correctness of the conclusions at which they eventually arrived.[75]The Zend language is known to us chiefly by the "Zendavesta." Of its antiquity there is doubt. Some philologists believe that it grew up with the decline of the old Persian, or was formed on its basis, with an infusion from the Sanscrit, Median, and Scythic languages. It was used in the time of Darius Hystaspes, B.C. 550, at which period Zoroaster lived, who employed the Zend in the composition of the "Zendavesta." Its antiquity has formed the subject of many memoirs; but late writers, among whom are Rask, Eugene Burnouf, Bopp, and Lassen, have decided from the most severe tests of criticism, that the Zend was an ancient language derived from the same source as the Sanscrit, and that it was spoken before the Christian era, particularly in the countries situated west of the Caspian Sea, in Georgia, Iran proper, and northern Media. Note to the Dabistan, Vol. I. p. 222. The only specimen of this language yet known, with the exception of a few MSS. of little importance among the Parsees, is the Zendavesta. Major Rawlinson[A]adopts views at variance with those of the distinguished German philologists, in regard to the antiquity of the Zend language. Its "very elaborate vocalic organization," he thinks, "indicates a comparatively recent era for the formation of its alphabet;" and of the Zend-Avesta, he is of opinion that "the disfigurement of authentic history affords an argument of equal weight against the antiquity of its composition." He fully agrees, however, with all others as to the very remote composition of the books generally ascribed to Zoroaster. In fact this is beyond all question, for Plato mentions them (Pol. B. XXX.). Clemens of Alexandria says they were known in the 5th century B.C. and many other ancient writers could be cited in proof of the same.[B][A]See Rawlinson. Memoir on Cuneiform Inscriptions. Note to page 42.[B]See a note to the "Dabistan," Vol. I. p. in which is given a list of all the ancient writers who mention Zoroaster and his works.[76]On the Decyphering of the Median species of Arrow-headed Writing, by N.L. Westergaard, in the Mémoires de la Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord. Copenhagen, 1844.[77]Memoir on the Cuneiform Inscriptions, p. 20.[78]Ibid. p. 28.[79]On the Median variety of Arrow-headed Writing. Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires du Nord, for 1844. p. 272.[80]Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes. 1844-45. Prof. Westergaard has also published his paper in English, in the Mémoires de la Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord, Copenhagen, 1844, prefixing to it Lassen's alphabet of the first sort of Persepolitan writing. He was probably induced to do this by observing the limited extent to which the German language is cultivated by English scholars, insomuch that even Rawlinson complains that he was unable to read any more of Lassen's papers than his translations of the inscriptions, which are in Latin.[81]Memoir on the Persian cuneiform inscriptions. p. 47.[82]Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, 1844 '45.[83]For inscription see Rich's Babylon and Persepolis, plate 24, and page 254.[84]Revue Archæologique. October, 1844.[85]Westergaard in Mém. de la Socié. Royale des Antiq. du Nord, p. 419. Ibid. p. 423.[86]Lettres de M. Botta sur les découvertes à Khorsabad, près de Ninive; publiées par M.J. Mohl.[87]London Times, June, 1846. Two interesting letters from Mr. Layard, dated August 12, 1846, to Mr. Kellogg, of Cincinnati, were read before the American Ethnological Society, at its meeting in February, giving further accounts of his discoveries.[88]See London Athenæum, Oct. 10, 1846, a letter from Constantinople dated Sept. 10.[89]The prophet Daniel in his vision of four beasts says, "The first was like a lion, and had eagles' wings; I beheld till the wings thereof were plucked, and it was lifted up from the earth, and made stand upon the feet as a man."Daniel, ch. VII. v. 4.The resemblance between the animal of Daniel's vision and those recently discovered at Nineveh is striking.[90]Richardson in the Preface to his Persian Dictionary.[91]Preface to the "Dabistan" published by the Oriental Trans. Fund:—by A. Troyer. Vol. I. p. 30.[92]Annales des Voyages, April, 1845, p. 58.[93]Ld. Colchester's Address, Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 1846.[94]Address to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at its meeting, September, 1846.[95]The Royal Geographical Society of London has conferred its Victoria Gold Medal on Prof. Middendorff for his successful exploration.[96]Lord Colchester's Address before the Royal Geog. Society. London, 1846.[97]Missionary Herald. Vol. XLI. p. 138.[98]Missionary Herald. Vol. XLI. p. 206.[99]English Baptist Missionary Report for 1845. p. 9.[100]It appears that the Baptist Missionary Society in the year ending in March, 1845,[A]expended in India $29,500, of which sum nearly $15,000, or rather more than one half, was expended in making translations of books into various languages. The remainder was for the support of the missionaries, their outfits and passages, the support of native teachers—schools &c. The languages and dialects which have been studied and elucidated and into which books have been translated may be summed up as follows.32 languages and dialects in India,4 do. do. in Persia and the Caucasian countries,5 do. in China and the Indo-Chinese countries,4 do. in Polynesia.The translations consist of the whole or portions of the Scriptures; books on religious or moral subjects; elementary works on Science, popular Histories, geography, &c. Elementary books in the several departments of Science and History constitute the greater variety, though of the whole number of works distributed, the Bible and Testament constitute by far the greatest part. For example, the English Baptist Missionary Society printed and issued in the year ending March 1845, fifty-five thousand copies of the Bible and Testament in the Sanscrit, Bengali, Hindostani, and Armenian languages. The number of books printed and distributed in India by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions was as follows.Madras Mission.In the Tamil and English languages: The Scriptures or portions of them—books of a religious character—elementary school books—tracts—periodicals and reports of benevolent associations bearing on the cause of Christianity and the social and intellectual improvement of the population of India, there were printed at this single establishment, within a fraction of twenty-seven millions of pages—or, if in volumes of two hundred and seventy pages each, one hundred thousand volumes; but as there were many tracts, the number was doubtless double or treble. Besides this there are six other large establishments in Southern India, where books in the Tamil language are printed, all under the control of Missionary Societies.Ceylon Mission.In the Tamil and English languages were printed during the year, twenty-three thousand seven hundred and forty-four volumes, and one hundred and forty-five thousand tracts, amounting to six million one hundred and fifty-six thousand pages.Siam Mission.In the Siamese language were printed in two years two million four hundred and sixty-two thousand pages.When so much is accomplished by one Society, how vast must be the influence exerted by the various Missionary and Tract Societies engaged in the same cause.[A]Report of the English Baptist Missionary Society for 1845.[101]Missionary Herald, Vol. XLV. p. 47.[102]Chinese Repository. Vol. XV. p. 113.[103]Annals of the Propaganda for 1846. p. 55.[104]Ibid. July, 1846.[105]Annals of the Propaganda for September, 1845.[106]Chinese Repository, Vol. xii. p. 78.[107]Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, July, 1846.[108]Chinese Repository, Vol. xiv. p. 155.[109]It is desirable that this word be expunged from all works on China and eastern Asia, and the proper wordsofficers,authorities,magistrates, &c., be used instead. Every officer, from a prime minister to a constable or tide-waiter, is called a mandarin by foreigners, partly because those who write do not know the rank of the person, and partly from the common custom of calling many things in China by some peculiar term, as if they were unlike the same things elsewhere.[110]Chinese Repository, Vol. X, pp. 205-215.[111]Chinese Repository. Vol. I., p. 276; Vol. II., pp. 135-138.[112]Chinese Repository. Vol. XIV. p. 202.

[1]In a paper read by Mr. Schoolcraft before the American Ethnological Society, it was clearly shown by existing remains, in Michigan and Indiana, plans of which were exhibited, that vast districts of country, now covered by forests and prairies, bear incontestable proofs of having been subject to cultivation at a remote period and before the forest had begun its growth.

[2]This figure of an extended hand is the most common of all the symbols of the aboriginal tribes of America. It is found on the ancient temples, and within the tombs of Yucatan. At the earliest period it was used by the Indians, in the United States, and at the present time, it is employed by the roving bands and large tribes from the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains, and from Texas northward.

[3]"Bottoms" and "bottom lands," are terms applied to the flat lands adjoining rivers. In the State of New York they are called "flats"—as the "Mohawk flats."

[4]Second Note sur une pierre gravée trouvé dans un ancien tumulus Americain, et à cette occasion, sur l'idiome Libyen, par M. Jomard. 8vo. Paris, 1846.

[5]See Mr. Catherwood's paper on the Thugga monument and its inscriptions, in the Ethnolg. Trans. Vol. I. p. 477.

[6]Notes on Africa. p.

[7]The essay here alluded to, was the reply of Mr. Jomard to a note addressed to him by Mr. Eugene Vail, in 1839, announcing the discovery of the inscribed tablet in the Grave-creek mound, and requesting his opinion in relation to it. In this reply, Mr. Jomard stated that they were of the same character with the inscriptions found by Major Denham in the interior of Africa, as well as in Algiers and Tunis. This note was inserted in Mr. Vail's work entitled "Notice sur les Indiens de l'Amerique du Nord." Paris, 1840. This work is scarcely known in the United States.

[8]I am aware that many believe the sculptures on the Dighton rock to contain several alphabetic characters. Prof. Rafn in his learned and ingenious memoir on this inscription, supports this view. In fact, Mr. Jomard himself hints at their Phœnician origin.

[9]Histoire Naturelle des Canaries. Tom. I. p. 23

[10]Scenes in the Rocky Mountains, Oregon, California, &c., by a New Englander. p. 198.

[11]Scenes in the Rocky Mountains, California, &c. by a New Englander. p. 180.

[12]Auburn (New York) Banner, 1837.

[13]Political Essay on New Spain. Vol. 2, p. 315. (London ed. in 4 vols. 8vo.)

[14]Life and Travels in California. p. 372.

[15]Dr. Lyman states, that "in the autumn of 1841, an American trader with thirty-five men, went from Bents fort to the Navijo country, built a breastwork with his bales of goods, and informed the astonished Indians, that he had 'come into their country to trade or fight, which ever they preferred.' The campaigns of the old trappers were too fresh in their memory to allow hesitation. They chose to trade, and soon commenced a brisk business."

[16]Humboldt's Political Essay on New Spain. Vol. 2, p. 316. On the testimony of the missionaries of theCollegio de Queretaro, versed in the Aztec language, M. Humboldt states, that the language spoken by the Moqui Indians is essentially different from the Mexican language. In the seventeenth century, missionaries were established among the Moquis and Navijos, who were massacred in the great revolt of the Indians in 1680.

[17]Clavigero, Hist. Mexico. Vol. 1, p. 151. Humboldt's Polit. Essay on New Spain, Vol. 2. p. 300. A more detailed account of these remains, may be found in the Appendix to Castaneda's "Relation du Voyage de Cibola en 1540," published in the "Relations et memoirs originaux" of Ternaux-Compans. The state of the country, the manners and customs of the Indians, and their peculiar state of civilization are given at length, and are interesting in this enquiry. The notice of the "Grande Maison, dite de Moctezuma," is extracted from the journal of Father Pedro Font, who traversed this country to Monterey, on the Pacific, in 1775.

[18]Report to the Royal Geographical Society, London, Nov. 9, 1846.

[19]Nouvelles Annales des Voyages. Feb. 1846. p. 146.

[20]London Athenæum, Aug. 8, 1846, in which is a condensed account of this journey.

[21]Simmond's Colonial Magazine. Vol. V. p. 87.

[22]There is evidently some mistake in these dimensions, which would give a mass of masonry many times larger than the great pyramid at Ghizeh.

[23]London Athenæum, Nov. 9. 1846.

[24]Journal of the Geographical Society. Vol. 16.

[25]Missionary Herald, vol. 41. p. 218.

[26]London Athenæum, March 7, 1846.

[27]Ibid. Oct. 31, 1846.

[28]Bulletin de la Société de Géographie. Rapport par M. Roger. 1846. p. 321.

[29]London Athenæum, July 4, 1846.

[30]London Athenæum, July, 1845.

[31]The Geography of N'Yassi, or the Great Lake of Southern Africa, investigated, with an account of the overland route from the Quanza, in Angola, to the Zambezi, in the government of Mozambique, by Wm. Desbrough Cooley, in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, London. Vol. xv.

[32]Notes on African Geography, by James M'Queen.—Ibid.Contributions towards the Geography of Africa, by James McQueen, in Simmond's Colonial Magazine, Vol. vi.

[33]Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, Vol. 15, p. 371.

[34]Nouvelles Annales des Voyages: May, 1846, p. 139.

[35]Bulletin de la Société de Géographie de France, for 1845, p. 251.

[36]Notice sur le Progrès des découvertes Géographiques pendant l'année, 1845, par V. de St. Martin. Bulletin de la Société de Géographie, p. 245.

[37]Nouvelles Annales des Voyages. Notes Ethnologiques, sur la race blanche des Aures. Par M. Guyon. Janvier, 1846, p. 116.

[38]Comptes-Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, 29 Dec. 1845.

[39]Revue Archæologique, Nov. 1845.

[40]The incident which led to the discovery of this alphabet is deserving of notice. An Algerine named Sidy-Hamdan-Ben-Otsman-Khodja, who had gained the confidence of the Duke of Rovigo, then Governor of Algiers, was in correspondence with the Bey of Constantine. The Hadji Ahmed, to render this correspondence more sure, wrote his letters in conventional signs, known among certain Arabs by the name ofromouz.Ali the son of Sidy-Hamdan, who was the bearer of these Missives, had lived a long time in France as an officer in the employ of the Sublime Porte; and in his hands M. Boisonnet one day discovered the letters of Hadji Ahmed. On glancing his eye over one of these documents he discovered at the top (en vedette) two groups of signs, which, from their situation, he readily imagined might be the equivalents of the Arab sacramental words,Praise be to God, with which all good Musselmen generally begin an epistle. With this supposition he applied the alphabetic value to each character, and thus obtained the value of six of these strange cyphers. The next day he obtained two of these documents or letters from Ali, who little suspected what use he intended making of them. With these materials he diligently applied himself, and on the following morning sent him a complete translation of the letters. Ali was greatly alarmed that Mr. Boisonnet had solved the enigma, but more so that he had thereby become acquainted with the correspondence.Struck with the analogy between these characters and the Lybian characters on the Thugga monument, he applied the alphabet discovered by him, and the result is known.—Revue Archæologique, November, 1845.

Ali the son of Sidy-Hamdan, who was the bearer of these Missives, had lived a long time in France as an officer in the employ of the Sublime Porte; and in his hands M. Boisonnet one day discovered the letters of Hadji Ahmed. On glancing his eye over one of these documents he discovered at the top (en vedette) two groups of signs, which, from their situation, he readily imagined might be the equivalents of the Arab sacramental words,Praise be to God, with which all good Musselmen generally begin an epistle. With this supposition he applied the alphabetic value to each character, and thus obtained the value of six of these strange cyphers. The next day he obtained two of these documents or letters from Ali, who little suspected what use he intended making of them. With these materials he diligently applied himself, and on the following morning sent him a complete translation of the letters. Ali was greatly alarmed that Mr. Boisonnet had solved the enigma, but more so that he had thereby become acquainted with the correspondence.

Struck with the analogy between these characters and the Lybian characters on the Thugga monument, he applied the alphabet discovered by him, and the result is known.—Revue Archæologique, November, 1845.

[41]See De Saulcy. Revue des deux Mondes, June, 1846.

[42]The accident which led to this second discovery deserves to be mentioned. The person into whose hands the manuscript fell, while examining the leaves which were remarkably thick, accidentally spilt a tumbler of water on it. In order to dry it he placed it in the sun in a window, when the parchment that was wet separated. He opened the leaves which had been sealed and found the Pagan manuscript between them. A farther examination showed that the entire volume was similarly formed.

[43]Keppell's Borneo, vol. I. p. 233.

[44]Keppell's Borneo, vol. I. p. 59.

[45]Missionary Herald, vol. 42, p. 100.

[46]Letter to the Hon. C.J. Ingersoll, chairman of the committee on foreign affairs, containing some brief notices respecting the present state, productions, trade, commerce, &c. of the Comoro Islands, Abyssinia, Persia, Burma, Cochin China, the Indian Archipelago, and Japan; and recommending that a special mission be sent by the government of the United States, to make treaties and extend our commercial relations with those countries: by Aaron H. Palmer, councillor of the Supreme Court of the United States.

[47]See "China Mail" newspaper, for March 26, 1846.

[48]Frazer's Magazine, 1846. In this Magazine is an article of much interest on the commercial relations of the Indian Archipelago.

[49]Annals of the Propagation of the Faith. Sept. 1846.

[50]London Evangelical Magazine, August, 1846.

[51]Bulletin de la Société de Géographie, 1846. Extrait d'une description de l'archipel des îles Solo, p. 311.

[52]Bulletin de la Société de Géographie, for 1846, p. 365.

[53]Physical description of New South Wales and Van Dieman's Land.

[54]Address of Lord Colchester to Count Strzelecki on presenting him with the medal.

[55]Discoveries in Australia, vol. 1. p. 252.

[56]p. 394.

[57]vol. 2. p. 10.

[58]London Athenæum, July 25, 1846. Ibid. Aug. 8, 1846.

[59]Report of Dr. Leichardt's Expedition, Simmonds' Colonial Magazine, vol. 2, 1845.

[60]London Athenæum. Nov. 3, 1846.

[61]Simmond's Colonial Magazine, Nov. 1846.

[62]Herodotus, in speaking of the subjugation of Lycia, by Cyrus and Harpagus, says; "When Harpagus led his army towards Xanthus, the Lycians boldly advanced to meet him, and, though inferior in numbers, behaved with the greatest bravery. Being defeated and pursued into their city, they collected their wives, children and valuable effects, into the citadel, and there consumed the whole in one immense fire.... Of those who now inhabit Lycia, calling themselves Xanthians,the whole are foreigners, eighty families excepted."—Clio, 176. See alsoClio, 171-173.Herodotus further states that the Lycians originated from the Cretans, a branch of the Hellenic race; and Strabo, in a fragment preserved from Ephorus, states that the Lycians were a people of Greek origin, who had settled in the country previously occupied by the barbarous tribes of Mylians and Solymi.Homer briefly alludes to the Lycians, who, at the siege of Troy, assisted the Trojans under certain rulers whose names are mentioned.—Iliad, b. v. and xii.

Herodotus further states that the Lycians originated from the Cretans, a branch of the Hellenic race; and Strabo, in a fragment preserved from Ephorus, states that the Lycians were a people of Greek origin, who had settled in the country previously occupied by the barbarous tribes of Mylians and Solymi.

Homer briefly alludes to the Lycians, who, at the siege of Troy, assisted the Trojans under certain rulers whose names are mentioned.—Iliad, b. v. and xii.

[63]Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London. Vol. IX.

[64]Ibid. Vol. XV. p. 104.

[65]Wellsted's Travels in Arabia, Vol. I. p. 92.

[66]Particulars read to the meeting of Royal Geographical Society of London, November 9, 1846.—London Ath.

[67]Les Steppes de la mer Caspienne, le Caucase, la Crimée et la Russie méridionale; voyage Pittoresque, Historique et Scientifique; par X. Hommaire de Hell. 3 vols. royal 8vo. and folio atlas of Plates. Paris, 1845.

[68]I feel warranted in going back and tracing the progress of these discoveries, as so little is known of it by English readers. The translation of Grotefend's essay in Heeren's Researches, was the only accessible original treatise on the subject, until the recent publications of Major Rawlinson and Prof. Westergaard. In Germany, much has been written and some in France. These papers are chiefly in antiquarian or philological Transactions and are scarcely known here. A full account of the discovery in question, of its progress and present state, seems therefore necessary.

[69]Grotefend's Essay on the cuneiform inscriptions, in Heeren's Asiatic Nations. Vol. II. p. 334.

[70]The Zendavesta is one of the most ancient as well as remarkable books that has come down to us from the East. It was first made known in Europe in the year 1762, by Anquetil du Perron, who brought it from Surat in India, whither he went expressly to search for the ancient books of the East. He spent many years (seventeen it is said) in making a translation, which he accompanied with valuable notes, illustrative of the doctrines of Zoroaster, and in elucidation of the Zend language, in which this book was written. A great sensation was produced in Europe among the learned at the appearance of the work. Examined as a monument of the ancient religion and literature of the Persians, it was differently appreciated by them. Sir William Jones[A]and others, not only questioned its authenticity, but denounced the translator in very harsh terms. But later writers, among these some of the most distinguished philologists of Europe, are willing to let it rank among the earliest books of the East, and as entitled to an antiquity at least six centuries anterior to the Christian era.The Zendavesta (fromzendliving, andavestaword, i. e. "the living word") consists of a series of liturgic services for various occasions, and bears the same reference to the books of Zoroaster that our breviaries and common-prayer books do to the Bible. It embraces five books. 1. TheIzechné, "elevation of the soul, praise, devotion;" 2. theVispered, "the chiefs of the beings there named;" 3. theVendidad, which is considered as the foundation of the law; 4. theYeshts Sades, or "a collection of compositions and of fragments;" 5. the bookSiroz, "thirty days," containing praises addressed to the Genius of each day; and which is a sort of liturgical calendar.[B]The doctrines inculcated in the Zendavesta are "the existence of a great first principle. Time without beginning and without end. This incomprehensible being is the author of the two great active powers of the universe—Ormuzd the principle of all good, and Ahriman the principle of all evil. Ormuzd is the first creative agent produced by the Self-Existent. He is perfectly pure, intelligent, just, powerful, active, benevolent,—in a word, the precise image of the Element; the centre and author of the perfections of all nature." Ahriman is the opposite of this. He is occupied in perverting and corrupting every thing good; he is the source of misery and evil. "Ordained to create and govern the universe, Ormuzd received the Word, which in his mouth became an instrument of infinite power and fruitfulness."[C]"The first created man was composed of the four elements,—fire, air, water, and earth. "Ormuzd to this perishable frame added an immortal spirit, and the being was complete." The soul of man consists of separate parts, each having peculiar offices. "1. The principle of sensation. 2. The principle of intelligence. 3. The principle of practical judgment. 4. The principle of conscience. 5. The principle of animal life." After death, "the principle of animal life mingles with the winds," the body being regarded as a mere instrument in the power of the will. The first three are accountable for the deeds of the body, and are examined at the day of judgment. "This law or religion is still professed by the descendants of the Persians, who, conquered by the Mohammedans, have not submitted to the Koran; they partly inhabit Kirman and partly the western coast of India, to the north and south of Surat."[D]The traces which are apparent in the Zendavesta of Hindoo superstitions, indicate that its author borrowed from the sacred books of India, while its sublime doctrines evidently point to the Pentateuch.Mr. Eugene Burnouf is now publishing at Paris a new translation of the Zendavesta from a Sanscrit version under the title of "Commentaire sur le Yaçna," in which he has embodied a vast deal of oriental learning, illustrative of the geography, history, religion and language of ancient Persia. The first volume was published in 1833.[A]Sir William Jones's Works. Vol. X. p. 403.[B]See note to the "Dabistan." Pub. for the Oriental Translations Fund. Vol. I. p. 225.[C]Frazer's History of Persia. p. 150-157.[D]Note to the "Dabistan." Vol. 1. p. 222. by its editor, A. Troyer.

The Zendavesta (fromzendliving, andavestaword, i. e. "the living word") consists of a series of liturgic services for various occasions, and bears the same reference to the books of Zoroaster that our breviaries and common-prayer books do to the Bible. It embraces five books. 1. TheIzechné, "elevation of the soul, praise, devotion;" 2. theVispered, "the chiefs of the beings there named;" 3. theVendidad, which is considered as the foundation of the law; 4. theYeshts Sades, or "a collection of compositions and of fragments;" 5. the bookSiroz, "thirty days," containing praises addressed to the Genius of each day; and which is a sort of liturgical calendar.[B]

The doctrines inculcated in the Zendavesta are "the existence of a great first principle. Time without beginning and without end. This incomprehensible being is the author of the two great active powers of the universe—Ormuzd the principle of all good, and Ahriman the principle of all evil. Ormuzd is the first creative agent produced by the Self-Existent. He is perfectly pure, intelligent, just, powerful, active, benevolent,—in a word, the precise image of the Element; the centre and author of the perfections of all nature." Ahriman is the opposite of this. He is occupied in perverting and corrupting every thing good; he is the source of misery and evil. "Ordained to create and govern the universe, Ormuzd received the Word, which in his mouth became an instrument of infinite power and fruitfulness."[C]

"The first created man was composed of the four elements,—fire, air, water, and earth. "Ormuzd to this perishable frame added an immortal spirit, and the being was complete." The soul of man consists of separate parts, each having peculiar offices. "1. The principle of sensation. 2. The principle of intelligence. 3. The principle of practical judgment. 4. The principle of conscience. 5. The principle of animal life." After death, "the principle of animal life mingles with the winds," the body being regarded as a mere instrument in the power of the will. The first three are accountable for the deeds of the body, and are examined at the day of judgment. "This law or religion is still professed by the descendants of the Persians, who, conquered by the Mohammedans, have not submitted to the Koran; they partly inhabit Kirman and partly the western coast of India, to the north and south of Surat."[D]The traces which are apparent in the Zendavesta of Hindoo superstitions, indicate that its author borrowed from the sacred books of India, while its sublime doctrines evidently point to the Pentateuch.

Mr. Eugene Burnouf is now publishing at Paris a new translation of the Zendavesta from a Sanscrit version under the title of "Commentaire sur le Yaçna," in which he has embodied a vast deal of oriental learning, illustrative of the geography, history, religion and language of ancient Persia. The first volume was published in 1833.

[A]Sir William Jones's Works. Vol. X. p. 403.

[B]See note to the "Dabistan." Pub. for the Oriental Translations Fund. Vol. I. p. 225.

[C]Frazer's History of Persia. p. 150-157.

[D]Note to the "Dabistan." Vol. 1. p. 222. by its editor, A. Troyer.

[71]The modern title of the sovereign of Persia,Shah, is at once recognised in the ancient nameKsheorKshaof the monuments.

[72]Mémoire sur deux Inscriptions cuneiforms, trouvées près d'Hamadan. Paris, 1836.

[73]Die Alt-Persischen Keil-Inschriften von Persepolis. Bonn, 1836. The other papers of Prof. Lassen may be found in the "Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes," a periodical work published at Bonn, exclusively devoted to Oriental subjects. It is the most learned work on Oriental Philology and Archæology published in Europe.

[74]While Major Rawlinson was occupied in Persia, the subject was attracting much attention among the Orientalists of Europe. Burnouf and Lassen, as we have seen, then published the results of their investigations, which were afterwards found to be almost identical with those of Major R. Neither of these scholars was aware at the time of the others' labors. This is an interesting fact, and establishes the correctness of the conclusions at which they eventually arrived.

[75]The Zend language is known to us chiefly by the "Zendavesta." Of its antiquity there is doubt. Some philologists believe that it grew up with the decline of the old Persian, or was formed on its basis, with an infusion from the Sanscrit, Median, and Scythic languages. It was used in the time of Darius Hystaspes, B.C. 550, at which period Zoroaster lived, who employed the Zend in the composition of the "Zendavesta." Its antiquity has formed the subject of many memoirs; but late writers, among whom are Rask, Eugene Burnouf, Bopp, and Lassen, have decided from the most severe tests of criticism, that the Zend was an ancient language derived from the same source as the Sanscrit, and that it was spoken before the Christian era, particularly in the countries situated west of the Caspian Sea, in Georgia, Iran proper, and northern Media. Note to the Dabistan, Vol. I. p. 222. The only specimen of this language yet known, with the exception of a few MSS. of little importance among the Parsees, is the Zendavesta. Major Rawlinson[A]adopts views at variance with those of the distinguished German philologists, in regard to the antiquity of the Zend language. Its "very elaborate vocalic organization," he thinks, "indicates a comparatively recent era for the formation of its alphabet;" and of the Zend-Avesta, he is of opinion that "the disfigurement of authentic history affords an argument of equal weight against the antiquity of its composition." He fully agrees, however, with all others as to the very remote composition of the books generally ascribed to Zoroaster. In fact this is beyond all question, for Plato mentions them (Pol. B. XXX.). Clemens of Alexandria says they were known in the 5th century B.C. and many other ancient writers could be cited in proof of the same.[B][A]See Rawlinson. Memoir on Cuneiform Inscriptions. Note to page 42.[B]See a note to the "Dabistan," Vol. I. p. in which is given a list of all the ancient writers who mention Zoroaster and his works.

[A]See Rawlinson. Memoir on Cuneiform Inscriptions. Note to page 42.

[B]See a note to the "Dabistan," Vol. I. p. in which is given a list of all the ancient writers who mention Zoroaster and his works.

[76]On the Decyphering of the Median species of Arrow-headed Writing, by N.L. Westergaard, in the Mémoires de la Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord. Copenhagen, 1844.

[77]Memoir on the Cuneiform Inscriptions, p. 20.

[78]Ibid. p. 28.

[79]On the Median variety of Arrow-headed Writing. Mémoires de la Société des Antiquaires du Nord, for 1844. p. 272.

[80]Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes. 1844-45. Prof. Westergaard has also published his paper in English, in the Mémoires de la Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord, Copenhagen, 1844, prefixing to it Lassen's alphabet of the first sort of Persepolitan writing. He was probably induced to do this by observing the limited extent to which the German language is cultivated by English scholars, insomuch that even Rawlinson complains that he was unable to read any more of Lassen's papers than his translations of the inscriptions, which are in Latin.

[81]Memoir on the Persian cuneiform inscriptions. p. 47.

[82]Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, 1844 '45.

[83]For inscription see Rich's Babylon and Persepolis, plate 24, and page 254.

[84]Revue Archæologique. October, 1844.

[85]Westergaard in Mém. de la Socié. Royale des Antiq. du Nord, p. 419. Ibid. p. 423.

[86]Lettres de M. Botta sur les découvertes à Khorsabad, près de Ninive; publiées par M.J. Mohl.

[87]London Times, June, 1846. Two interesting letters from Mr. Layard, dated August 12, 1846, to Mr. Kellogg, of Cincinnati, were read before the American Ethnological Society, at its meeting in February, giving further accounts of his discoveries.

[88]See London Athenæum, Oct. 10, 1846, a letter from Constantinople dated Sept. 10.

[89]The prophet Daniel in his vision of four beasts says, "The first was like a lion, and had eagles' wings; I beheld till the wings thereof were plucked, and it was lifted up from the earth, and made stand upon the feet as a man."Daniel, ch. VII. v. 4.The resemblance between the animal of Daniel's vision and those recently discovered at Nineveh is striking.

[90]Richardson in the Preface to his Persian Dictionary.

[91]Preface to the "Dabistan" published by the Oriental Trans. Fund:—by A. Troyer. Vol. I. p. 30.

[92]Annales des Voyages, April, 1845, p. 58.

[93]Ld. Colchester's Address, Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 1846.

[94]Address to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at its meeting, September, 1846.

[95]The Royal Geographical Society of London has conferred its Victoria Gold Medal on Prof. Middendorff for his successful exploration.

[96]Lord Colchester's Address before the Royal Geog. Society. London, 1846.

[97]Missionary Herald. Vol. XLI. p. 138.

[98]Missionary Herald. Vol. XLI. p. 206.

[99]English Baptist Missionary Report for 1845. p. 9.

[100]It appears that the Baptist Missionary Society in the year ending in March, 1845,[A]expended in India $29,500, of which sum nearly $15,000, or rather more than one half, was expended in making translations of books into various languages. The remainder was for the support of the missionaries, their outfits and passages, the support of native teachers—schools &c. The languages and dialects which have been studied and elucidated and into which books have been translated may be summed up as follows.32 languages and dialects in India,4 do. do. in Persia and the Caucasian countries,5 do. in China and the Indo-Chinese countries,4 do. in Polynesia.The translations consist of the whole or portions of the Scriptures; books on religious or moral subjects; elementary works on Science, popular Histories, geography, &c. Elementary books in the several departments of Science and History constitute the greater variety, though of the whole number of works distributed, the Bible and Testament constitute by far the greatest part. For example, the English Baptist Missionary Society printed and issued in the year ending March 1845, fifty-five thousand copies of the Bible and Testament in the Sanscrit, Bengali, Hindostani, and Armenian languages. The number of books printed and distributed in India by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions was as follows.Madras Mission.In the Tamil and English languages: The Scriptures or portions of them—books of a religious character—elementary school books—tracts—periodicals and reports of benevolent associations bearing on the cause of Christianity and the social and intellectual improvement of the population of India, there were printed at this single establishment, within a fraction of twenty-seven millions of pages—or, if in volumes of two hundred and seventy pages each, one hundred thousand volumes; but as there were many tracts, the number was doubtless double or treble. Besides this there are six other large establishments in Southern India, where books in the Tamil language are printed, all under the control of Missionary Societies.Ceylon Mission.In the Tamil and English languages were printed during the year, twenty-three thousand seven hundred and forty-four volumes, and one hundred and forty-five thousand tracts, amounting to six million one hundred and fifty-six thousand pages.Siam Mission.In the Siamese language were printed in two years two million four hundred and sixty-two thousand pages.When so much is accomplished by one Society, how vast must be the influence exerted by the various Missionary and Tract Societies engaged in the same cause.[A]Report of the English Baptist Missionary Society for 1845.

32 languages and dialects in India,4 do. do. in Persia and the Caucasian countries,5 do. in China and the Indo-Chinese countries,4 do. in Polynesia.

The translations consist of the whole or portions of the Scriptures; books on religious or moral subjects; elementary works on Science, popular Histories, geography, &c. Elementary books in the several departments of Science and History constitute the greater variety, though of the whole number of works distributed, the Bible and Testament constitute by far the greatest part. For example, the English Baptist Missionary Society printed and issued in the year ending March 1845, fifty-five thousand copies of the Bible and Testament in the Sanscrit, Bengali, Hindostani, and Armenian languages. The number of books printed and distributed in India by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions was as follows.

Madras Mission.In the Tamil and English languages: The Scriptures or portions of them—books of a religious character—elementary school books—tracts—periodicals and reports of benevolent associations bearing on the cause of Christianity and the social and intellectual improvement of the population of India, there were printed at this single establishment, within a fraction of twenty-seven millions of pages—or, if in volumes of two hundred and seventy pages each, one hundred thousand volumes; but as there were many tracts, the number was doubtless double or treble. Besides this there are six other large establishments in Southern India, where books in the Tamil language are printed, all under the control of Missionary Societies.

Ceylon Mission.In the Tamil and English languages were printed during the year, twenty-three thousand seven hundred and forty-four volumes, and one hundred and forty-five thousand tracts, amounting to six million one hundred and fifty-six thousand pages.

Siam Mission.In the Siamese language were printed in two years two million four hundred and sixty-two thousand pages.

When so much is accomplished by one Society, how vast must be the influence exerted by the various Missionary and Tract Societies engaged in the same cause.

[A]Report of the English Baptist Missionary Society for 1845.

[101]Missionary Herald, Vol. XLV. p. 47.

[102]Chinese Repository. Vol. XV. p. 113.

[103]Annals of the Propaganda for 1846. p. 55.

[104]Ibid. July, 1846.

[105]Annals of the Propaganda for September, 1845.

[106]Chinese Repository, Vol. xii. p. 78.

[107]Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, July, 1846.

[108]Chinese Repository, Vol. xiv. p. 155.

[109]It is desirable that this word be expunged from all works on China and eastern Asia, and the proper wordsofficers,authorities,magistrates, &c., be used instead. Every officer, from a prime minister to a constable or tide-waiter, is called a mandarin by foreigners, partly because those who write do not know the rank of the person, and partly from the common custom of calling many things in China by some peculiar term, as if they were unlike the same things elsewhere.

[110]Chinese Repository, Vol. X, pp. 205-215.

[111]Chinese Repository. Vol. I., p. 276; Vol. II., pp. 135-138.

[112]Chinese Repository. Vol. XIV. p. 202.

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