P.P. Pars, Passus, Pater, Patronus, Pax, Perpetuus, Pes, Pius,Plebs, Pondo, Populus, Post, Posuit, Praeses, Praetor,Primus, Pro, Provincia, Publicus, Publius, Puer.P.C. Pactum conventum, Patres conscripti, Pecunia constituta,Ponendum curavit, Post consulatum, Potestate censoria.P.F. Pia fidelis, Pius felix, Promissa fides, Publii filius.P.M. Piae memoriae, Pius minus, Pontifex maximus.P.P. Pater patratus, Pater patriae, Pecunia publica, Praepositus,Primipilus, Propraetor.PR. Praeses, Praetor, Pridie, Princeps.P.R. Permissu reipublicae, Populus Romanus.P.R.C. Post Romam conditam.PR.PR. Praefectus praetorii, Propraetor.P.S. Pecunia sua, Plebiscitum, Proprio sumptu, Publicae saluti.P.V. Pia victrix, praefectus urbi, Praestantissimus vir.
Q.Q. Quaestor, Quando, Quantus, Que, Qui, Quinquennalis,Quintus, Quirites.Q.D.R. Qua de re.Q.I.S.S. Quae infra scripta sunt; so Q.S.S.S. Quae supra, &c.QQ. Quaecunque, Quinquennalis, Quoque.Q.R. Quaestor reipublicae.
R.R. Recte, Res, Respublica, Retro, Rex, Ripa, Roma, Romanus,Rufus, Rursus.R.C. Romana civitas, Romanus civis.RESP. and RP. Respublica.RET.P. and RP. Retro pedes.
S.S. Sacrum, Scriptus, Semis, Senatus, Sepultus, Servius,Servus, Sextus, Sibi, Sine, Situs, Solus, Solvit, Sub, Suus.SAC. Sacerdos, Sacrificium, Sacrum.S.C. Senatus consultum.S.D. Sacrum diis, Salutem dicit, Senatus decreto, SententiamS.D.M. Sacrum diis Manibus, Sine dolo malo.SER. Servius, Servus.S.E.T.L. Sit ei terra levis.SN. Senatus, Sententia, Sine.S.P. Sacerdos perpetua, Sine pecunia, Sua pecunia.S.P.Q.R. Senatus populusque Romanus.S.S. Sanctissimus senatus, Supra scripture.S.V.B.E.E.Q.V. Si vales bene est, ego quidem valeo.
T.T. Terminus, Testamentum, Titus, Tribunus, Tu, Turma, Tutor.TB., TI. and TIB. Tiberius.TB., TR. and TRB. Tribunus.T.F. Testamentum fecit, Titi filius, Titulum fecit, Titus Flavius.TM. Terminus, Testamentum, Thermae.T.P. Terminum posuit, Tribunicia potestate, Tribunus plebis.TVL. Tullius, Tunus.
V.V. Urbs, Usus, Uxor, Vale, Verba, Vestalis, Vester, Vir, Vivus,Vixit, Volo, Votum.VA. Veterano assignatus, Vixit annos.V.C. Vale conjux, Vir clarissimus, Vir consularis.V.E. Verum etiam, Vir egregius, Visum est.V.F. Usus fructus, Verba fecit, Vivus fecit.V.P. Urbis praefectus, Vir perfectissimus, Vivus posuit.V.R. Urbs Roma, Uti rogas, Votum reddidit.
II. MEDIEVAL ABBREVIATIONS.—Of the different kinds ofabbreviations in use in the middle ages, the following areexamples:—A.M. Ave Maria.B.P. Beatus Paulus, Beatus Petrus. .CC. Carissimus (atso plur. Carissimi), Clarissimus, Circum.D. Deus, Dominicus, Dux.D.N.PP. Dominus hoster Papa.U.F. Felicissimus, Fratres, Pandectae (prob. for Gr. II).I.C. or I.X. Jesus Christus.I.D.N. In Dei nomine.KK. Karissimus (or-mi).MM. Magistri, Martyres, Matrimonium, Meritissimus.O.S.B. Ordinis Sancti Benedicti.PP. Papa, Patres, Piissimus.R.F. Rex Francorum.R.P.D. Reverendissimus Pater Dominus.S.C.M. Sacra Caesarea Majestas.S.M.E. Sancta Mater Ecclesia.S.M.M. Sancta Mater Maria.S.R.I. Sanctum Romanum Imperium.S.V. Sanctitas Vestra, Sancta Virgo.V. Venerabilis, Venerandus. .V.R.P. Vestra Reverendissima Paternitas.
III. ABBREVIATIONS NOW IN USE.—The import of these will often be readily understood from the connexion in which they occur. There is no occasion to explain here the common abbreviations used for Christian names, books of Scripture, months of the year, points of the compass, grammatical and mathematical terms, or familiar titles, like ``Mr,'' &c.
The ordinary abbreviations, now or recently in use, maybe conveniently classified under the following headings:-
I. ABBREVIATED TITLES AND DESIGNATIONS.A.A. Associate of Arts.A.B. Able-bodied seaman; (in America) Bachelor of Arts.A.D.C. Aide-de-Camp.A.M. (Artium Magister), Master of Arts.A.R.A. Associate of the Royal Academy.A.R.I.B.A. Associate of the Royal Institution of British Architects.A.R.S.A. Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy.B.A. Bachelor of Arts.Bart. Baronet.B.C.L. Bachelor of Civil Law.B.D. Bachelor of Divinty.B.LL. Bachelor of Laws.B.Sc. Bachelor of Science.C. Chairman.C.A. Chartered Accountant.C.B. Companion of the Bath.C.E. Civil Engineer.C.I.E. Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire.C.M. (Chirurgiae Magister), Master in Surgery.C.M.G. Companion of St Michael and St George.C.S.I. Companion of the Star of India.D.C.L. Doctor of Civil Law.D.D. Doctor of Divinity.D.Lit. or Litt. D. Doctor of Literature.D.M. Doctor of Medicine (Oxford).D.Sc. Doctor of Science.D.S.O. Distinguished Service Order.Ebor. (Eboracensis) of York.2F.C.S. Fellow of the Chemical Society.F.D. (Fidei Defensor), Defender of the Faith.F.F.P.S. Fellow of the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons (Glasgow)F.G.S. Fellow of the Geological Society.F.K.Q.C.P.I. Fellow of King and Queen's College of Physiciansin Ireland.F.L.S. Fellow of the Linnaean Society.F.M. Field Marshal.F.P.S. Fellow of the Philological Society.F.R.A.S. Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society.F.R C.P. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians.F.R.C.P.E. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh.F.R.C.S. Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons.F.R.G.S. Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society.F.R.H.S. Fellow of the Royal Horticultural Society.F.R.Hist.Soc. Fellow of the Royal Historical Society.F.R.I.B.A. Fellow of the Royal Institution of British Architects.F.R.S. Fellow of the Royal Society.F.R.S.E. Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.F.R.S.L. Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature.F.S.A. Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries.F.S.S. Fellow of the Statistical Society.F.Z.S. Fellow of the Zoological Society.G.C.B. Knight Grand Cross of the Bath.G.C.H. Knight Grand Cross of Hanover.G.C.I.E. Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the IndianEmpire.G.C.M.G. Knight Grand Cross of St Michael and St George.G.C.S.I. Knight Grand Commander of the Star of india.G.C.V.O. Knight Grand Commander of the Victorian Order.H.H. His or Her Highness.H.I.H. His or Her Imperial Highness.H.I.M. His or Her Imperial Majesty.H.M. His or Her Majesty.H.R.H. His or Her Royal Highness.H.S.H. His or Her Serene Highness.J. Judge.J.C.D. (Juris Canonici Doctor, or Juris Civilis Doctor),Doctor of Canon or Civil Law.J.D. (Juris utriusque Doctor), Doctor of Civil and Canon Law.J.P. Justice of the Peace.K.C. King's Counsel.K.C.B. Knight Commander of the Bath.K.C.I.E. Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire.K.C.M.G. Knight Commander of St Michael and St George.K.C.S.I. Knight Commander of the Star of India.K.C.V.O. Knight Commander of the Victorian Order.K.G. Knight of the Garter.K.P. Knight of St Patrick.K.T. Knight of the Thistle.L.A.H. Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Hall.L.C.C. London County Council, or Councillor.L.C.J. Lord Chief JusticeL.J. Lord Justice.L.L.A. Lady Literate in Arts.LL.B. (Legum Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Laws.LL.D. (Legum Doctor), Doctor of Laws.LL.M. (Legum Magister), Master of Laws.L.R.C.P. Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians.L.R.C.S. Licentiate of the Royal College of Surgeons.L.S.A. Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Society.M.A. Master of Arts.M.B. (Medicinae Baccalaureus), Bachelor of MedicineM.C. Member of Congress.M.D. (Medicinae Doctor), Doctor of Medicine.M.Inst.C.E. Member of the Institute of Civil Engineers.M.P. Member of Parliament.M.R. Master of the Rolls.M.R.C.P. Member of the Royal College of Physicians.M.R.C.S. Member of the Royal College of Surgeons.M.R.I.A. Member of the Royal Irish Academy.Mus.B. Bachelor of Music.Mus.D. Doctor of Music.M.V.O. Member of the Victorian Order.N.P. Notary Public.O.M. Order of Merit.P.C. Privy Councillor.Ph.D. (Philosophiae Doctor), Doctor of Philosophy.P.P. Parish Priest.P.R.A. President of the Royal Academy.R. (Rex, Regina), King, Queen.R. & I. Rex et Imperator.R.A. Royal Academician, Royal Artillery.R.A.M. Royal Academy of Music.R.E. Royal Engineers.Reg. Prof. Regius Professor.R.M. Royal Marines, Resident Magistrate.R.N. Royal Navy.S. or St. Saint.S.S.C. Solicitor before the Supreme Courts of Scotland.S.T.P. (Sacrosanctae Theologiae Professor), Professor of SacredTheology.V.C. Vice-Chancellor, Victoria Cross.V.G. Vicar-General.V.S. Veterinary Surgeon.W.S. Writer to the Signet [in Scotland]. Equivalent to Attorney
2. ABBREVIATIONS DENOTING MONIES, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. ac. acre. lb. or lb. (libra), pound (weight). bar. barrel. m. or mi. mile, minute. bus. bushel. m. minim. c. cent. mo. month. c. (or cub.) ft. &c. cubic foot,&c. na. nail. cwt. hundredweight. oz. ounce. d. (denarius), penny. pk. peck. deg. degree. po. pole. dr. drachm or dram. pt. pint. dwt. pennyweight. q. (quadrans), farthing. f. franc. qr. quarter. fl. florin. qt. quart. ft. foot. ro. rood. fur. furlong. Rs.4 rupees. gal. gallon. s. or / (solidus), shilling. gr. grain. s. or sec. second. h. or hr. hour. sc. or scr. scruple. hhd. hogshead. sq. ft. &c, square foot, &c. in. inch. st. stone. kilo. kilometre. yd. yard. L.,3 L. ,2 or l. (libra), pound (money).
A. Accepted.A.C. (Ante Christum), Before Christ.acc., a/c. or acct. Account.A.D. (Anno Domini), In the year of our Lord.A.E.I.O.U. Austriae est imperare orbi universo,5 orAlles Erdreich Ist Oesterreich Unterthan.Aet. or Aetat. (Aetatis, [anno]), In the year of his age.A.H. (Anno Hegirae), In the year of the Hegira (the Mohammedanera).A.M. (Anno Mundi), In the year of the world.A.M. (Ante meridiem), Forenoon.Anon. Anonymous.A.U.C. (Anno urbis conditae), In the year from the buildingof the city (i.e. Rome).A.V. Authorized version of the Bible.b. born.B.V.M. The Blessed Virgin Mary.B.C. Before Christ.c. circa, about.C. or Cap. (Caput), Chapter.C. Centigrade (or Celsius's) Thermometer.cent.6 (Centnim), A hundred, frequently L. 100.Cf. or cp. (Confer), Compare.Ch. or Chap. Chapter.C.M.S. Church Missionary Society.Co. Company, County.C.O.D. Cash on Delivery.Cr. Creditor.curt. Current, the present month.d. died.D.G. (Dei gratia), By the grace of God.Do. Ditto, the same.D.O.M. (Deo Optimo Maximo), To God the Best and Greatest.Dr. Debtor.D.V. (Deo volente), God willing.E.& O.E. Errors and omissions excepted.e.g. (Exempti gratia), For example.etc. or &c. (Et caetera), And the rest; and so forth.Ex. Example.F. or Fahr. Fahrenheit's Thermometer.
fec. (Fecit), He made (or did) it.fl. Flourished.Fo. or Fol. Folio.f.o.b. Free on board.G.P.O. General Post Office.H.M.S. His Majesty's Ship, or Service.Ib. or Ibid. (Ibidem), In the same place.Id. (Idem), The same.ie. (Id est), That is.I.H.S. A symbol for ``Jesus,', derived from the first three lettersof the Greek (I E S); the correct origin was lostsight of, and the Romanized letters were then interpretederroneously as standing for Jesus, Hominum Salvator,the Latin ``h'' and Greek long ``e'' being confused.I.M.D.G. (In majorem Dei gloriam), To the greater glory of God.Inf. (Infra), Below.Inst. Instant, the present month.I.O.U. I owe you.i.q. (Idem quod), The same as.k.t.l. (gr kai ta loipa) Et caetera, and the rest.L. or Lib. (Liber), Book.Lat. Latitude.l.c. (Loco citato), In the place cited.Lon. or Long. Longitude.L.S. (Locus sigilli), The place of the seal.Mem. (Memento), Remember, Memorandum.MS. Manuscript. MSS. Manuscripts.N.B. (Nota bene), Mark well; take notice.N.B. North Britain (i.e. Scotland).N.D. No date.nem. con. (Nemine contradicente), No one contradicting.No. (Numero), Number.N.S. New Style.N.T. New Testament.ob. (Obiit), Died.Obs. Obsolete.O.H.M.S. On His Majesty's Service.O.S. Old Style.O.S.B. Ordo Sancti Benedicti (Benedictines).O.T. Old Testament.P. Page. Pp. Pages.@ (Per), For; e.g. @ lb., For one pound.Pinx. (Pinxit), He painted it.P.M. (Post Meridiem), Afternoon.P.O. Post Office, Postal Order.P.O.O. Post Office Order.P.P.C. (Pour prendre conge), To take leave.P.R. Prize-ring.prox. (Proximo [mense]), Next month.P.S. Postscript.Pt. Part.p.t. or pro tem. (Pro tempore), For the time.P.T.O. Please turn over.Q., Qu., or Qy. Query; Question.q.d. (Quasi dicat), As if he should say: as much as to say.Q.E.D. (Quod erot demonstrandum), Which was to be demonstrated.Q.E.F. (Quod erat faciendum), Which was to be done.q.s. or quant. suff. (Quantum sufficit), As much as issufficient.q.v. (Quod vide), Which see.R. or @. (Recipe), Take.sqrt. (=r. for radix), The sign of the square root.R.I.P. (Requiescat in pace!), May he rest in peace!R.S.V.P. (i Respondes s'il vous plait), please reply.sc. (Scilicet), Namely; that is to say.Sc. or Sculp. (Sculpsit), He engraved it.S.D.U.K. Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.seq. or sq., seqq. or sqq. (Sequens, sequenitia), The following.S.J. Society of Jesus.sp. (Sine prole), Without offspring.S.P.C.K. Society for the Promotion of Christian KnowledgeS.P.G. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel.S.T.D. }S.T.B. }Doctor, Bachelor, Licentiate of Theology.S.T.L. }Sup. (Supra), Above.s.v. (Sub voce), Under the word (or heading).T.C.D. Trinity College, Dublin.ult. (Ultimo [mense]), Last month.U.S. United States.U.S.A. United States of America.v. (versus), Against.v. or vid: (Vide), See.viz. (Videlicet), Namely.Xmas. Christmas. This X is a Greek letter, corresponding to Ch.
See also Graevius's Thesaurus Antiquitatum (1694, sqq.); Nicolai's Tractatus de Sigils Veterum; Mommsen's Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (1863, sqq.); Natalis de Wailly's Paleographie (Paris, 1838); Alph. Chassant's Paleographie (1854), and Dictionnaire des Abreviations (3rd ed. 1866); Campelli, Duzionario di Abbreviature (1899).
1 Describing the function of the triumviri monetales.
2 An archbishop or bishop, in writing his signature, substitutes for his surname the name of his see; thus the prelates of Canterbury, York, Oxford, London, &c., subscribe themselves with their initials (Christian names only), followed by Cantuar., Ebor., Oxon., Londin. (sometimes London.), &c.
3 Characters, not properly abbreviations, are used in the same way; e.g. `` deg. '' for ``degrees, minutes, seconds'' (circular measure); @, @, @ for ``ounces, drachms, scruples.'' @ is probably to be traced to the written form of the z in ``oz.''
4 These forms (as well as $, the symbol for the American dollar) are placed before the amounts.
5It is given to Austria to rule the whole earth. The device of Austria, first adopted by Frederick III.
6``Per cent.'' is often signified by %, a form traceable to "100."
ABBREVIATORS, a body of writers in the papal chancery, whose business was to sketch out and prepare in due form the pope's bulls, briefs and consistorial decrees before these are written out in extenso by the scriptores. They are first mentioned in Extravagantes of John XXII. and of Benedict XII. Their number was fixed at seventy-two by Sixtus IV. From the time of Benedict XII. (1334-1342) they were classed as de Parco majori or Praesidentiae majoris, and de Parco minnori. The name was derived from a space in the chancery, surrounded by a grating, in which the officials sat, which is called higher or lower (major or minor) according to the proximity of the seats to that of the vice-chancellor. After the protonotaries left the sketching of the minutes to the abbreviators, those de Parco majori, who ranked as prelates, were the most important officers of the apostolic chancery. By Martin V. their signature was made essential to the validity of the acts of the chancery; and they obtained in course of time many important privileges. They were suppressed in 1908 by Pius X. and their duties were transferred to the protonotarii apostolici participantes. (See CURIA ROMANA.)
ABDALLATIF, or ABD-UL-LATIF (1162-1231), a celebrated physician and traveller, and one of the most voluminous writers of the East, was born at Bagdad in 1162. An interesting memoir of Abdallatif, written by himself, has been preserved with additions by Ibn-Abu-Osaiba (Ibn abi Usaibia), a contemporary. From that work we learn that the higher education of the youth of Bagdad consisted principally in a minute and careful study of the rules and principles of grammar, and in their committing to memory the whole of the Koran, a treatise or two on philology and jurisprudence, and the choicest Arabian poetry. After attaining to great proficiency in that kind of learning, Abdallatif applied himself to natural philosophy and medicine. To enjoythe society of the learned, he went first to Mosul (1189), and afterwards to Damascus. With letters of recommendation from Saladin's vizier, he visited Egypt, where the wish he had long cherished to converse with Maimonides, ``the Eagle of the Doctors,'' was gratified. He afterwards formed one of the circle of learned men whom Saladin gathered around him at Jerusalem. He taught medicine and philosophy at Cairo and at Damascus for a number of years, and afterwards, for a shorter period, at Aleppo. His love of travel led him in his old age to visit different parts of Armenia and Asia Minor, and he was setting out on a pilgrimage to Mecca when he died at Bagdad in 1231. Abdallatif was undoubtedly a man of great knowledge and of an inquisitive and penetrating mind. Of the numerous works—mostly on medicine—-which Osaiba ascribes to bim, one only, his graphic and detailed Account of Egypt (in two parts), appears to be known in Europe. The manuscript, discovered by Edward Pococke the Orientalist, and preserved in the Bodleian Library, contains a vivid description of a famine caused, during the author's residence in Egypt, by the Nile failing to overflow its banks. It was translated into Latin by Professor White of Oxford in 1800, and into French, with valuable notes, by De Sacy in 1810.
ABD-AR-RAHMAN, the name borne by five princes of the Omayyad dynasty, amirs and caliphs of Cordova, two of them being rulers of great capacity.
ABD-AR-RAHMAN I. (756-788) was the founder of the branch of the family which ruled for nearly three centuries in Mahommedan Spain. When the Omayyads were overthrown in the East by the Abbasids he was a young man of about twenty years of age. together with his brother Yahya, he took refuge with Bedouin tribes in the desert. The Abbasids hunted their enemies down without mercy. Their soldiers overtook the brothers; Yahya was slain, and Abd-ar-rahman saved himself by fleeing first to Syria and thence to northern Africa, the common refuge of all who endeavoured to get beyond the reach of the Abbasids. In the general confusion of the caliphate produced by the change of dynasty, Africa had fallen into the hands of local rulers, formerly amirs or lieutenants of the Omayyad caliphs, but now aiming at independence. After a time Abd-ar-rahman found that his life was threatened, and he fled farther west, taking refuge among the Berber tribes of Mauritania. In the midst of all his perils, which read like stories from the Arabian Nights, Abd-ar-rahman had been encouraged by reliance on a prophecy of his great-uncle Maslama that he would restore the fortune of the family. He was followed in all his wanderings by a few faithful clients of the Omayyads. In 755 he was in hiding near Ceuta, and thence he sent an agent over to Spain to ask for the support of other clients of the family, descendants of the conquerors of Spain, who were numerous in the province of Elvira, the modern Granada. The country was in a state of confusion under the weak rule of the amir Yusef, a mere puppet in the hands of a faction, and was torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs and by race conflicts between the Arabs and Berbers. It offered Abd-ar-rahman the opportunity he had falled to find in Africa. On the invitation of his partisans he landed at Almunecar, to the east of Malaga, in September 755. For a time he was compelled to submit to be guided by his supporters, who were aware of the risks of their venture. Yusef opened negotiations, and offered to give Abdar-rahman one of his daughters in marriage and a grant of land. This was far less than the prince meant to obtain, but he would probably have been forced to accept the offer for want of a better if the insolence of one of Yusef's messengers, a Spanish renegade, had not outraged a chief partisan of the Omayyad cause. He taunted this gentleman, Obeidullah by name, with being unable to write good Arabic. Under this provocation Obeidullah drew the sword. In the course of 756 a campaign was fought in the valley of the Guadalquivir, which ended, on the 16th of May, in the defeat of Yusef outside Cordova. Abdar-rahman's army was so ill provided that he mounted almost the only good war-horse in it; he had no banner, and one was improvised by unwinding a green turban and binding it round the head of a spear. The turban and the spear became the banner of the Spanish Omayyads. The long reign of Abd-arrahman I. was spent in a struggle to reduce his anarchical Arab and Berber subjects to order. They had never meant to give themselves a master, and they chafed under his hand, which grew continually heavier. The details of these conflicts belong to the general history of Spain. It is, however, part of the personal history of Abd-ar-rahman that when in 763 he was compelled to fight at the very gate of his capital with rebels acting on behalf of the Abbasids, and had won a signal victory, he cut off the heads of the leaders, filled them with salt and camphor and sent them as a defiance to the eastern caliph. His last years were spent amid a succession of palace conspiracies, repressed with cruelty. Abd-ar-rahman grew embittered and ferocious. He was a fine example of an oriental founder of a dynasty, and did his work so well that the Omayyads lasted in Spain for two centuries and a half.
ABD-AR-RAHMAN II. (822-852) was one of the weaker of the Spanish Omayyads. He was a prince with a taste for music and literature, whose reign was a time of confusion. It is chiefly memorable for having included the story of the ``Martyrs of Cordova,'' one of the most remarkable passages in the religious history of the middle ages.
ABD-AR-RAHMAN III. (912-961) was the greatest and the most successful of the princes of his dynasty in Spain (for the general history of his reign see SPAIN, History). He ascended the throne when he was barely twenty-two and reigned for half a century. His life was so completely identified with the government of the state that he offers less material for biography than his ancestor Abd-ar-rahman I. Yet it supplies some passages which show the real character of an oriental dynasty even at its best. Abd-ar-rahman III. was the grandson of his predecessor, Abdallah, one of the weakest and worst of the Spanish Omayyads. His father, Mahommed, was murdered by a brother Motarrif by order of Abdallah The old sultan was so far influenced by humanity and remorse that he treated his grandson kindly. Abd-ar-rahman III. came to the throne when the country was exhausted by more than a generation of tribal conflict among the Arabs, and of strife between them and the Mahommedans of native Spanish descent. Spaniards who were openly or secretly Christians had acted with the renegades. These elements, which formed the bulk of the population, were not averse from supporting a strong ruler who would protect them against the Arab aristocracy. These restless nobles were the most serious of Abd-ar-rahman's enemies. Next to them came the Fatimites of Egypt and northern Africa, who claimed the caliphate, and who aimed at extending their rule over the Mahommedan world, at least in the west. Abd-ar-rahman subdued the nobles by means of a mercenary army, which included Christians. He repelled the Fatimites, partly by supporting their enemies in Africa, and partly by claiming the caliphate for himself. His ancestors in Spain had been content the the title of sultan. The caliphate was thought only to belong to the prince who ruled over the sacred cities of Mecca and Medina. But the force of this tradition had been so far weakened that Abd-ar-rahman could proclaim himself caliph on the 16th of January 929, and the assumption of the title gave him increased prestige with his subjects, both in Spain and Africa. His worst enemies were always his fellow Mahommedans. After he was defeated by the Christians at Alhandega in 939 through the treason of the Arab nobles in his army (see SPAIN, History) he never again took the field. He is accused of having sunk in his later years into the self-indulgent habits of the harem. When the undoubted prosperity of his dominions is quoted as an example of successful Mahommedan rule, it is well to remember that he administered well not by means of but in spite of Mahommedans. The high praise given to his administration may even excite some doubts as to its real excellence. We are told that a third of his revenue sufficed for the ordinary expenses of government, a third was hoarded and a third spent on buildings. A very large proportion of the surplus must have been wasted on the palace-town of Zahra, built three miles to the north of Cordova, and named after a favourite concubine. Ten thousand workmen are said to have been employed for twenty-five years on this wonder, of which no trace now remains. The great monument of early Arabic architecture in Spain, the mosque of Cordoya, was built by his predecessors, not by him. It is said that his harem included six thousand women. Abd-ar-rahman was tolerant, but it is highly probable that he was very indifferent in religion, and it is certain that he was a thorough despot. One of the most authentic sayings attributed to him is his criticism of Otto I. of Germany, recorded by Otto's ambassador, Johann, abbot of Gorze, who has left in his Vita an incomplete account of his embassy (in Pertz, Mon. Germ. Scriptores, iv. 355-377). He blamed the king of Germany for trusting his nobles, which he said could only increase their pride and leaning to rebellion. His confession that he had known only twenty happy days in his long reign is perhaps a moral tale, to be classed with the ``omnia fui, et nil expedit'' of Septimius Severus.
In the agony of the Omayyad dynasty in Spain, two princes of the house were proclaimed caliphs for a very short time, Abd-ar-rahman IV. Mortada (1017), and Abd-ar-rahman V. Mostadir (1023-1024). Both were the mere puppets of factions, who deserted them at once. Abd-ar-rahman IV. was murdered in the year in which he was proclaimed, at Guadiz, when fleeing from a battle in which he had been deserted by his supporters. Abd-ar-rahman V. was proclaimed caliph in December 1023 at Cordova, and murdered in January 1024 by a mob of unemployed workmen, headed by one of his own cousins.
The history of the Omayyads in Spain is the subject of the Histoire des Musulmans d'Espagne, by R. Dozy (Leiden, 1861). (D. H.)
ABD-EL-AZIZ IV. (1880- ), sultan of Morocco, son of Sultan Mulai el Hasan III. by a Circassian wife. He was fourteen years of age on his father's death in 1894. By the wise action of Si Ahmad bin Musa, the chamberlain of El Hasan, Abd-el Aziz's accession to the sultanate was ensured with but little fighting. Si Ahmad became regent and for six years showed himself a capable ruler. On his death in 1900 the regency ended, and Abd-el-Aziz took the reins of government into his own hands, with an Arab from the south, El Menebhi, for his chief adviser. Urged by his Circassian mother, the sultan sought advice and counsel from Europe and endeavoured to act up to it. But disinterested advice was difficult to obtain, and in spite of the unquestionable desire of the young ruler to do the best for the country, wild extravagance both in action and expenditure resulted, leaving the sultan with depleted exchequer and the confidence of his people impaired. His intimacy with foreigners and his imitation of their ways were sufficient to rouse fanaticism and create dissatisfaction. His attempt to reorganize the finances by the systematic levy of taxes was hailed with delight, but the government was not strong enough to carry the measures through, and the money which should have been used to pay the taxes was employed to purchase firearms. Thus the benign intentions of Mulai Abdel-Aziz were interpreted as weakness, and Europeans were accused of having spoiled the sultan and of being desirous of spoiling the country. When British engineers were employed to survey the route for a railway between Mequinez and Fez, this was reported as indicating an absolute sale of the country. The fanaticism of the people was aroused, and a revolt broke out near the Algerian frontier. Such was the condition of things when the news of the Anglo-French Agreement of 1904 came as a blow to Abd-el-Aziz, who had relied on England for support and protection against the inroads of France. On the advice of Germany he proposed the assembly of an international conference at Algeciras in 1906 to consult upon methods of reform, the sultan's desire being to ensure a condition of affairs which would leave foreigners with no excuse for interference in the control of the country, and would promote its welfare, which Abd-el-Aziz had earnestly desired from his accession to power. The sultan gave his adherence to the Act of the Algeciras Conference, but the state of anarachy into which Morocco fell during the latter half of 1906 and the beginning of 1907 showed that the young ruler lacked strength sufficient to make his will respected by his turbulent subjects. In May 1907 the southern tribes invited Mulai Hafid, an elder brother of Abd-el-Aziz, and viceroy at Marrakesh, to become sultan, and in the following August Hafid was proclaimed sovereign there with all the usual formalities. In the meantime the murder of Europeans at Casablanca had led to the occupation of that port by France. In September Abd-el-Aziz arrived at Rabat from Fez and endeavoured to secure the support of the European powers against his brother. From France he accepted the grand cordon of the Legion of Honour, and was later enabled to negotiate a loan. His leaning to Christians aroused further opposition to his rule, and in January 1908 he was declared deposed by the ulema of Fez, who offered the throne to Hafid. After months of inactivity Abd-el-Aziz made an effort to restore his authority, and quitting Rabat in July he marched on Marrakesh. His force, largely owing to treachery, was completely overthrown (August 19th) when near that city, and Abd-el-Aziz fled to Settat within the French lines round Casablanca. In November he came to terms with his brother, and thereafter took up his residence in Tangier as a pensioner of the new sultan. He declared himself more than reconciled to the loss of the throne, and as looking forward to a quiet peaceful life. (See MOROCCO, History.)
ABD-EL-KADER (c. 1807-1883), amir of Mascara, the great opponent of the conquest of Algeria by France, was born near Mascara in 1807 or 1808. His family were sherifs or descendants of Mahomet, and his father, Mahi-ed-Din, was celebrated throughout North Africa for his piety and charity. Abd-el Kader received the best education attainable by a Mussulman of princely rank, especially in theology and philosophy, in horsemanship and in other manly exercises. While still a youth he was taken by his father on the pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina and to the tomb of Sidi Abd-el-Kader El Jalili at Bagdad—events which stimulated his natural tendency to religious enthusiasm. While in Egypt in 1827, Abd-el-Kader is stated to have been impressed, by the reforms then being carried out by Mehemet Ali with the value of European civilization, and the knowledge he then gained affected his career. Mahi-ed-Din and his son returned to Mascara shortly before the French occupation of Algiers (July 1830) destroyed the government of the Dey. Coming forward as the champion of Islam against the infidels, Abd-el-Kader was proclaimed amir at Mascara in 1832. He prosecuted the war against France vigorously and in a short time had rallied to his standard all the tribes of western Algeria. The story of his fifteen years' struggle against the French is given under ALGERIA. To the beginning of 1842 the contest went in favour of the amir; thereafter he found in Marshal Bugeaud an opponent who proved, in the end, his master. Throughout this period Abd-el-Kader showed himself a born leader of men, a great soldier, a capable administrator, a persuasive orator, a chivalrous opponent. His fervent faith in the doctrines of Islam was unquestioned, and his ultimate failure was due in considerable measure to the refusal of the Kabyles, Berber mountain tribes whose Mahommedanism is somewhat loosely held, to make common cause with the Arabs against the French. On the 21st of December 1847, the amir gave himself up to General Lamoriciere at Sidi Brahim. On the 23rd, his submission was formally made to the duc d'Aumale, then governor of Algeria. In violation of the promise that he would be allowed to go to Alexandria or St Jean d'Acre, on the faith of which he surrendered, Abd-el-Kader and his family were detained in France, first at Toulon, then at Pau, being in November 1848 transferred to the chateau of Amboise. There Abd-el-Kader remained until October 1852, when he was released by Napoleon III. on taking an oath never again to disturb Algeria. The amir then took up his residence in Brusa, removing in 1855 to Damascus. In July 1860, when the Moslems of that city, taking advantage of disturbances among the Druses of Lebanon, attacked the Christian quarter and killed over 3000 persons, Abd-el-Kader helped to repress the outbreak and saved large numbers of Christians. For this action the French government, which granted the amir a pension of L. 4000, bestowed on him the grand cross of the Legion of Honour. In 1865, he visited Paris and London, and was again in Paris at the exposition of 1867. In 1871, when the Algerians again rose in revolt, Abd-el-Kader wrote to them counselling submission to France. After his surrender in 1847 he devoted himself anew to theology and philosophy, and composed a philosophical treatise, of which a French translation was published in 1858 under the title of Rappel a l'intelligent. Avis a l'indifferent. He also wrote a book on the Arab horse. He died at Damascus on the 26th of May 1883.
See Commdt. J. Pichon, Abd el Kader, 1807—1883(Paris [1899]): Alex. Bellemare, Abd-el-Kader: savie politique et militaire (Paris, 1863); Col. C. H.Churchill, The Life of Abdel Kader (London, 1867).
ABDERA, an ancient seaport town on the south coast of Spain, between Malaca and New Carthage, in the district inhabited by the Bastuli. It was founded by the Carthaginians as a trading station, and after a period of decline became under the Romans one of the more important towns in the province of Hispania Baetica. It was situated on a hill above the modern Adra (q.v.). Of its coins the most ancient bear the Phoenician inscription abdrt with the head of Heracles (Melkarth) and a tunny-fish; those of Tiberius (who seems to have made the place a colony) show the chief temple of the town with two tunny-fish erect in the form of columns. For inscriptions relating to the Roman municipality see C.I.L. ii. 267.
ABDERA, a town on the coast of Thrace near the mouth of the Nestos, and almost opposite Thasos. Its mythical foundation was attributed to Heracles, its historical to a colony from Clazomenae in the 7th century B.C. But its prosperity dates from 544 B.C., when the majority of the people of Teos migrated to Abdera after the Ionian revolt to escape the Persian yoke (Herod. i. 168); the chief coin type, a gryphon, is identical with that of Teos; the coinage is noted for the beauty and variety of its reverse types. The town seems to have declined in importance after the middle of the 4th century. The air of Abdera was proverbial as causing stupidity; but among its citizens was the philosopher Democritus. The ruins of the town may still be seen on Cape Balastra; they cover seven small hills, and extend from an eastern to a western harbour; on the S.W. hills are the remains of the medieval settlement of Polystylon.
Mittheil. d. deutsch. Inst. Athens, xii. (1887), p. 161 (Regel); Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscriptions, xxxix. 211; K. F. Hermann, Ges. Abh. 90-111, 370 in.
ABDICATION (Lat. abdicatio, disowning, renouncing, from ab, from, and dicare, to declare, to proclaim as not belonging to one), the act whereby a person in office renounces and gives up the same before the expiry of the time for which it is held. In Roman law, the term is especially applied to the disowning of a member of a family, as the disinheriting of a son, but the word is seldom used except in the sense of surrendering the supreme power in a state. Despotic sovereigns are at liberty to divest themselves of their powers at any time, but it is otherwise with a limited monarchy. The throne of Great Britain cannot be lawfully abdicated unless with the consent of the two Houses of Parliament. When James II., after throwing the great seal into the Thames, fled to France in 1688, he did not formally resign the crown, and the question was discussed in parliament whether he had forfeited the throne or had abdicated. The latter designation was agreed on, for in a full assembly of the Lords and Commons, met in convention, it was resolved, in spite of James's protest, ``that King James II. having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom, by breaking the original contract between king and people, and, by the advice of Jesuits and other wicked persons, having violated the fundamental laws, and having withdrawn himself out of this kingdom, has abdicated the government, and that the throne is thereby vacant.'' The Scottish parliament pronounced a decree of forfeiture and deposition. Among the most memorable abdications of antiquity may be mentioned that of Sulla the dictator, 79 B.C., and that of the Emperor Diocletian, A.D. 305. The following is a list of the more important abdications of later
A.D.Benedict IX., pope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048Stephen II. of Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1131Albert (the Bear) of Brandenburg . . . . . . . . . . 1169Ladislaus III. of Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1206Celestine V., pope . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 13, 1294John Baliol of Scotland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1296John Cantacuzene, emperor of the East . . . . . . . 1355Richard II. of England . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 29, 1399John XXIII., pope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1415Eric VII; of Denmark and XIII. of Sweden . . . . . . 1439Murad II., Ottoman Sultan . . . . . . . . .1444 and 1445Charles V., emperor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1556Christina of Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1654John Casimir of Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1618James II. of England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1688Frederick Augustus of Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . 1704Philip V. of Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1724Victor Amadeus II. of Sardinia . . . . . . . . . . . 1730Ahmed III., Sultan of Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . 1730Charles of Naples (on accession to throne of Spain). 1759Stanislaus II. of Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795Charles Emanuel IV. of Sardinia . . . . . . June 4, 1802Charles IV. of Spain . . . . . . . . . . . .Mar. 19, 1808Joseph Bonaparte of Naples . . . . . . . . . June 6, 1808Gustavus IV. of Sweden . . . . . . . . . . .Mar. 29, 1809Louis Bonaparte of Holland . . . . . . . . . July 2, 1810Napoleon I., French Emperor. . . . . . . . .April 4, 1814, and June 22, 1815Victor Emanuel of Sardinia . . . . . . . . .Mar. 13, 1821Charles X. of France . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 2, 1830Pedro of Brazil 1 . . . . . . . . . . . .April 7, 1831Miguel of Portgual . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 26, 1834William I. of Holland . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 7, 1840Louis Philippe, king of the French . . . . .Feb. 24, 1848Louis Charles of Bavaria . . . . . . . . . .Mar. 21, 1848Ferdinand of Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 2, 1848Charles Albert of Sardinia . . . . . . . . .Mar. 23, 1849Leopold II. of Tuscany . . . . . . . . . . .July 21, 1859Isabella II. of Spain . . . . . . . . . . . June 25, 1870Amadeus I. of Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 11, 1873Alexander of Bulgaria . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 7, 1886Milan of Servia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Mar. 6, 1889
1 Pedro had succeeded to the throne of Portugal in 1826, but abdicated it at once in favour of his daughter.
ABDOMEN (a Latin word, either from abdere, to hide, or from a form adipomen, from adeps, fat), the belly, the region of the body containing most of the digestive organs. (See for anatomical details the articles ALIMENTARY CANAL, and ANATOMY, Superficial and Artistic.)
ABDOMINAL SURGERY.—-The diseases affecting this region are dealt with generally in the article DIGESTIVE ORGANS, and under their own names (e.g. APPENDICITIS). The term ``abdominal surgery'' covers generally the operations which involve opening the abdominal cavity, and in modern times this field of work has been greatly extended. In this Encyclopaedia the surgery of each abdominal organ is dealt with, for the most part, in connexion with the anatomical description of that organ (see STOMACH, KIDNEY, LIVER, &c.); but here the general principles of abdominal surgery may be discussed.
Exploratory Laparotomy.—-In many cases of serious intra-abdominal disease it is impossible for the surgeon to say exactly what is wrong without making an incision and introducing his finger, or, if need be, his hand among the intestines. With due care this is not a perilous or serious procedure, and the great advantage appertaining to it is daily being more fully recognized. It was Dr Oliver Wendell Holmes, the American physiologist and poet, who remarked that one cannot say of what wood a table is made without lifting up the cloth; so also it is often impossible to say what is wrong inside the abdomen without making an opening into it. When an opening is made in such circumstances—-provided only it is done soon enough—the successful treatment of the case often becomes a simple matter. An exploratory operation, therefore, should be promptly resorted to as a means of diagnosis, and not left as a last resource till the outlook is well-nigh hopeless.
It is probable that if the question were put to any experienced hospital surgeon if he had often had cause to regret having advised recourse to an exploratory operation on the abdomen, his answer would be in the negative, but that, on the other hand, he had not infrequently had cause to regret that he had not resorted to it, post-mortem examination having shown that if only he had insisted on an exploratioui being made, some band, some adhesion, some tumour, some abscess might have been satisfactorily dealt with, which, left unsuspected in the dark cavity, was accountable for the death. A physician by himself is helpless in these cases.
Much of the rapid advance which has of late been made in the results of abdominal surgery is due to the improved relationship which exists between the public and the surgical profession. In former days it was not infrequently said, ``If a surgeon is called in he is sure to operate.'' Not only have the public said this, but even physicians have been known to suggest it, and have indeed used the equivocal expression, the ``apotheosis of surgery,'' in connexion with the operative treatment of a serious abdominal lesion. But fortunately the public have found out that the surgeon, being an honest man, does not advise operation unless he believes that it is necessary or, at any rate, highly advisable. And this happy discovery has led to much more confidence being placed in his decision. It has truly been said that a surgeon is a physician who can operate, and the public have begun to realize the fact that it is useless to try to relieve an acute abdominal lesion by diet or drugs. Not many years ago cases of acute, obscure or chronic affections of the abdomen which were admitted into hospital were sent as a matter of course into the medical wards, and after the effect of drugs had been tried with expectancy and failure, the services of a surgeon were called in. In acute cases this delay spoilt all surgical chances, and the idea was more widely spread that surgery, after all, was a poor handmaid to medicine. But now things are different. Acute or obscure abdominal cases are promptly relegated to the surgical wards; the surgeon is at once sent for, and if operation is thought desirable it is performed without any delay. The public have found that the surgeon is not a reckless operator, but a man who can take a broad view of a case in all its bearings. And so it has come about that the results of operations upon the interior of the abdomen have been improving day by day. And doubtless they will continue to improve.
A great impetus was given to the surgery of wounded, mortified or diseased pieces of intestine by the introduction from Chicago of an ingenious contrivance named, after the inventor, Murphy's button. This consists of a short nickel-plated tube in two pieces, which are rapidly secured in the divided ends of the bowel, and in such a manner that when the pieces are subsequently ``married'' the adjusted ends of the bowel are securely fixed together and the canal rendered practicable. In the course of time the button loosens itself into the interior of the bowel and comes away with the alvine evacuation. In many other cases the use of the button has proved convenient and successful, as in the establishment of a permanent communication between the stomach and the small intestine when the ordinary gateway between these parts of the alimentary canal is obstructed by an irremovable malignant growth; between two parts of the small intestine so that some obstruction may be passed; betw:en smal' and large intestine. The operative procedure goes by the name of short-circuiting; it enables the contents of the bowel to get beyond an obstruction. In this way also a permanent working communication can be set up between the gallbladder, or a dilated bile-duct, and the neighbouring small intestine—-the last-named operation bears the precise but very clumsy name of choledocoduodenostomy. By the use of Murphy's ingenious apparatus the communication of two parts can be secured in the shortest possible space of time, and this, in many of the cases in which it is resorted to, is of the greatest importance. But there is this against the method—-that sometimes ulceration occurs around the rim of the metal button, whilst at others the loosened metal causes annoyance in its passage along the alimentary canal. Some surgeons therefore prefer to use a bobbin of decalcified bone or similar soft material, while others rely upon direct suturing of the parts. The last-named method is gradually increasing in popularity, and of course, when time and circumstances permit, it is the ideal method of treatment. The cause of death in the case of intestinal obstruction is usually due to the blood being poisoned by the absorption of the products of decomposition of the fluid contents of the bowel above the obstruction. It is now the custom, therefore, for the surgeon to complete his operation for the relief of obstruction by drawing out a loop of the distended bowel, incising and evacuating it, and then carefully suturing and returning it. The surgeon who first recognized the lethal effect of the absorption of this stagnant fluid—-or, at any rate, who first suggested the proper method of treating it—-was Lawson Tait of Birmingham, who on the occurrence of grave symptoms after operating on the abdomen gave small, repeated doses of Epsom salts to wash away the harmful liquids of the bowel and to enable it at the same time to empty itself of the gas, which, by distending the intestines, was interfering with respiration and circulation.
Amongst still more recent improvements in abdominal surgery may be mentioned the placing of the patient in the sitting position as soon as practicable after the operation, and the slow administration of a hot saline solution into the lower bowel, or, in the more desperate cases, of injecting pints of this ``normal saline'' fluid into the loose tissue of the armpit. Hot water thus administered or injected is quickly taken into the blood, increasing its volume, diluting its impurities and quenching the great thirst which is so marked a symptom in this condition.
Gunshot wounds of the Abdomen.—-If a revolver bullet passes through the abdomen, the coils of intestine are likely to be traversed by it in several places. If the bullet be small and, by chance, surgically clean, it is possible that the openings may tightly close up behind it so that no leakage takes place into the general peritoneal cavity. If increasing collapse suggests that serious bleeding is occurring within the abdomen, the cavity is opened forthwith and a thorough exploration made. When it is uncettain lf the bowel has been traversed or not, it is well to wait before opening the abdomen, due preparation being made for performing that operation on the first appearance of symptoms indicative of perforation having occurred. Small perforating wounds of the bowel are treated by such suturing as the circumstances may suggest, the interior of the abdominal cavity being rendered as free from septic micro-organisms as possible. It is by the malign influence of such germs that a fatal issue is determined in the case of an abdominal wound, whether inflicted by firearms or by a pointed weapon. If aseptic procedure can be promptly resorted to and thoroughly carried out, abdominal wounds do well, but these essentials cannot be obtained upon the field of battle. When after an action wounded men come pouring into the field-hospital, the many cannot be kept waiting whilst preparations are being made for the thorough carrying out of a prolonged aseptic abdominal operation upon a solitary case. Experience in the South African war of 1899-1902 showed that Mauser bullets could pierce coils of intestine and leave the soldiers in such a condition that, if treated by mere ``expectancy,'' more than 50% recovered, whereas if operations were resorted to, fatal septic peritonitis was likely to ensue. In the close proximity of the fight, where time, assistants, pure water, towels, lotions and other necessaries for carrying out a thoroughly aseptic operation cannot be forthcoming, gunshot wounds of the abdomen had best not be interfered with.
Stabs of the abdomen are serious if they have penetrated the abdominal wall, as, at the time of injury, septic germs may have been introduced, or the bowel may have been wounded. In either case a fatal inflammation of the peritoneum may be set up. It is inadvisable to probe a wound in order to find out if the belly-cavity has been penetrated, as the probe itself might carry inwards septic germs. In case of doubt it is better to enlarge the wound in order to determine its depth, and to disinfect and close it if it be non-penetrating. If, however, the bellycavity has been opened, the neighbouring pieces of bowel should be examined, cleansed and, if need be, sutured. Should there have been an escape of the contents of the bowel the ``toilet of the peritoneum'' would be duly made, and a drainage-tube would be left in. If the stab had injured a large blood-vessel either of the abdominal cavity, or of the hiver or of some other organ, the bleeding would be arrested by ligature or suture, and the extravasated blood sponged out. Before the days of antiseptic surgery, and of exploratory abdominal operations, these cases were generally allowed to drift to almost certain death, unrecognized and almost untreated: at the present time a large number of them are saved.
Intussusception.—-This is a terribly fatal disease of infants and children, in which a piece of bowel slips into, and is gripped by, the piece next below it. Formerly it was generally the custom to endeavour to reduce the invagination by passing air or water up the rectum under pressure—a speculative method of treatment which sometimes ended in a fatal rupture of the distended bowel, and often—-one might almost say generally—failed to do what was expected of it. The teaching of modern surgery is that a small incision into the abdomen and a prompt withdrawal of the invaginated piece of bowel can be trusted to do all that, and more than, infection can effect, without blindly risking a rupture of the bowel. It is certain that when the surgeon is unable to unravel the bowel with his fingers gently applied to the parts themselves, no speculative distension of the bowel could have been effective. But the outlook in these distressing cases, even when the operation is promptly resorted to, is extremely grave, because of the intensity of the shock which the intussusception and resulting strangulation entail. Still, every operation gives them by far the best chance.
Cancer of the Intestine.—-With the introduction of aseptic methods of operating, it has been found that the surgeon can reach the bowel through the peritoneum easily and safely. With the peritoneum opened, moreover, he can explore the diseased bowel and deal with it as circumstances suggest. If the cancerous mass is fairly movable the affected piece of bowel is excised and the cut ends are spliced together, and the continuity of the alimentary canal is permanently re-established. Thus in the case of cancer of the large intestine which is not too far advanced, the surgeon expects to be able not only to relieve the obstruction of the bowel, but actually to cure the patient of his disease. When the lowest part of the bowel was found to be occupied by a cancerous obstruction, the surgeon used formerly to secure an easy escape for the contents of the bowel by making an opening into the colon in the left loin. But in recent years this operation of lumbar colotomy has been almost entirely replaced by opening the colon in the left groin. This operation of iniguinal colotomy is usually divided into two stages: a loop of the large intestine is first drawn out through the abdominal wound and secured by stitches, and a few days afterwards, when it is firmly glued in place by adhesive inflammation, it is cut across, so that subsequently the motions can no longer find their way into the bowel below the artificial anus. If at the first stage of the operation symptoms of obstruction are urgent, one of the ingenious glass tubes with a rubber conduit, which Mr F. T. Paul has invented, may be forthwith introduced into the distended bowel, so that the contents may be allowed to escape without fear of soiling the peritoneum or even the surface-wound. (E. O.*)
ABDUCTION (Lat. abductio, abducere, to lead away), a law term denoting the forcible or fraudulent removal of a person, limited by custom to the case where a woman is the victim. In the case of men or children, it has been usual to substitute the term kidnapping (q.v.). The old English laws against abduction, generally contemplating its object as the possession of an heiress and her fortune, have been repealed by the Offences against the Person Act 1861, which makes it felony for any one from motives of lucre to take away or detain against her will with intent to marry or carnally know her, &c., any woman of any age who has any interest in any real or personal estate, or is an heiress presumptive, or co-heiress, or presumptive next of kin to any one having such an interest; or for any one to cause such a woman to be married or carnally known by any other person; or for any one with such intent to allure, take away, or detain any such woman under the age of twenty-one, out of the possession and against the will of her parents or guardians. By s. 54, forcible taking away or detention against her will of any woman of any age with like intent is felony. The same act makes abduction without eyen any such intent a misdemeanour, where an unmarried girl under the age of sixteen is unlawfully taken out of the possession and against the will of her parents or guardians. In such a case the girl's consent is immaterial, nor is it a defence that the person charged reasonably believed that the girl was sixteen or over. The Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885 made still more stringent provisions with reference to abduction by making the procuration or attempted procuration of any virtuous female under the age of twenty-one years a misdemeanour, as well as the abduction of any girl under eighteen years of age with the intent that she shall be carnally known, or the detaining of any female against her will on any premises, with intent to have, or that another person may have, carnal knowledge of her. In Scotland, where there is no statutory adjustment, abduction is similarly dealt with by practice.
ABD-UL-AZIZ (1830-1876), sultan of Turkey, son of Sultan Mahmud II., was born on the 9th of February 1830, and succeeded his brother Abd-ul-Mejid in 1861. His personal interference in government affairs was not very marked, and extended to little more than taking astute advantage of the constant issue of State loans during his reign to acquire wealth, which was squandered in building useless palaces and in other futile ways: he is even said to have profited, by means of ``bear'' sales, from the default on the Turkish debt in 1875 and the consequent fall in prices. Another source of revenue was afforded by Ismail Pasha, the khedive of Egypt, who paid heavily in bakshish for the firman of 1866, by which the succession to the khedivate was made hereditary from father to son in direct line and in order of primogeniture, as well as for the subsequent firmans of 1867, 1869 and 1872 extending the khedive's prerogatives. It is, however, only fair to add that the sultan was doubtless influenced by the desire to bring about a similar change in the succession to the Ottoman throne and to ensure the succession after him of his eldest son, Yussuf Izz-ed-din. Abd-ul-Aziz visited Europe in 1867, being the first Ottoman sultan to do so, and was made a Knight of the Garter by Queen Victoria. In 1869 he received the visits of the emperor of Austria, the Empress Eugenie and other foreign princes, on their way to the opening of the Suez Canal, and King Edward VII., while prince of Wales, twice visited Gonstantinople during his reign. The mis-government and financial straits of the country brought on the outbreak of Mussulman discontent and fanaticism which eventually culminated in the murder of two consuls at Salonica and in the ``Bulgarian atrocities,'' and cost Abd-ul-Aziz his throne. His deposition on the 30th of May 1876 was hailed with joy throughout Turkey; a fortnight later he was found dead in the palace where he was confined, and trustworthy medical evidence attributed his death to suicide. Six children survived him: Prince Yussuf Izz-ed-din, born 1857; Princess Salina, wife of Kurd Ismall Pasha; Princess Nazime, wife of Khalid Pasha; Prince Abd-ul-Mejid, born 1869; Prince Self-ed-din, born 1876; Princess Emine, wife of Mahommed Bey; Prince Shefket, born 1872, died 1899.
ABD-UL-HAMID I.,(1725-1789), sultan of Turkey, son of Ahmed III., succeeded his brother Mustafa III. in 1773. Long confinement in the palace aloof from state affairs had left him pious, God-fearing and pacific in disposition. At his accession the financial straits of the treasury were such that the usual donative could not be given to the janissaries. War was, however, forced on him, and less than a year after his accession the complete defeat of the Turks at Kozluja led to the treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji ( 21st July 1774), the most disastrous, especially in its after effects, that Turkey has ever been obliged to conclude. (See TURKEY.) Slight successes in Syria and the Morea against rebellious outbreaks there could not compensate for the loss of the Crimea, which Russia soon showed that she meant to absorb entirely. In 1787 war was again declared against Russia, joined in the following year by Austria, Joseph II. being entirely won over to Catherine, whom he accompanied in her triumohal progress in the Crimea. Turkey held her own against the Austrians, but in 1788 Ochakov fell to the Russians. Four months later, on the 7th of April 1789, the sultan died, aged sixty-four.
ABD-UL-HAMID II. (1842- ), sultan of Turkey, son of Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid, was born on the 21st of September 1842, and succeeded to the throne on the deposition of his brother Murad V., on the 31st of August 1876. He accompanied his uncle Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz on his visit to England and France in 1867. At his accession spectators were struck by the fearless manner in which he rode, practically unattended, on his way to be girt with the sword of Eyub. He was supposed to be of liberal principles, and the more conservative of his subjects were for some years after his accession inclined to regard him with suspicion as a too ardent reformer. But the circumstances of the country at his accession were ill adapted for liberal developments. Default in the public funds and an empty treasury, the insurrection in Bosnia and the Herzegovina, the war with Servia and Montenegro, the feeling aroused throughout Europe by the methods adopted in stamping out the Bulgarian rebellion, all combined to prove to the new sultan that he could expect little aid from the Powers. But, still clinging to the groundless belief, for which British statesmen had, of late at least, afforded Turkey no justification, that Great Britain at all events would support him, he obstinately refused to give ear to the pressing requests of the Powers that the necessary reforms should be instituted. The international Conference which met at Constantinople towards the end of 1876 was, indeed, startled by the salvo of guns heralding the promulgation of a constitution, but the demands of the Conference were rejected, in spite of the solemn warnings addressed to the sultan by the Powers; Midhat Pasha, the author of the constitution, was exiled; and soon afterwards his work was suspended, though figuring to this day on the Statute-Book. Early in 1877 the disastrous war with Russia followed. The hard terms, embodied in the treaty of San Stefano, to which Abd-ul-Hamid was forced to consent, were to some extent amended at Berlin, thanks in the main to British diplomacy (see EUROPE, History); but by this time the sultan had lost all confidence in England, and thought that he discerned in Germany, whose supremacy was evidenced in his eyes by her capital being selected as the meeting-place of the Congress, the future friend of Turkey. He hastened to employ Germans for the reorganization of his finances and his army, and set to work in the determination to maintain his empire in spite of the difficulties surrounding him, to resist the encroachments of foreigners, and to take gradually the reins of absolute power into his own hands, being animated by a profound distrust, not unmerited, of his ministers. Financial embarrassments forced him to consent to a foreign control over the Debt, and the decree of December 1881, whereby many of the revenues of the empire were handed over to the Public Debt Administration for the benefit of the bondholders, was a sacrifice of principle to which he could only have consented with the greatest reluctance. Trouble in Egypt, where a discredited khedive had to be deposed, trouble on the Greek frontier and in Montenegro, where the Powers were determined that the decisions of the Berlin Congress should be carried into effect, were more or less satisfactorily got over. In his attitude towards Arabi, the would-be saviour of Egypt, Abd-ul-Hamid showed less than his usual astuteness, and the resulting consolidation of England's hold over the country contributed still further to his estrangement from Turkey's old ally. The union in 1885 of Bulgaria with Eastern Rumelia, the severance of which had been the great triumph of the Berlin Congress, was another blow. Few people south of the Balkans dreamed that Bulgaria could be anything but a Russian province, and apprehension was entertained of the results of the union until it was seen that Russia really and entirely disapproved of it. Then the best was made of it, and for some years the sultan preserved towards Bulgaria an attitude skilfully calculated so as to avoid running counter either to Russian or to German wishes. Germany's friendship was not entirely disinterested, and had to be fostered with a railway or loan concession from time to time, until in 1899 the great object aimed at, the Bagdad railway, was conceded. Meanwhile, aided by docile instruments, the sultan had succeeded in reducing his ministers to the position of secretaries, and in concentrating the mhole administration of the country into his own hands at Yildiz. But internal dissension was not thereby lessened. Crete was constantly in turmoil, the Greeks were dissatisfied, and from about 1890 the Armenians began a violent agitation with a view to obtaining the reforms promised them at Berlin. Minor troubles had occurred in 1892 and 1893 at Marsovan and Tokat. In 1894 a more serious rebellion in the mountainous region of Sassun was ruthlessly stamped out; the Powers insistently demanded reforms, the eventual grant of which in the autumn of 1895 was the signal for a series of massacres, brought on in part by the injudicious and threatening acts of the victims, and extending over many months and throughout Asia Minor, as well as in the capital itself. The reforms became more or less a dead letter. Crete indeed profited by the grant of extended privileges, but these did not satisfy its turbulent population, and early in 1897 a Greek expedition salled to unite the island to Greece. War followed, in which Turkey was easily successful and gained a small rectification of frontier; then .a few months later Crete was taken over ``en depot'' by the Four Powers—-Germany and Austria not participating,—-and Prince George of Greece was appointed their mandatory. In the next year the sultan received the visit of the German emperor and empress.
Abd-ul-Hamid had always resisted the pressure of the European Powers to the last moment, in order to seem to yield only to overwhelming force, while posing as the champion of Islam against aggressive Christendom. The Panislamic propaganda was encouraged; the privileges of foreigners in the Ottoman Empire-often an obstacle to government—were curtailed; the new railway to the Holy Places was pressed on, and emissaries were sent to distant countries preaching Islam and the caliph's supremacy. This appeal to Moslem sentiment was, however, powerless against the disaffection due to perennial misgovernment. In Mesopotamia and Yemen disturbance was endemic; nearer home, a semblance of loyalty was maintained in the army and among the Mussulman population by a system of delation and espionage, and by wholesale arrests; while, obsessed by terror of assassination, the sultan withdrew himself into fortified seclusion in the palace of Yildiz.
The national humiliation of the situation in Macedonia (q.v.), together with the resentment in the army against the palace spies and informers, at last brought matters to a crisis. The remarkable revolution associated with the names of Niazi Bey and Enver Bey, the young Turk leaders, and the Committee of Union and Progress is described elsewhere (see TURKEY: History); here it must suffice to say that Abd-ul-Hamid, on learning of the threat of the Salonica troops to march on Constantinople (July 23), at once capitulated. On the 24th an irade announced the restoration of the suspended constitution of 1875; next day, further irades abolished espionage and the censorship, and ordered the release of political prisoners. On the 10th of December the sultan opened the Turkish parliament with a speech from the throne in which he said that the first parliament had been ``temporarily dissolved until the education of the people had been brought to a sufficiently high level by the extension of instruction throughout the empire.''
The correct attitude of the sultan did not save him from the suspicion of intriguing with the powerful reactionary elements in the state, a suspicion confirmed by his attitude towards the counter-revolution of the 13th of April, when an insurrection of the soldiers and the Moslem populace of the capital overthrew the committee and the ministry. The comittee, restored by the Salonica troops, now decided on Abdul-Hamid's deposition, and on the 27th of April his brother Reshid Effendi was proclaimed sultan as Mahommed V. The ex-sultan was conveyed into dignified captivity at Salonica.
ABD-UL-MEJID (1823-.1861), sultan of Turkey, was born on the 23rd of April 1823, and succeeded his father Mahmud II. on the 2nd of July 1839. Mahmud appears to have been unable to effect the reforms he desired in the mode of educating his children, so that his son received no better education than that given, according to use and wont, to Turkish princes in the harem. When Abd-ul-Mejid succeeded to the throne, the affairs of Turkey were in an extremely critical state. At the very time his father died, the news was on its way to Constantinople that the Turkish army had been signally defeated at Nezib by that of the rebel Egyptian viceroy, Mehemet Ali; and the Turkish fleet was at the same time on its way to Alexandria, where it was handed over by its commander, Ahmed Pasha, to the same enemy, on the pretext that the young sultan's advisers were sold to Russia. But through the intervention of the European Powers Mehemet Ali was obliged to come to terms, and the Ottoman empire was saved. (See MEHEMET ALI.) In compliance with his father's express instructions, Abd-ul-Mejid set at once about carrying out the reforms to which Mahmud had devoted himself. In November 1839 was proclaimed an edict, known as the Hatt-i-sherif of Dulhane, consolidating and enforcing these reforms, which was supplemented at the close of the Crimean war by a similar statute issued in February 1856. By these enactments it was provided that all classes of the sultan's subjects should have security for their lives and property; that taxes should be fairly imposed and justice impartially administered; and that all should have full religious liberty and equal civil rights. The scheme met with keen opposition from the Mussulman governing classes and the ulema, or privileged religious teachers, and was but partially put in force, especially in the remoter parts of the empire; and more than one conspiracy was formed against the sultan's life on account of it. Of the other measures of reform promoted by Abd-ul-Mejid the more important were—-the reorganization of the army (1843-1844), the institution of a council of public instruction (1846), the abolition of an odious and unfairly imposed capitation tax, the repression of slave trading, and various provisions for the better administration of the public service and for the advancement of commerce. For the public history of his times—the disturbances and insurrections in different parts of his dominions throughout his reign, and the great war successfully carried on against Russia by Turkey, and by England, France and Sardinia, in the interest of Turkey(1853-1856)— see TURKEY, and CRIMEAN WAR. When Kossuth and others sought refuge in Turkey, after the failure of the Hungarian rising in 1849, the sultan was called on by Austria and Russia to surrender them, but boldly and determinedly refused. It is to his credit, too, that he would not allow the conspirators against his own life to be put to death. He bore the character of being a kind and honourable man, if somewhat weak and easily led. Against this, however, must be set down his excessive extravagance, especially towards the end of his life. He died on the 25th of June 1861, and was succeeded by his brother, Abd-ul-Aziz, as the oldest survivor of the family of Osman. He left several sons, of whom two, Murad V. and Abd-ul-Hamid II., eventually succeeded to the throne. In his reign was begun the reckless system of foreign loans, carried to excess in the ensuing reign, and culminating in default, which led to the alienation of European sympathy from Turkey and, indirectly, to the dethronement and death of Abd-ul-Aziz.