9. The Alps of North-Eastern Switzerland (north of the Klausen Pass).
Chief Peaks of the North-Eastern Swiss Alps.
Glarnisch (highest) . . . . 9,580 Gross Mythen . . . . . . . . . . .6,240Boser Faulen. . . . . . . . 9,200 Rigikulm . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,906Santis. . . . . . . . . . . 8,216 Hoher Kasten . . . . . . . . . . .5,899Altmann. . . . . . . . . . . . 7,999 Rossberg . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,194Faulfirst. . . . . . . . . . . 7,925 Zugerberg (Hochwacht). . . . . . .3,255Alvier . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,753 Albis Hochwacht. . . . . . . . . .2,887Kurfursten (highest). . . . 7,576 Uetliberg. . . . . . . . . . . . .2,864Speer. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,411
Chief Passes of the North-Eastern Swiss Alps.
Ruosalperkulm (Schachen Valley to the Muota Valley), foot path. . . . .7,126Karren Alp Pass (Muota Valley to Linththal), foot path . . . . . . . . . .6,877Kinzigkulm Pass (Schachen Valley to the Muota Valley), foot path. . . .6,811Saasberg Pass (Einsiedeln to Glarus), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,227Kamor Pass (Appcnzell to Ruti), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,512Saxerlucke (Appenzell to Sax), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,417Schwein Alp Pass (Waggithal to the Klon Glen), bridle path . . . . .5,158Pragel Pass (Muotathal to Glarus), carriage road in progress . . . . . . .5,099Hacken Pass (Schwyz to Einsiedeln), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,649Holzegg Pass (same to same), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,616Ibergeregg Pass (Schwyz to Iberg and Einsicdeln), carriage road. . . . . .4,613Krazeren Pass (Nesslau to Urnasch), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . .3,993
10. Bernina Alps (from the Maloja to the Reschen Scheideck and the Stelvio, south and east of the Val Bregaglia and of the Engadine and north of the Vultellina).
Chief Peaks of the Bernina Alps.
Piz Bernina. . . . . . . . . . 13,304 Piz Languard . . . . . . . . . . 10,716Piz Zupo . . . . . . . . . . . 13,131 Piz Sesvenna . . . . . . . . . . 10,568Monte di Scerscen. . . . . . . 13,116 Piz Pisoc. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,427Piz Roseg. . . . . . . . . . . 12,934 Piz Murtarol. . . . . . . . . 10,424Piz Palu. . . . . . . . . . 12,835 Piz Quaiervals . . . . . . . . . 10,358Crast' Aguzza . . . . . . . 12,704 Pizzo della Margna . . . . . . . 10,355Piz Morteratsch. . . . . . . . 12,317 Cima di Redasco. . . . . . . . . 10,299Monte della Disgrazia. . . . . 12,067 Piz Lischanna. . . . . . . . . . 10,204Pizzo di Verona. . . . . . . . 11,359 Pizzo di Sena. . . . . . . . . . 10,099Cima di Piazzi . . . . . . . . 11,283 Piz Casana . . . . . . . . . . . 10,079Cima di Castello . . . . . . . 11,155 Monte Foscagno . . . . . . . . . 10,010Cima Viola . . . . . . . . . . 11,103 Pizzo del Teo. . . . . . . . . . 10,007Pizzo Cengalo. . . . . . . . . 11,070 Pizzo del Ferro. . . . . . . . . 10,007Cima di Rosso. . . . . . . . . 11,060 Piz Umbrail. . . . . . . . . . . .9,955Pizzo Scalino. . . . . . . . . 10,903 Zwei Schwestern. . . . . . . . . .9,784Pizzo Badile . . . . . . . . . 10,863 Monte Braulio. . . . . . . . . . .9,777Corno di Campo . . . . . . . . 10,844 Monte Spluga . . . . . . . . . . .9,321Pizzo di Dosde. . . . . . . 10,762 Monte Massuccio. . . . . . . . . .9,239Cima di Saoseo . . . . . . . . 10,752 Mont la Schera . . . . . . . . . .8,494
Chief Passes of the Bernina Alps.
Fuorcla Bellavista (Ponrresina to Chiesa, in Val Malenco), snow. . . . . 12,087Fuorcla Crast' Aguzza (same to same), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,805Fuorcla Tschierva (same to same), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,572Fuorela Sella (same to same), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,840Passo di Bondo (Bondo to the Baths of Masino), snow. . . . . . . . . . . 10,227Passo di Castello (Maloja to Morbegno), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,171Passo Tremoggia (Sils to Chiesa), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,912Passo di Mello Chiareggio to Val Masino), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,813Diavolezza Pass (Bernina road to the Morteratsch Glen), snow . . . . . . .9,767Passo di Dosde (Val Grosina to Val Viola Bormina), foot path. . . . . .9,351Passo di Sacco (Bernina road to Grosio), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . .9,026Passo di Zocca (Vicosoprano to Val Masino), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,000Casana pass (Scants to Livigno), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,832Muretto pass (Maloja to Chiesa), partly snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,389Umbrail Pass or Wormserjoch (Munster Valley to theStelvio road), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,242Passo di Val Viola (Bernina road to Bormio), bridle path . . . . . . . . .7,976Giufplan Pass (Ofen road to Fraele), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . .7,723Bernina Pass (Pontresina to Tirano), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . .7,645Forcola di Livigno (Bernina Pass to Livigno), small carriage road. . . . .7,638Cruschetta Pass (Schuls by Scarl to Taufers), bridle path. . . . . . . . .7,599Passo di Verva (Bormio to Grosio), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,592Sursass or Schlinig Pass (Remus to Mals) foot path. . . . . . . . . . .7,540Foscagno Pass (Bormio to Trepalle), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,517Alpisella Lass (Uivigno to Fraule), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . .7,497Scarl Pass (Scarl to Santa Maria Munster), carriage road. . . . . . . .7,386Dossradond Pass (Santa Maria Munster to Fraele), bridle path. . .7,349Passo Dheira (Livigno to Trepalle) bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,248Ofen Pass (Zernez to Mals), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,071Fraele Pass (Bormio to the Ofen road), partly bridle path . . . . . . .6,398Scale di Fraele (Borniio to Fraele), bridle path . . . . . . . . . .6,372Maloja Pass (St Moritz to Chiavenna), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . .5,935
11. Albula Range (from the Splugen Pass to the Fluela Pass. north and west of the Val Bregaglia and of the Engadine).
Chief Peaks of the Albula Range.
Piz Kesch. . . . . . . . . . . 11,228 Pizzo Stella . . . . . . . . . . 10,375Piz dellas Calderas. . . . . . 11,132 Fluela Schwarzhorn. . . . . . 10,355Piz Platta . . . . . . . . . . 11,109 Pizzo della Duana. . . . . . . . 10,279Piz Julier . . . . . . . . . . 11,106 Pizzo Gallegione . . . . . . . . 10,201Piz d'Err. . . . . . . . . . . 11,093 Gletscherhorn. . . . . . . . . . 10,191Piz d'Aela . . . . . . . . . . 10,959 Cima di Lago . . . . . . . . . . 10,112Cima da Flex . . . . . . . . . 10,785 Hoch Ducan . . . . . . . . . . . 10,060Piz Uertsch. . . . . . . . . . 10,739 Piz Grisch . . . . . . . . . . . 10,000Piz Forbisch . . . . . . . . . 10,689 Averser Weissberg. . . . . . . . .9,987Piz Ot . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,667 Surettahorn. . . . . . . . . . . .9,971Gross Piz Vadret . . . . . . . 10,584 Arosa Rothhorn . . . . . . . . . .9,794Piz Timun or Emet. . . . . . . 10,502 Piz Curver . . . . . . . . . . . .9,761Tinzenhorn . . . . . . . . . . 10,430 Pizzo Lunghino . . . . . . . . . .9,121Piz Michel . . . . . . . . . . 10,378 Statzerhorn . . . . . . . . . .8,450
Chief Passes of the Albula Range.
Fuorcla Calderas (Molins to Bevers), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,270Fuorcla d'Eschia (Madulein to Bergun), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,869Passo della Duana (Avers Vnlley to the Val Bregaglia), snow. . . . . . . .9,187Sertig Pass (Davos to Scanfs), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,062Forcella di Prassignola (Avers Valley to Soglio), old pavedcattle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,924Tinzenthor (Bergun to Savognino), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,918Forcella di Lago or Madris Pass (Avers Valley to Chiavenna), foot path . .8,793Forcellina (Avers Valley to the Septimer Pass), foot path. . . . . . . . .8,770Ducan Pass (Davos to Bergun), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,763Passo di Lei (Avers Valley to Chiavenna), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . .8,724Forcella di Lunghino (Maloja to the Septimer Pass), foot path. . . . . . .8,645Scaletta Pass (Davos to Scanfs), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,593Suvretta Pass (St Moritz to Bevers), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,590Fuorcla d'Alp Fontauna (Bergun to Scanfs), foot path. . . . . . . . . .8,580Stallerberg (Avers Valley to Bivio-Stalla), foot path. . . . . . . . . . .8,478Grialetsch Pass (Davos to Sus), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,353Fluela Pass (Davos to Sus), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,838Strela Pass (Davos to Langwies), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,799Albula Pass (Bergun to Ponte), carriage road over,railway tunnel beneath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,595Septimer Pass (Bivio-Stalla to Casaccia), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . .7,582Julier Pass (Thusis to Silvaplana), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . . .7,504Passo di Madesimo or d'Emet (Avers Valley to Madesimo), foot path. . . . .7,481
12. Silvretta and Rhatikon Ranges (from the Fuela Pass to theReschen Scheideck and the Arlberg Pass).
Chief Peaks of the Silvretta and Rhatikon Ranpes.
Piz Linard . . . . . . . . . . 11,201 Vesulspitze. . . . . . . . . . . 10,145Fluchthorn . . . . . . . . . . 11,165 Fluela Weisshorn. . . . . . . 10,132Gross Piz Buin . . . . . . . . 10,880 Piz Minschun . . . . . . . . . . 10,079Verstanklahorn . . . . . . . . 10,831 Patteriol. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,037Muttler. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,821 Piz Faschalba. . . . . . . . . . 10,010Piz Fliana . . . . . . . . . . 10,775 Hexenkopf. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,968Stammerspitze. . . . . . . . . 10,689 Gemsbleiskopf. . . . . . . . . . .9,899Silvrettahorn. . . . . . . . . 10,657 Pischahorn . . . . . . . . . . . .9,784Augstenberg. . . . . . . . . . 10,611 Scesaplana . . . . . . . . . . . .9,741Plattenhorn. . . . . . . . . . 10,568 Rothbleiskopf. . . . . . . . . . .9,640Dreilanderspitze. . . . . . 10,539 Hohes Rad. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,554Piz Tasna. . . . . . . . . . . 10,443 Schiltfluh . . . . . . . . . . . .9,482Kuchenspitze . . . . . . . . . 10,401 Plattenpspitze . . . . . . . . . .9,449Hoher Riffler. . . . . . . . . 10,368 Madrishorn . . . . . . . . . . . .9,285Piz Mondin . . . . . . . . . . 10,325 Drusenfluh . . . . . . . . . . . .9,282Kuchelspitze. . . . . . . . 10,315 Sulzfluh . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,252Gross Seehorn. . . . . . . . . 10,247 Zimbaspitze. . . . . . . . . . . .8,678Vesilspitze. . . . . . . . . . 10,220 Naafkopf . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,445Gross Litzner. . . . . . . . . 10,207 Falknis. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,419
Chief Passes of the Silvretta and Rhatikon Ranges.
Jamjoch (Guarda to Galtur), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 112Fuorcla del Confin (Silvretta Pass to the Vermunt Glacier), snow . . . . 10,033Buinlucke (Guarda to Patenen), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,020Silvretta Pass (Klosters to Lavin), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,886Zahnlucke (Jam Glen to the Fimber Glen), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,712Verstanklathor (Klosters to Lavin), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,682Fuorcla d'Urezzas (Ardez to Galtur), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,564Fuorcla Tasna (Ardez to Ischgl), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,374Fuorcla Maisas (Remus to the Samnaun Glen), snow. . . . . . . . . . . .9,357Vermunt or Fermunt Pass (Guarda to Patenen), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,193Futschol Pass (Ardez to Galtur), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,098Fuorcla Zadrell or Vernela Pass (Klosters to Lavin), snow. . . . . . . . .9,033Cuolm d'Alp bella or Vignitz Pass (Samnaun Glen to Kappl), foot path . . .8,852Schafbucheljoch (Mathon to St Anton), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . .8,685Fimber Pass (Remus to Ischgl), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,570Scheien Pass (Klosters to the See Glen), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . .8,557Vereina Pass or Pass da Val Torta (Klosters to Lavin), foot path . . . . .8,540Zebles Pass (Ischgl to the Samnaun Glen), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . .8,350Garnerajoch (Klosters to Gaschurn), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,153Fless Pass (Klosters to Sus), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,045St Antonien or Gargellenjoch (St Antonien to St Gallenkirch),foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,792Drusenthor (Schiers to Schruns), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,710Verrajochl (Lunersee to the Schweizerthor), foot path. . . . . . . .7,648Ofen Pass (Schweizerthor to Schruns), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,523Cavelljoch (Bludenz and the Lunersee to Seewis), foot path. . . . . . .7,343Gruben Pass (St Antonien to Schruns), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . .7,333Schlappinerjoch (Klosters to St Gallenkirch), bridle path. . . . . . . . .7,218Schweizerthor (Schiers to Schruns), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 057Bielerhohe (Patenen to Galtur), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . .6,631Zeinisjoch (Patenen to Galtur), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,076Arlberg Pass (Landeck to Bludenz), carriage road over,railway tunnel beneath. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,912
13. The Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg and Salzburg (north of the Arlberg Pass, Innsbruck, the Pinzgau, and the Enns valley).
Chief Peaks of the Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg and Salzburg.
Parseierspitze . . . . . . . . 9,968 Watzmann . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,901Dachstein. . . . . . . . . . . 9,830 Rothewandspitze. . . . . . . . . .8,878Zugspitze. . . . . . . . . . . 9,738 Gross Krottenkopf(Allgau) . . .8,718Hochkonig . . . . . . . . . 9,639 Selbhorn . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,711Valluga. . . . . . . . . . . . 9,223 Hohes Licht. . . . . . . . . . . .8,701Rockspitze . . . . . . . . . . 9,059 Madelegabel . . . . . . . . . .8,681E. Hohe Griesspitze. . . . . . 9,052 Hochvogel. . . . . . . . . . . . .8,511Stanskogel . . . . . . . . . . 9,052 Elmauer HaltsspitzeBirkkarspitze (Karwendel). . . 9,042 (Kaisergebirge) . . . . . . .7,691
Chief Passes of the Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg and Salzburg.
Gentschel Pass (Oberstdorf to Schrocken), bridle path . . . . . . . . .6,480Schrofen Pass (Oberstdorf to Warth), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,538Gerlos Pass (Zell to Mittersill), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,876Pass Thurn (Kirzbuhel to Mittersill), carriage road . . . . . . . . . .4,183Fern Pass (Reutte to Nassereit), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,026Scharnitz or Seefeld Pass (Partenkirchen to Zirl), carriage road . . . . .3,874Hirschbuhel Pass (Berchtesgaden to Saalfelden), carriage road . . . . .3,858Hochfilzen Pass (Saalfelden to Kitzbuhel), railway over . . . . . . . .3,173Pyhrn Pass (Linz to Liezen), carriage road over, railway tunnelbeneath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3,100Wagreinstattel (Radstadt to St Johann in Pongau), carriage road. . . . . .2,743
14. Central Tirol Alps (from the Brenner Pass to the Radstadter Tauern Pass, north of the Drave Valley and south of the Pinzgau and the Enns Valley). This division takes in the Zillerthal and Tuern Ranges.
Chief Peaks of the Central Tirol Alps.
Gross Glockner . . . . . . . . 12,461 Ruthnerhorn(Rieserferner). . . . 11,024Gross Venediger. . . . . . . . 12,008Gross Wiesbachhorn . . . . . . 11,713 Hochalmspitze. . . . . . . . . . 11,008Hochfeiler (Zillerthal). . . . 11,559 Reichenspitze (Z). . . . . . . . 10,844Dreiherrenspitze . . . . . . . 11,500 Gross Rotherknopf (Schober). . . 10,814Mosele (Z). . . . . . . . . 11,438Olperer (Z). . . . . . . . . . 1i,418 Gross Morchner (Z). . . . . . 10,785Johannisberg . . . . . . . . . 11,375 Hochnarr (Goldberg). . . . . . . 10,689Hochgall (Rieserferner). . . . 11,287 Ankogel. . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,673Thurnerkamp (Z). . . . . . . . 11,228 Hochschober. . . . . . . . . . . 10,663Gross Loflier (Z) . . . . . 11,096 Kitzsteinhorn. . . . . . . . . . 10,512Fusstein (Z) . . . . . . . . . 11,090 Sonnblick. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,196Schwarzenstein (Z) . . . . . . 11,057 Zsigmondyspitze. . . . . . . . . 10,122Gross Geiger . . . . . . . . . 11,041 Reckner (Tuxergebirge) . . . . . .9,485
Chief Passes of the Central Tirol Alps.
Mitterbachjoch (Breitlahner to Taufers), snow (Z). . . . . . . . . . . . 10,270Trippachsattel (Floiten Valley to Taufers), snow (Z) . . . . . . . . . . 10,020Riffelthor (Kaprun to Heiligenblut), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,010Bockkarscharte (Ferleiten to Heiligenblut), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,994Sonnblickscharte (Rauris to Heiligenblut), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,774Alpeinerscharte (Breitlahner to St Jodok am Brenner), foot path (Z). . . .9,712Vorder Umbalthorl (Pragraten to Kasern), snow. . . . . . . . . . . .9,607Ober Sulzbachthorl (Pragraten to Wald), snow . . . . . . . . . . . .9,600Keilbachjoch (Mayrhofen to Steinhaus), foot path (Z) . . . . . . . . . . .9,410Unter Sulzbachthorl (Wald to Gschloss), snow . . . . . . . . . . . .9,400Schwarzkopfscharte (Bramberg to Gschloss), snow . . . . . . . . . . . .9,351Pragraterthorl (Pragraten to the Defereggen Glen),foot path . . .9,338Glodisthorl (Lienz to Kals), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,292Antholzerscharte (Rein Valley to the Antholz Valley), snow . . . . . . . .9,252Krimmlerthorl (Krimml Glen to the Obersulzbach Glen) snow . . . . . . .9,233Goldzechscharte (Heiligenblut to Rauris), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,220Kalserthorl (Kals to Liens), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,197Ober Tramerscharte (Rauris to Dollach), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,193Kleine Elendscharte (Gastein to Gmund), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,987Kleine Zirknitzscharte (Dollach to Fragant or Rauris), snow . . . . . .8,921Dossener or Maunitzerscharte (Mallnitz to Gmund), snow . . . . . . .8,783Grosse Elendscharte (Mallnitz to the Upper Malta Glen), snow . . . . . . .8,770Unter Pfandlscharte (Ferleiten to Heiligenblut), snow. . . . . . . . . . .8,744Heiliggeistjochl (Mayrhofen to Kasern), foot path (Z) . . . . . . . . .8,721Bergerthorl (Kals to Heiligenblut), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,695Kaprunerthorl (upper Kaprun Glen to the upper Stubach Glen), snow . . .8,645Krimmler Tauern (Krimml to Kasern), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,642Virgner or Defereggerthorl (Defereggen Glen to Virgen andPragraten), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,586Backlenke or Trojerjoch (Pragraten to the Defereggen Glen),foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,573Hochthor or Heiligenbluter Tauern (Heiligenblut to Rauris), foot path. . .8,442Horndljochl (Mayrhofen to Steinhaus), foot path (Z). . . . . . . . .8,383Velber Tauern (Windisch Matrei to Mittersill), bridle path . . . . . . . .8,334Kalser Tauern (Kals to Uttendorf), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,242Hohe or Korn Tauern (Mallnitz to Gastein), bridle path over,railway tunnel beneath. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,081Niedere or Mallnitzer Tauern (Mallnitz to Gastein), bridle path. . . . . .7,920Fuscherthorl (Ferleiten to the Seidlwinkel Glen), foot path . . . . . .7,891Lappacherjoch (Lappach to theahrn Valley), foot path (Z) . . . . . . . . .7,763Tuxerjoch or Schmirnjoch (Mayrhofen to St Jodok am Brenner),foot path (Z) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,697Klammljoch (Taufers to the Defereggen Valley), bridle path . . . . . . . .7,517Arlscharte (St Johann in Pongau to Gmund), foot path. . . . . . . . . .7,386Pfitscherjoch (Mayrhofen to Sterzing), foot path (Z) . . . . . . . . . . .7,376Kals Matreierthorl (Kals to Windisch Matrei), bridle path . . . . . . .7,238Die Stanz (Gastein to Rauris), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,900Stallersattel (Defereggen Glen to the Antholz Glen), bridle path (R) . . .6,742Radstadter Tauern (Radstadt to Mautendorf), carriage road . . . . . . .5,702
15. Ortler, Oetzthal and Stubai Banges (from the ReschenScheideck and the Stelvio to the Brenner Pass, south of the InnValley, and north of the Tonale Pass).
Chief Peaks of the Ortler, Oetzthal and Stubai Ranges.
Ortler . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,802 Zuckerhutl (Stubai) . . . . . 11,520Konigsspitze. . . . . . . . 12,655 Schalfkogel. . . . . . . . . . . 11,516Monte Cevedale . . . . . . . . 12,382 Schrankogel. . . . . . . . . . . 11,483Wildspitze (Oetzthal). . . . . 12,382 Hochwildspitze . . . . . . . . . 11,418Weisskugel . . . . . . . . . . 12,291 Sonklarspiize. . . . . . . . . . 11,405Monte Zebru. . . . . . . . . . 12,254 Tuckettspitze. . . . . . . . . . 11,346Palon della Mare . . . . . . . 12,156 Wilder Freiger . . . . . . . . . 11,241Funta San Matteo . . . . . . . 12,113 Veneziaspitze. . . . . . . . . . 11,103Thurwieserspitze . . . . . . . 11,946 Tscheugelser Hochwand. . . . . . 11,083Hintere Schwarze. . . . . . 11,920 Monte Confinale. . . . . . . . . 11,057Similaun . . . . . . . . . . . 11,821 Glockthurm . . . . . . . . . . . 11,011Pizzo Tresero. . . . . . . . . 11,818 Fernerkogel. . . . . . . . . . . 10,827Gross Ramolkogel . . . . . . . 11,651 Monte Sobretta . . . . . . . . . 10,814Vtertainspitze . . . . . . . . 11,618 Habicht. . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,758Hochvernagtspitze. . . . . . . 11,585 Pflerscher Tribulaun . . . . . . 10,178
Chief Passes of the Ortler, Oetzthal and Stubai Ranges.
Hochjoch (Sulden to the Zebru Glen), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,602Vioz Pass (Santa Caterina to Pejo), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,949Sonklarscharte (Solden to Sterzing), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,916Konigsjoch (Sulden to Santa Caterina), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,811Cevedale Pass (Santa Caterina to the Martell Glen), snow . . . . . . . . 10,732Gepatschjoch (Vent to the Kauns Valley), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,640Ramoljoch (Vent to Gurgl), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.479Langtaufererjoch (Vent to the Reschen Scheideck Pass), snow. . . . . . . 10,391Bildstockljoch (Solden to Ranalt), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,296Gurgler Eisjoch (Gurgl to the Pfossen Glen), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,292Eissee Pass (Sulden to the Martell Glen), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,279Langthalerjoch (Gurgl to Pfelders), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,033Passo del Zebru (Santa Caterina to the Zebru Glen), snow . . . . . . . . .9,925Sallentjoch (Martell Glen to Rabbi), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,913Nederjoch (Vent to the Schnals Valley), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,899Sforzellina Pass (Santa Caterina to Pejo), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,859Pitzthalerjochl (Mittelbera to Solden), snow . . . . . . . . . . . .9,826Eisjochl am Bild (Pfelders to the Pfossen Glen), snow . . . . . . . . .9,541Venter Hochjoch (Vent to the Schnals Valley), snow . . . . . . . . . . . .9,465Tabarettascharte (Sulden to Trafoi), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,459Stelvio Pass (Trafoi to Bormio), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,055Gavia Pass (Santa Caterina to Ponte di Legno), foot path . . . . . . . . .8,651Timmeljoch or Timblerjoch (Solden to the Passeierthal andMeran), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,232Jaufen Pass (Sterzing to Meran), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,870Reschen Scheideck Pass (Landeck to Meran), carriage road . . . . . . . . .4,902Brenner Pass (Innsbruck to Verona), railway over . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,495
16. Lombard Alps flrom the Lake of Como to the Adige Valley, south of the Valtellina and the Aprica and Tonale Passes. This division includes the Adamello, Presanella, Brenta and Bergamasque ranges.
Chief Peaks of the Lombard Alps.
Presanella. . . . . . . . . . 11,694 Pizzo del Diavolo. . . . . . . . .9,564Adamello . . . . . . . . . . . 11,661 Re di Castello. . . . . . . . .9,482Care Alto . . . . . . . . . 11,369 Recastello . . . . . . . . . . . .9,475Dosson di Genova . . . . . . . 11,254 Monte Gleno. . . . . . . . . . . .9,459Crozzon di Lares . . . . . . . 11,004 Monte Tornello . . . . . . . . . .8,819Corno di Baitone . . . . . . . 10,929 Corno Stella . . . . . . . . . . .8,596Busazza. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,922 Monte Legnone. . . . . . . . . . .8,563Lobliia Alta . . . . . . . . . 10,486 Pizzo dei Tre Signori. . . . . . .8,380Cima Tosa (Brenta) . . . . . . 10,420 Pizzo di Presolana . . . . . . . .8,239Cima di Brenta . . . . . . . . 10,352 Grigna . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,907Crozzon di Brenta. . . . . . . 10,247 Monte Baldo. . . . . . . . . . . .7,218Pizzo di Coca (Bergamasque). . 10,014 Monte Spinale. . . . . . . . . . .7,094Pizzo di Scais . . . . . . . . .9,974 Monte Gazza. . . . . . . . . . . .6,529Pizzo di Redorta . . . . . . . .9,964 Monte Resegone . . . . . . . . . .6,155Pietra Grande. . . . . . . . . .9,630
Chief Passes of the Lombard Alps.
Passo di Lares (Lares Glacier to the Lobbia Glacier), snow . . . . . . . 10,483Passo di Cercen (gal di Genova to Fucine), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,984Passo della Lobbia Alta (Lobbia Glacier to the Mandron(Glacier), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,961Passo di Presena (Val di Genova to the Tonale Pass), snow. . . . . . . . .9,879Pisgana f'ass ()al di Genova to Ponte di Legno), snow . . . . . . . . .9,626Bocca di Tuckett (Campiglio to Molveno), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,714Passo di Val Morta or del Diavolo (Val Seriana to Sondrio),foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,534Ulocca di Brenta (Pinzolo or Campiglio to Molveno), snow . . . . . . . . .8,376Passo del Groste fcampiglio to Clesl, foot path . . . . . . . . . . . .8,006Passo di Veniua (kal Brembana to Sondrio), foot path . . . . . . . . . . .7,983Passo del Salro (Val Seriana to Sondrio), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . .7,937Passo del Venerocolo (Val di Scalvc to the Aprica road),bridle path.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,595Passo della Forcellina or di Campo (Cedegolo to the Val diFomo), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,507V'asso di Idordona (Val Brembana to Sondrio), foot path. . . . . . . . . .6,824Passo di San Marco (Bergamo to Morbegno), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . .6,513Croce Domini Pass (Breno to Bagolino in Val Caffaro), bridlepath. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,217Tonale Tass (.Trent to Edolo), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,181Passo di Zovetto (Val di Scalve to Edolo), bridle path . . . . . . . . . .5,968Colle Maniva (Val Trompia to Bagolino), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . .5,476Campo or Ginevrie Pass (Oimaro by Campiglio to Pinzolo),carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,407Ciampenjoch (Cles to Meran), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,051Mendel Pass (Botzen to Cles), railway on the E. slope. . . . . . . . . . .4,462Passo di Castione or Presolana Pass (Clusone to the Val diScalve), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,219Aprica Pass (Edolo to Tirano), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3,875
17. The Dolomites of South Tirol (from the Brenner Pass to theMonte Croce Pass, and south of the Pusterthal).
Chief Peaks of the Dolomites of South Tirol.
Marmolata. . . . . . . . . . 10,972 Pala di San Martino. . . . . . . .9,831Antelao. . . . . . . . . . . 10,706 Rosengartenspitze. . . . . . . . .9,781Tofana di Mezzo. . . . . . . 10,633 Marmarole. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,715Sorapiss . . . . . . . . . . 10,594 Cima di Fradusta . . . . . . . . .9,649Monte Civetta .. . . . . . . 10,564 Fermedathurm . . . . . . . . . . .9,407Vernel . . . . . . . . . . . 10,319 Cima d'Asta. . . . . . . . . . . .9,344Monte Cristallo. . . . . . . 10,496 Cima di Canali . . . . . . . . . .9,338Cima di Vezzaoa. . . . . . . 10,470 Croda Grande . . . . . . . . . . .9,315Cimon della Pala . . . . . . 10,453 Vajoletthurm (highest) . . . . . .9,256Langkofel . . . . . .. . . . 10,427 Sass Maor. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,239Pelmo . . . . . . . .. . . . 10,397 Cima di Ball . . . . . . . . . . .9,131Dreischusterspitze . . . . . 10,375 Cima della MadonnaBoespitze . . . . . . . . 10,342 (Sass Maor) . . . . . . . . . .9,026Croda Rossa (Hoher . . . . . 10,329 Rosetta. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,993Caisl) . . . . . . . . 10,329 Croda da Lago. . . . . . . . . . .8,911Piz Popena . . . . . . . . . 10,312 Central Grasleitenspitze . . . . .8,875Elferkofel . . . . . . . . . 10,220 Schlern. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,406Grohmannspitze . . . . . . . 10,207 Sasso di Mur . . . . . . . . . . .8,380Zwolferkofel. . . . . . . 10,142 Cima delle Dodici. . . . . . . . .7,671Sass Rigais(Geislerspitzen). .9,932 Monte Pavione. . . . . . . . . . .7,664Drei Zinnen . . . . . . . . .9,853 Cima di Posta. . . . . . . . . . .7,333Kesselkogel (Rosengarten). . .9,846 Monte Pasubio. . . . . . . . . . .7,323Funffingerspitze. . . . . .9,833
Chief Passes of the Dolomites of South Tirol.
Passo d' Ombretta (Campitello to Caprile), foot path . . . . . . . . . . .8,983Langhofeljoch (Groden Valley to Campirello), foot path. . . . . . . . .8,803Tschagerjoch (Karersee to the Vnjolet Glen), foot path . . . . . . . . . .8,675Crasleiten Pass (Vniolet Glen to thegrasleiten Glen), foot path. . . . . .8,521Passo di Pravitale (Rosetta Plateau to the Pravitale Glen),foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,465Passo delle Comelle (same to Cencenighe), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . .8,462Passo della Rosetta (San Martino di Castrozza to the greatlimestone Rosetta plateau), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,442Vajolet Pass (Tiers to the Vajolet Glen), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . .8,363Passo di Canali (Primiero to Agordo), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,193Tiersalpljochl (Campitello to'I.iers), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . .8,055Passo di Ball (San Martino di Castrozza to the Pravitale Glen),foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,038Forcella di Giralba (Sexte11 to Auronzo), foot path . . . . . . . . . .7,992Col dei Bos (F.alzarego Glen to the Travernanzes GIen), footpath. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,589Forcella Grande (San Vito to Auronzo), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,422Pordoi Pass (Caprile to Canipitello), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . .7,382Sellajoch (Groden Glen to Camphello), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . .7,277Tre Sassi Pass (Cortina to St Cassian), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . .7,215Mahlknechtjoch (Upper Duron Glen to the Seiser Alp), foot path . . . . . .7,113Grodenerjoch (Groden Glen to Colfuschg), bridle path . . . . . . . .7,011Falzarego Pass (Caprile to Cortina), small carriage road . . . . . . . . .6,946Fedaja Pass (Campitello to Caprile), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,713Passo di Valles (Paneveggio to Cencenighe), foot path. . . . . . . . . . .6,667Rolle Pass (Predazzo to San Martino di Castrozza andPrimiero), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,509Forcella Forada (Caprile to San Vito), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . .6,480Passo di San Pellegrino (Moena to Cencenighe), small carriage, path . .6,267Forcella d'Alleghe (Alleghe to the Zoldo Glen), foot path. . . . . . . . .5,971Tre Croci Pass (Cortina to Auronzo), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . .5,932Karersee or Caressa Pass (WClschenofen to Vigo di Fassa),Ndonte Croce Pass (Innichen and Sexten to the Piave Valleyand Belluno), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,374Ampezzo Pass (Toblach to Cortina and Belluno), carriage path . . . . . . .5,066Cereda Pass (Primiero to Agordo), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,501Toblach Pass (Bruneck to Lienz), railway over. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3,967
18. South-Eastern Alos (east of the Monte Croce Pass). This division includes three small groups, the J ulic, Carnic and Karawankas Alps—each peak and pass being distinguished by one of the initial letters ``J,'' ``C'' or ``K.''
Chief Peaks of the South-Eastern Alps.
Terglou or Triglav (J) . . . . 9,400 Monte Cridola (C). . . . . . . . .8,468Monte Coglians (C) . . . . . . 9,128 Grintovc (K) . . . . . . . . . . .8,429Kellerwand (C) . . . . . . . . 9,105 Prestrelenik (J) . . . . . . . . .8,202Jof del Montasio (J) . . . . . 9,039 Monte Cavallo (C). . . . . . . . .7,386Cima dei Preti (C) . . . . . . 8,868 Krn (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,369Monte Paralba (C). . . . . . . 8,829 Stou (K) . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,346Manhart (J). . . . . . . . . . 8,786 Dobratsch (C). . . . . . . . . . .7,120Jalouc (J) . . . . . . . . . . 8,711 Velka Kappa (K). . . . . . . . . .5,059Monte Canin (J). . . . . . . . 8,471
Chief Passes of the South-Eastern Alps.
Oefnerjoch (Forno Avoltri to St Lorenzen in the Gail Valley),foot path (C). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,550Wolayer Pass (same to Mauthen), foot path (C). . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,306Loibl Pass (Klagenfurt to Laibach), carriage road (K). . . . . . . . . . .4,495Plocken Pass (.Tolmezzo to Mauthen), bridle path (C). . . . . . . . . .4,462Predil Pass (Villach by d'arvis and Flitsch to Gorz), carriage road (J)3,183Birnbaumerwald (Laibach to Gorz), carriage road (J) . . . . . . . . . .2,897Saifnitz or Pontebba Pass (Villach by Tarvis and Pontebbato Udine), railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2,615
Political History and Modern State of the Inhabitants of the Alps.—We know practically nothing of the early dwellers in the Alps, save from the scanty acocunts preserved to us by Roman and Greek historians and geographers. A few details have come down to us of the conquest of many of the Alpine tribes by Augustus, though not much more than their names. The successive emigrations and occupation of the Alpine region by divers Teutonic tribes from the 5th to the 6th centuries are, too, known to us only in outline, while to them, as to the Frankish kings and emperors, the Alps offered a route from one place to another rather than a permanent residence. It is not till the final break up of the Carolingian empire in the 10th and 11th centuries that it becomes possible to trace out the local history of different parts of the Alps.
In the case of the Western Alps (minus the bit from the chain of Mont Blanc to the Simplon, which followed the fortunes of the Valais), a prolonged struggle for the Alpine region took place between the feudal lords of Savoy, the Dauphine and Provence. In 1349 the Dauphine fell to France, while in 1388 the country of Nice passed from Provence to the house of Savoy, which too held Piedmont as well as other lands on the Italian side of the Alps. The struggle henceforth was limited to France and the house of Savoy, but little by France succeeded in pushing back the house of Savoy across the Alps, thus forcing it to become a purely Italian power. One turning-point in the rivalry was the treaty of Utrecht (1713), by which France gave up to Savoy the districts (all forming part of the Dauphine, and lying on the Italian slope of the Alps) of Exilles, Bardonneche, Oulx, U.enestrelles, and Chatean Dauphin, while Savoy handed over to France the valley of Barcelonnette, situated on the western slope of the Alps and forming part of the county of Nice. The final act in the long-continued struggle took place in 1860, when France obtained by cession the rest of the county of Nice and also Savoy, thus remaining sole mistress on the western slope of the Alps.
In the Central Alps the chief event, on the northern side of the chain, is the gradual formation from 1291 to 1815 of the Swiss Confederation, at least so far as regards the mountain Cantons, and with especial reference to the independent confederations of the Grisons and the Valais, which only became full members of the Confederation in 1803 and 1815 respectively. The attraction of the south was too strong for both the Forest Cantons and the Grisons, so that both tried to secure, and actually did secure, various bits of the Milanese. The former, in the 15th century, won the Val Leventina (down which the St Gotthard train now thunders) as well as Bellinzona and the Val Blenio (though the Ossola Valley was held for a time only), while the latter added to the Val Bregaglia (which had been given to the bishop of Coire in 960 by the emperor Otto I.) the valleys of Mesocco and of Poschiavo. Further, in 1512, the Swiss Confederation as a whole won the valleys of Locarno with Lugano, which, combined with the 15th century conquests by the Forest Cantons, were formed in 1803 into the new Canton of Ticino or Tessin. On the other hand, the Grisons won in 1512 the Valtellina, with Bormio and Chiavenna, but in 1797 these regions were finally lost to it as well as to the Swiss Confederation, though the Grisons retained the valleys of Mesocco, Bregaglia and Poschiavo, while in 1762 it had bought the upper bit of the valley of Munster that lies on the southern slope of the Alps.
In the Eastern Alps the political history is almost monotonous, for it relates simply to the advance or retreat of the house of Habsburg, which still holds all but the whole of the northern portion (the exception is the small bit in the north-west that belongs to Bavaria) of that region. The Habsburgers, whose original home was in the lower valley of the Aar, where still stand the ruins of their ancestral castle, lost that district to the Swiss in 1415, as they had previously lost various other bits of what is now Switzerland. But they received a rich compensation in the Eastern Alps (not to speak of the imperial crown), for they there gathered in the harvest that numerous minor dynasties had prepared for them, albeit unconsciously. Thus they won the duchy of Austria with Styria in 1282, Carinthia and Carniola in 1335, Tirol in 1363, and the Vorarlberg in bits from 1375 to 1523, not to speak of minor ``rectifications'' of frontiers on the northern slope of the Alps. But on the other slope their progress was slower, and finally less successful. It is true that they early won Primiero (1373), as well as (1517) the Ampezzo Valley and several towns to the south of Trent. In 1797 they obtained Venetia proper, in 1803 the secularized bishoprics of Trent and Briken (as well as that of Salzburg, more to the north), besides the Valtellina region, and in 1815 the Bergamasque valleys, while the Milanese had belonged to them since 1535. But, as is well known, in 1859 they lost to the house of Savoy both the Milanese and the Bergamasca, and in 1866 Venetia proper also, so that the Trentino is now their chief possession on the southern slope of the Alps. The gain of the Milanese in 1859 by the future king of Italy (1861) meant that Italy then won the valley of Livigno (between the Upper Engadine and Bormio), which is the only important bit it holds on the non-Italian slope of the Alps, besides the county of Tenda (obtained in 1575, and not lost in 1860), with the heads of certain glens in the Maritime Alps, reserved in 1860 for reasons connected with hunting. Thus the Alpine states (Italy, Switzerland and Austria), other than France and Bavaria, hold bits of territory on the slope of the Alps where one would not expect to find them Roughly speaking, in each of these five lands the Alpine population speaks the tongue of the country, though in Italy there are a few French-speaking districts (the Waldensian valleys as well as the Aosta and Oulx valleys) as well as some German-speaking and Ladin-speaking settlements. In Switzerland there are Italian-speaking regions, as well as some spots (in the Grisons) where the old Romance dialect of Romansch or Ladin survives; while in Austria, besides German, Italian and Ladin, we have a Slavonic-speaking population in the South-Eastern Alps. The highest permanently inhabited village in the Alps is Juf, 6998 ft. (Grisons); while in the French Alps, L'Ecot, 6713 ft. (Savoy), and St Veran, 6726 ft. (Dauphine), are rivals; the Italian Alps boast of Trepalle, 6788 ft. (between Livigno and Bormio), and the Tirolese Alps of Ober Gurgl, 6322 ft., and Fend, 6211 ft. (both in the Oetzthal).
8. Exploration of the High Alps.—-The higher region of the Alps were long left to the exclusive attention of the men of the adjoining valleys, even when Alpine travellers (as distinguished from Alpine climbers) began to visit these valleys. It is reckcned that about 20 glacier passes were certainly known before 1600. about 25 more before 1700, and yet another score before 1800; but though the attempt of P. A. Arnod (an official of the duchy of Aosta) in 1689 to ``re-open'' the Col du Ceant may be counted as made by a non-native, we do not come upon another case of the kind till the last quarter of the 18th century. Nor did it fare mach better with the high peaks, though the two earliest recorded ascents were due to non-natives, that of the Rochemelon in 1358 having been undertaken in fulfilment of a vow, and that of the Mont Aiguihe in 1492 by order of Charles VIII. of France, in order to destroy its immense reputation for inaccessibility— in 1555 Conrad Gesner did not climb Pilatus proper, but only the grassy mound of the Gnepfstein, the lowest and the most westerly of the seven summits. The two first men who really systematically explored the regions of ice and snow were H. B. de Saussure (1740-1799), as regards the Pennine Alps, and the Benedictine monk of Disentis, Placidus a Spescha (1752-1833, most of whose ascents were made before 1806), in the valleys at the sources of the Rhine. In the early 19th century the Meyer family of Aarau conquered in person the Jungfrau (1811) and by deputy the Finsteraarhorn (1812), besides opening several glacier passes, their energy being entirely confined to the Bernese Oberland. Their pioneer work was continued in that district, as well as others, by a number of Swiss, pre-eminent among whom were Gottlieb Studer (1804-1890) of Bern, and Edouard Desor (1811-1882) of Neuchatel. The first-known English climber in the Alps was Colonel Mark Beaufoy (1764-1827), who in 1787 made an ascent (the fourth) of Mont Blanc, a mountain to which his fellow-countrymen long exclusively devoted themselves, with a few noteworthy exceptions, such as Principal J. D. Forbes (1809-1868), A. T. Malkin (1803-1888), John Ball (1818-1889), and Sir Alfred Wills (b. 1828). Around Monte Rosa the Vincent family, Josef Zumstein (1783-1861), and Giovanni Gnifetti (1801—1867) did good work during the half century between 1778 and 1842, while in the Eastern Alps the Archduke John (1782-1850), Prince F.J. C. von Schwarzenberg, archbishop of Salzburg (1809-1885), Valentine Stanig (1774-1847), Adolf Schaubach (1800-1850), above all, P. J. Thurwieser (1789-1865), deserve to be recalled as pioneers in the first half of the 19th century. In the early fifties of the 19th century the taste for mountaineering 1apidly developed for several very different reasons. A great stimulus was given to it by the foundation of the various Alpine clubs, each of which drew together the climbers who dwelt in the same country. The first was the English Alpine Club (founded in the winter of 1857—1858), followed in 1862 by the Austrian Alpine Club (which in 1873 was fused, under the name of the German and Austrian Alpine Club, with the German Alpine Club, founded in 1869), in 1863 by the Italian and Swiss Alpine Clubs, and in 1874 by the French Alpine Club, not to mention numerous minor societies of more local character. It was by the members of these clubs (and a few others) that the minute exploration (now all but complete) of the High Alps was carried out, while much has been done in the way of building club huts, organizing and training guides, &c., to smooth the way for later comers, who benefit too by the detailed information published in the periodicals (the first dates from 1863 only) issued by these clubs. Limits of space forbid us to trace out in detail the history of the exploration of the High Alps, but the two sub-joined lists give the dates of the conquest of about fifty of the greater peaks (apart from the two climbed in 1358 and in 1402, see above), achieved before and after 1st January 1858. As a proof of the rapidly-growing activity of Englishmen, it may be pointed out that while before 1858 only four summits (the Mittelhorn, or central peak of the Wetterhorner, the highest point of Monte Rosa, Laquinhorn and Pelmo) were first ascended by Englishmen, in the case of the second list only five (Grand Combin, Wildspitze, Marmolata, Langkofel and Meije) were not so conquered (if the present writer, an American, be included among the English pro hac vice.)
(1) Before 1st January 1858:—-Titlis (1744), Ankogel (1762), Mont Velan (1779), Mont Blanc (1786), Rheinwaldhorn (1789), Gross Glockner (1800), Ortler (1804), Jungfrau (1811), V.insteraarhorn (1812), Zumsteinspitze (1820),Todi (1824), Altels (1834), Piz Linard (1835), Gross Venediger (1841), Signalkuppe (1842), Wetterhorner (1844-1845), Mont Pelvoux (1848), Ieiablerets and Piz Bernina (both in 1850), highest point of Monte Rosa (1855), Laquinhorn (1856) and Pelmo (1857).
(2) After 1st January 1858:—Dom (1858), Aletschhorn, Bietschhorn and Grand Combin (all in 1859), Grand Paradis and Grande Casse (both in 1860), Wbisshorn, Monte Viso, Gross Schreckhorn, Lyskamm and Wildspitze (all in 1861), Dent Blanche, Monte della Disgrazia and Taschhorn (all in 1862), Marmolata, Presanella, Pointe des Ecrins and Zinal Rothhorn (all in 1864), Matterhorn, Ober Gabelhorn, Aiguille Verte and Piz Roseg (all in 1865), Langkofel (1869), Cimon della Pala (1870), Rosengarten (1872), Meije (1877), Aiguilledu Dru (1878), Punta dell' Argentera (1879), Aiguille des Charmoz (1880), Aiguille de Grepon (1881) and Aiguille du Geant (1882).
9. GENERAL LIST OF BOOKS AND MAPS.—(1) Books.—-For a longer list than we can give see sohn Ball's Hints and Notes for Travellers in the Alps (new ed., 1899) and also A. Wuber's Landes- und Reisebeschreibungen der Schwelz (1899, supplement in 1907). in general see s. Ball's The Alpine Guide (3 vols., new ed. of vol. i., 1898 last ed. of vol. ii., 1876, and of vol. iii., 1879); H. A. Berlepsch, Die Alpen in Natur- und Lebensbildern (last ed., 1885, Eng. trans., 1861); T. G. Bonney, The Alpine Regions of Switzerland and the Neighbouring Countries (1868); A. Civiale, Les Alpes au point de vue de ta geographie physique (1882); Sir Martin Conway, The Alps (1904); W. A. B. Coolidge, Swiss Travel and Swiss Guide-Books (1889) and The Alps (1908); R. von Lendenfeld, Aus den Alpen (2 vols., 1896); C. Lentheric, L'Homme devant les Alpes (1896); F. Umlauft, Die Alpen (1887, Eng. trans., 1889). On some special subjects see W. A. Baillie-Grohmann, Sport in the Alps i1896); A. Mosso. Fisiologia dell' Uomo sulle Alpi (1897, English trans., 1898); N. Zuntz and others, Hohenklima und Bergwanderungen in ihrer Wirkungen auf den Menschen (1906); G. Perndt, Der Fohn (1896, the south wind, so important in mountain districts); and the article on GLACIER..''
As to Alpine legends, consult Maria Savi-Lopez, Leggende delle Alpi (1889); M. Tscheinen, VLalliscr-Sagen (1872); Th. Vernaleken, Alpensagen (1858); and I. V. Zingerle, Sagen aus Tirol (1859); and as to Alpine poetry—J. Adam, Der Natursinn in der deutschen Dichtung (1906); E. A. Baker and F. E. Ross, The Voice of The Mountalns (1905, an anthology in verse and prose); A. von Haller, Die Alpen (1732, first ed., 1882, illustrated ed., 1902); and H. E. Jenny, Die Alpendichtung in der deutschen Schweiz (1905).
As to Alpine dialects, consult J. Alton, Die ladinischenIdiome in Ladinien, Groden, Fassa, Buchenstein, Ampezzo(1879); J. A. Chabrand and A. de Rochas d'Aiglun, Patois desAlpes cottiennes (1877).; Z. and E. Pallioppi, Dizionari delsIdioms Romauntschs d'Engiadina ota e bassa, &c. (1895); A.Socin, Schriftsprache und Dialekte im Deutschen (1888); F.J. Stalder, Die Landessprachen der Schweiz (1819), and J.Zimmerli, Die deutsch-franzosische Sprachgrenze in der Schweiz(3 vols., 1891-1899); besides the great Swiss Dialect Dictionary(Schweiz. Idiotikon) in course of publication since 1881.
As to the history of the Alps, the following works touch on various aspects of the subject:—-G. Allais, Le Alpi Occidentali nell' Antichita 1891); W. Brockedon, Illustrations of the Passes of the Alps (2 vols., 1828-1829); J. Grand-Carteret, La Montagne a travers les ages (2 vols., 1902-1904); G. Oberziner, Le Guerre di Augusto contro i populi alpini (1900); E. Oehlmann, Die Alpenpasse im Mittelalter (1878-1879); R. Peinhard, Passe und Strassen in den Schweizer Alpen (1903); and L. Vaccarone, Le Vie delle Alpi Occidentali negli antichi tempi (1884); while W. A. B. Coolidge's Joslas Simler et les originies de l'alpinisme Jusqu'en 1600 (1904) summarises our knowledge of the Alps up to 1600.
Among works of a more or less descriptive nature (based on actual travels), the following list includes all the standard works dated before 1855:—Le Alpi che cingono l'Italia (1845); J. G. Altmann, Versuch einer hist. u. phys. Beschreibung der helvetischen Eisbergen (1751); A. C. Bordier, Voyage pittoresque aux glacieres de Savoye (173); P. J. de Bourcet, Memoires militaires sur les Jrontieres de la France, du Piemont, et de la Savoie (1801); M. T. Bourrit, Descrip non des glacieres, glaciers, et amas de glace du duche de Savoye (1773, Eng. trans., 1775), Description des Alpes pennines et rhetiennes (2 vols., 178i, 3rd vol., 1785), and Descriptioni des cols ou passages des Alpes (2 vols., 1803); W. Brockedon, Journals of Excursions in the Alps (1833); U. Campell, Raetioe alpestris topographica descriptio (finished in 1572, but publ. only in 1884, with a supplement in 1900); J. A. Deluc and P. G. Dentan, Relation de differents voyages dans les Alpes du Faucigny (1776); E. Desor Excursions et sejours dans les glaciers (2 series, 1844-1845l; C. M. Engelhardt, Naturschilderungen aus den hochsten Schweizer-Alpen (1840), and Das Monte-Rosa und Matterhorn-Gebirg (1852); J. D. Forbes, Travels through the Alps of Kivoy (1843: new ed., 1900): Sir John Forbes, A Physician's Holiday (1849); J. Frobel, Reise in die weniger bekannten Thaler auf der Nordseite der penninischen Alpen (1840); G. Gnifetti, Nozioni topografiche del Monte Rosa ed ascensioni su di esso (1845, 2nd ed., 1838); G. S. Gruner, Die Eisgebirge des Schwelzerlandes (3 vols., 1760); J. Hegetschweiler, Reisen in den Gebirgsstock zwischen Glarus und Graubunden, 1819—1822 (1825); G. Hoffmann, Wanderungen in der Gletscherwelt (1843); F. J. Hugi, Naturhistorische Alpenreise (1830); C. J. Latrobe, The Alpenstock (1829) and The Pedestrian (1832); J. R. and H. Meyer, Reise auf den Jungjfrau-Gletscher und Ersteigung seines Gipfels (1811): De Montannel, La Topographic militaire de la frontiere des Alpes (written in 1777, but publ. in 1875 only); Operations geodesiques et astroniomiques pour la mesure d'un arc du parallele moyen (2 vols., 1825-1827); H. R. Rebmann, Ein poetisch Gastmal und Gesprach zweyer Bergen, nemlich des Niesens und Stockhorns (1606); C. Rohrdorf, Reise uber die Grindelwald-Vescher-Gletscher und Ersteigung des Gletschers des Jungfrau-Berges (1828); H. B. de Saussure, Voyages dans les Alpes (4 vols., 1779-1796); A. Schaubach, Deutsche Alpen (4 vols., 1845-1847); J. J. Scheuchzer, Helvetiae Stoicheiographia, Orographia, et Oreographia (1716), and Itinera per Helvetiae alpinas regiones facta annis 1702-1711 (4 vols., 1725); J. Simler. Vallesiae Descriptio et de Alpibus Commentarius (1574, new ed. in 1904, see Coolidge above); Albert Smith, The Story of Mont Blanc (1853); G. Studer, Topographische Mitteilungen aus dem Alpengebirge (1843); R. Topffer, Voyages en zigzag (2 series, 1844 and 1853); Aegid. Tschudi, De prisca ac vera alpina Rhaetia (1538, also in German, same date); and L. von Weldon, Der Monte Rosa (1824).
As to works published after 1855 we can only give a short, though carefully selected, list. C. Aeby and others, Das Hochgebirge von Grindelwald (1865); W. A. Baillie-Grohmann, Tyrol and the Tyrolese (1876), and Gaddings with a Primitive People (2 vols., 1878); H. von Barth, Aus den nordlichen Kalkalpen (1874); L. Barth and L. Pfaundler, Die Stubaiergebirgsgruppe (1863); G. F. Browne, Off the Mill (1895); Mrs H. W. Cole, A Lady's Tour round Monte Rosa (1859); E. T. Coleman, Scenes from the Snow Fields (1859); Sir Marrin Conway, The Alps from End to End (1895); A. Daudet, Tartarin sur les Alpes (1885, Eng. trans., same date); C. T. Dent, Above the Snow Line (1883); Miss A. B. Edwards, Untrodden Peaks and Unfrequented Valleys (1873, Dolomites); Max Forderreuther, Die Allgauer Alpen (1906); D. W. Freshfield, Across Country from Thonon to Trent (1865), and Italian Alps (1875); Mrs Henry Freshfield, Alpine Byways (1861), and A Summer Tour in the Grisons (1862); H. B. George, The Oberland and its Glaciers (1866); J. Gilbert and G. C. Churchill, The Dolomite Mountains (1854); A. G. Girdlestone, The High Alps without Guides (1870); P. Grohmann, Wanderungen in den Dolomiten (1877); P. Gussfeldt, In den Hochalpen (1886), and Der Montblanc (1894); T. W. Hinchliff, Summer Months among the Alps (1857); C. Hudson and E. S. Kennedy, Where there's a Will there's a Way (1856); E. Javelle, Souvenirs d' un Alpiniste (1886, Eng. trans., 1899); S. W. King, The Italian Valleys of the Pennine Alps (1858); Le V'alli di Lanzo (publ. by the Italian Alpine Club in 1899); A. Lorria and E. A. Mariel, Le Mossif de la Bernina (1894); J. Michelet, La Montagne (1868, Eng. trans., 1872); A. W. Moore, The Alps in 1864 (1867, publ. ed., 1902); A. F. Mummery, My Climbs in the Alps (1895); Norman-Neruda, The Climbs of (1899); Peaks, Passes and Glaciers (3 vols., 1859-1862); L. Purtscheller, Uber Fels und Firn (1901); E. Rambert, Ascensions et flaneries (2 vols., 1888); G. Rey, Il Monte Cervino (1904); John Ruskin, vol. iv. (On Mountain Beauty) of Modern Painters (1856); A. von Ruthner, Aus den Tauern (1864) and Aus Tirol (1869); V. Sella and D. Vallino, Monte Rosa e Gressoney (1890); F. Simony, Das Dachsteingebict (1889-1896); L. Sinigaglia, Climbing Reminiscences of the Dolomites (1896); K. von Sonklar, Die Oetzthaler Gebirgsgruppe (1860), and Die Glebirgsgruppe der Hohen-Tauern (1866); Sir L. Stephen, The Playground of Europe (1871); B. Studer, Geschichte der physischen Geographie der Schweiz bis 1815 (1863); G. Studer and others, Berg- und Gletscherfahrten (2 series, 1859 and 1863); G. Theobald, Naturbilder aus den rhatischen Alpen (1860), and Das Bundner Oberland (1861); F. F. Tuckett, Hochalpenstudien (2 vols., 1873-1874); Miss L. Tuckett, How we Spent the Summer (1864), Pictures in Tyrol (1867), and Zigzagging amongst Dolomites (1871); J. Tyndall, The Glaciers of the Alps (1860), Mountaineering in 1861 (1862), and Hours of Exercise in the Alps (1871); J. J. Weilenmann, Aus der Firnenwelt (3 vols., 1872-1877); E. Whymper, Scrambles amongst the Alps (1871); Sir A. Wills, Wanderings among the High Alps (1856), and The ``Eagle's Nest''in the Valley of Sixt (1860); G. Yeld, Scrambles in the Eastern Graians (1900); H. Zschokke, Reise auf die Eisgebirge des Kantons Bern und Ersteigung ihrer hochsten Gipfel im Sommer von 1812 (1813); E. Zsigmondy, Im Hochgebirge (1889); M. Zurbriggen, From the Alps to the Andes (1899).
Many useful practical hints as to climbing are to be found in C. T. Dent and others, Mountaineering (1892, 3rd ed., 1900, ``Badminton Library''); the Manuel d'Alpinisme (1904, publ. by the French Alpine Club); J. Meurer, Handbuch der alpinen Sport 1882), Katechismus fur Bergsteiger (1892), and Der Bergsteiger im Hochgebirge (1893); .and C. Wilson, Mountaineering (1893, ``All England'' series). As regards the dangers of Alpine climbing consult C. Fiorio and C. Ratti, I Pericoli dell' Alpinismo (1889), and E. Zsigmondy, Die Gefahren der Alpen (1885, Fr. trans., 1889). There are also special guide-books for the use of climbers in the Alps—-the ``Climbers' Guides'' series, edited by Sir Martin Conway and W. A. B. Coolidge (10 vols., 1890—1894); W. A. B. Coolidge, H. Duhamel and F. Perrin, Guide du Haut Dauphine (1887, with supplement in 1890, Eng. trans., 1892 and 1905); L. Purtscheller and H. Hess, Der Hochtourist in den Ostalpen (2 vols., 1894, 3 vols., 3rd ed., 1903); the 3 vols. publ. (1902-1905) by the Swiss Alpine Club under the name of Clubfuhrer to the Alps of Glarus and Uri, and V. Wolf von Glanvell, Dolomitenfuhrer (1898).
As regards the early history of Alpine exploration consult W. A. B. Coolidge, Josias Simler et les origines de l'alpinisme jusqu'en 1600 (1904), and F. Gribble, The Early Mountaineers (1899). For the later period see, besides the more general works of travel mentioned above, the publications (that date from 1863) of the various Alpine Clubs—the Alpine Journal (English A. C.), the Annuaire, Bulletin, La Montagne, and Revue alpine (French A. C.), the Jahrbuch, Mitteilungen, Verhandlungen, and Zeitschrift (German and Austrian A. C.), the Alpinista, Bollettino, and Rivista Mensile (Italian A. C.), and the Alpina, Echo des Alpes, Jahrbuch, Schweizer Alpen-Zeitung (Swiss A. C.), besides those of the smaller societies, such as the Osterreichische Alpen-Zeitung (Austrian A. C.), the Annuaire (Societe des Touristes du Dauphine), and the Anunuario (Societa degli Alpinisti Tridentini). Summaries of the Alpine history of the three great divisons of the Alps are given in (W. Alps) L. Vaccarone, Statistica delle Prime Ascensioni nelle Alpi Occidentali (3rd. ed., 1890—this work omits the Dauphine Alps, as to which see the 1887 work or its Eng. version 1905, mentioned above); (Central and Swiss Alps) G. Studer, Uber Eis und Schnee (2nd ed. 3 vols., 1896-1899); and (E. Alps) G. Groger and J. Rabi, Die Entwickelung der Hochtouristik in den osterreichischen Alpen (1890), and E. Pichter, Die Erschliessung der Ostalpen (3 vols., 1894). The detailed history of Mont Blanc has been written by Ch. Durier, Le Mont Blanc (1877, 4th ed., 1897), and C. E. Mathews, The Annals of Mont Blanc (1898). Lives of some of the most celebrated mountain guides have been written in C. D. Cunningham and W. de W. Abney, Pioneers of the Alps (2nd ed., 1888).
(2) Maps—There is no good modern and fairly large-scale map of the entire chain of the Alps. But L. Ravenstein's maps (scale 1:250,000) of the Swiss Alps (2 sheets) and of the Eastern Alps (8 sheets) include the whole chain, save that portion south of the range of Mont Blanc.
All the countries which include Alpine districts have now issued official Government maps. The French map on a scale of 1:80,000 is clearer and more accurate than that on a scale of 1:100,000. The Italian Government has published maps on scales of 1:50,000 and 1:100,000. the Austrian on a scale of 1:75,000, and the Bavarian on a scale of 1:50,000. But the most splendid Government map of all is that put forth by the Swiss Federal Topographical Bureau, under the title of Siegfried Atlas (scale 1:50,000 for the Alpine districts), which has quite superseded the Dufour Map (scale 1:100,000), the history of which was published in 1896. For maps of the Swiss Alps and their neighbours, see J. H. Graf, Literatur der Lalndesvermessung (1896 with a supplement).
A few of the best special maps of certain districts may be mentioned— such as H. Duhamel's maps of the Dauphine Alps (4 sheets on a scale of 1:i oo,ooo, 1889, 2nd ed., 1892), and that of the range of Mont Blanc (scale 1:50,000, 1896, 2nd ed., 1905), by X. Imfeld and L. Kurz. The German and Austrian Alpine Club is publishing a very fine set of maps (scale 1:50,000) of the Eastern Alps, which are clearer and better than the Austrian Government's Topographische Detailkarten (11 sheets, scale 1:50,000). (W.. A. B. C.)
10. Geology.—-The Alps form but a small portion of a great zone of crumpling which stretches, in a series of curves, from the Atlas Mountains to the Himalayas. Within this zone the crust of the earth has been ridged up into a comolex system of creases or folds, out of which the great mountain chains of southern Europe and Asia have been carved by atmospheric agencies. Superficially, the continuity of the zone is broken at intervals by gaps of greater or less extent; but these are due, in part at least, to the subsidence of portions of the folded belt and their subsequent burial by more recent accumulations. Such a gap is that between the Alps and the Carpathians, but a glance at a geological map of the region will show that the folding was probably at one time continuous. Leaving, however, the larger question of the connexion between the great mountain ranges of Europe and Asia, we find that the Alps are formed cf a series of wrinkles or folds, one behind another, frequently arranged en echelon. The folds run, in general, in the direction of the chain, and together they form an arc around the plain of Lombardy and Piedmont. Outside this arc lies a depression along which the waters of the upper Danube and the lower Rhone find their way towards the sea; and beyond rise the ancient crystalline masses of Bohemia, the Black Forest and the central plateau of France, together with the intervening Mesozoic beds of southern Germany and the Jura. The depression is filled by Miocene and later beds, which for the most part lie flat and undisturbed as they were laid down. Beyond the depression also, excepting in the Jura Mountains, there is no sign of the folding which has raised the Alpine chain. Some of the older beds indeed are crumpled, but the folding is altogether different in age and in direction from that of the Alps.
To assist in forming a clear idea of the relations of the Alps to the surrounding regions, a simple illustration will suffice. Upon a table covered by a cloth lay two books in the relative positions shown in figure. The book A represents the central plateau of France and the book B represents the rocks of Bohemia and southern Germany. If the two hands be placed flat upon the table, in the angle between the two books, and the cloth pushed towards the corner, it will at once be rucked up into a fold which will follow a curve not unlike that of the Alps. The precise character and form of the folds produced will depend upon the nature of the cloth and other accidental circumstances; but with a little adjustment not only a representation of the chain of the Alps, but even a subsidiary fold in front in the position of the Jura Mountains may be obtained. Imperfect though this illustration may be, it will serve to explain the modern conception of the forces concerned in the formation of the Alps. Within the crust of the earth, whether by the contraction of the interior or in any other way, tangential pressures were set up. Since the crust is not of uniform strength throughout, only the weaker portions yielded to the pressure; and these were crumpled up against the more resisting portions and sometimes were pushed over them. In the case of the Alps it seems natural enough that the crystalline masses of Bohemia, the Black Forest and the central plateau of France should be firmer than the more modern sedimentary deposits; but it is not so easy to understand why the Mesozoic rocks of southern Germany resisted the folding, while those of the Jura yielded. It should, however, be borne in mind that the resisting mass is not necessarily at the surface. Such is in outline the process by which the Alps were elevated; but when the chain is examined in detail, it is found that its history has not been uniform throughout; and it will be convenient, for purposes of description, to divide it into three portions, which may be called the Eastern Alps, the Swiss Alps, and the Western Alps.
The Eastern Alps consist of a central mass of crystalline and schistose rocks flanked on each side by a zone of Mesozoic beds andon the north by an outer band of Tertiary deposits. On the Italian side there is usually no zone of folded Tertiaries and the Mesozoic band forms the southern border of the chain. Each of these zones is folded within itself, and the folding is more intense on the Bavarian side than on the Italian, the folds often leaning over towards the north. The Tertiary zone of the northern border is of especial significance and is remarkable for its extent and uniformity. It is divided longitudinally into an outer zone of Molasse and an inner zone of Flysch. The line of separation is very clearly defined; nowhere does the Molasse pass beyond it to the south and nowhere does the Flysch extend beyond it to the north. The Molasse, in the neighbourhood of the mountains, consists chiefly of conglomerates and sandstones, and the Flysch consists of sandstones and shales; but the Molasse is of Miocene and Oligocene age, while the Flysch is mainly Eocene. The relations of the two series are never normal. Along the line of contact, which is often a fault, the oldest beds of the Molasse crop out, and they are invariably overturned and plunge beneath the Flysch. A few miles farther north these same beds rise again to the surface at the summit of an anticlinal which runs parallel to the chain. Beyond this point all signs of folding gradually cease and the beds he flat and undisturbed.
The Flysch is an extraordinarily thick and uniform mass of sandstones and shales with scarcely any fossils excepting fucoids. It is intensely folded and is constantly separated from the Mesozoic zone by a fault. Throughout the whole extent of the Eastern Alps it is strictly limited to the belt between this fault and the marginal zone of Molasse. Eocene beds, indeed, penetrate farther within the chain, but these are limestones with nummulites or lignite-bearing shales and have nothing in common with the Flysch. But although the Flysch is so uniform in character, and although it forms so well defined a zone, it is not everywhere of the same age. In the west it seems to be entirely Eocene, but towards the east intercalated beds with Inoceramus, &c., indicate that it is partly of Cretaceous age. It is, in fact, a facies and nothing more. The most probable explanation is that the Flysch consists of the detritus washed down from the hills upon the flanks of which it was formed. It bears, indeed, very much the same relation to the Alps that the Siwalik beds of India bear to the Himalayas.
The Mesozoic belt of the Bavarian and Austrian Alps consists mainly of the Trias, Jurassic and Cretaceous beds playing a comparatively subordinate part. But between the Trias of the Eastern Alps and the Trias of the region beyond the Alpine folds there is a striking contrast. North of the Danube, in Germany as in England, red sandstones, shales and conglomerates predominate, together with beds of gypsum and salt. It was a continental formation, such as is now being formed within the desert belt of the globe. Only the Muschelkalk, which does not reach so far as England, and the uppermost beds, the Rhaetic, contain fossils in any abundance. The Trias of the Eastern Alps, on the other hand, consists chiefly of great masses of limestone with an abundant fauna, and is clearly of marine origin. The Jurassic and Cretaceous beds also differ, though in a less degree, from those of northern Europe. They consist largely of limestone; but marls and sandstones are by no means rare, and there are considerable gaps in the succession indicating that the region was not continuously beneath the sea. Tithonian fossils, characteristic of southern Europe, occur in the upper Jurassic, while the Gosau beds, belonging to the upper Cretaceous, contain many of the forms of the Hippuritic sea. Nevertheless, the difference between the deposits on the two sides of the chain shows that the central ridge was dry land during at least a part of the period.
The central zone of crystalline rock consists chiefly of gneisses and schists, but folded within it is a band of Palaeozoic rocks which divides it longitudinally into two parts. Palaeozoic beds also occur along the northern and southern margins of the crystalline zone. The age of a great part of the Palaeozoic belts is somewhat uncertain, but Permian, Carboniferous, Devonian and Silurian fossils have been found in various parts of the chain, and it is not unlikely that even the Cambrian may be represented.
The Mesozoic belt of the southern border of the chain extends from Lago Maggiore eastwards. Jurassic and Cretaceous beds play a larger part than on the northern border, but the Trias still predominates. On the west the belt is narrow, but towards the east it gradually widens, and north of Lago di Garda its northern boundary is suddenly deflected to the north and the zone spreads out so as to include the whole of the Dolomite mountains of Tirol. The sudden widening is due to the great Judicaria fault, which runs from Lago d'Idro to the neighbourhood of Meran, where it bends round to the east. The throw of this fault may be as much as 2000 metres, and the drop is on its south-east side, i.e. towards the Adriatic. It is probable, indeed, that the fault took a large share in the formation of the Adriatic depression. On the whole, the Mesozoic beds of the southern border of the Alps point to a deeper and less troubled sea than those of the north. Clastic sediments are less abundant and there are fewer breaks in the succession. The folding, moreover, is less intense; but in the Dolomites of Tirol there are great outbursts of igneous rock, and faulting has occurred on an extensive scale.
Swiss Alps.
West of a line which runs from Lake Constance to Lago Maggiore the zones already described do not continue with the same simplicity. The zone of the Molasse is little changed, but the Flysch is partly folded in the Mesozoic belt and no longer forms an absolutely independent band. The Trias has almost disappeared, and what remains is not of the marine type characteristic of the Eastern Alps but belongs rather to the continental facies which occurs in Germany and France. Jurassic and Cretaceous beds form the greater part of the Mesozoic band. On the southern side of the chain the Mesozoic zone disappears entirely a little west of Lago Maggiore and the crystalline rocks rise directly from the plain.
Perhaps the strangest problem in the whole of Switzerland is that presented by the so-called Klippen. Within the Alps, when normally developed, we may trace the individual folds for long distances and observe how they arise, increase and die out, to be replaced by others of similar direction. But at times, within or on the border of the northern Eocene trough, the continuity of the folds is suddenly broken by mountain masses of quite different constitution. These are the Klippen, and they are especially important in the Chablais and between the Lakes of Geneva and Thun. Not only is the folding of the Klippen wholly independent of that of the zone in which they lie, but the rocks which form them are of foreign facies. They consist chiefly of Jurassic and Triassic beds, but it is the Trias and the Jura of the Eastern Alps and not of Switzerland. Moreover, although they interrupt the folding of the zone in which they occur, they do not disturb it: they do not, in fact, rise through the zone, but lie upon it like unconformable masses — in other words, they rest upon a thrust-plane. Whence they have come into their present position is by no means clear; but the character of the beds which form them indicates a distant origin. It is interesting to note, in this connexion, that the pebbles of the Swiss Molasse are not generally such as would be derived from the neighbouring mountains, but resemble the rocks of the Eastern Alps. The Klippen are, no doubt, the remains of a much larger mass brought into the region upon a thrust-plane, and much of the Molasse has been derived from its destruction. Although the explanation here given of the origin of the Swiss Klippen is that which now is usually accepted, it should be mentioned that other theories have been proposed to account for their peculiarities.
Western Alps.
In the Western Alps the outer border of Molasse persists; but it no longer forms so well-defined a zone, and strips are infolded amongst the older rocks. The Eocene has altogether lost its independence as a band and occurs only in patches within the Mesozoic zone. The latter, on the other hand, assumes a greater importance and forms nearly the whole of the subalpine ranges. It consists almost entirely of Jurassic and Cretaceous beds, the Trias in these outer ranges being of very limited extent. The main chain is formed chiefly of crystalline and schistose rocks, which on the Italian side rise directly from the plain without any intervening zone of Mesozoic beds. But it is divided longitudinally by a well-marked belt of stratified deposits, known as the zone of the Brianconnais, composed chiefly of Carboniferous, Triassic and Jurassic beds. The origin of the schistose rocks has long been under discussion, and controversy has centred more particularly around the schistes lustres, which are held by some to be of Triassic age and by others to be pre-Carboniferous and even, perhaps, Archaean. Partly in consequence of the uncertainty as to the age of these and other rocks, there is considerable difference of opinion as to the structure of the Western Alps. According to the view most widely accepted in France the main chain as a whole forms a fan, the folds on the eastern side leaning towards Italy and those on the western side towards France. The zone of the Brianconnais lies in the middle of the fan.