CHAPTER LXV.

1286.Why are the seeds of plants indigestible?

Because they are encased in a hard covering upon which the gastric juice of animals takes no effect. This provision has been made by the Creator,for the preservation of seeds, the productions of which are so essential to animal life.

The gastric juice can dissolve any other part of the plant, even the woody fibre, and yet upon theseedit takes no effect. When, however, the seed iscrushed, and, thereby, the vital principle destroyed, so that no plant can spring from it, the gastric juice acts upon it, and it is soon dissolved.

Hence graminivorous birds are provided with gizzardsto break the protecting coats of the grain; and animals that feed on seeds and nutsstrip them of their shells and husks.

It is remarkable that in thesucculent fruits, such as the strawberry, the raspberry, currant, apple, orange, melon, &c., and which, from their very nature, are likely to attract animals to use them, and in eating whichthe seeds are likely to be swallowed, they are fortified by a doubly-protective coating; the pips of the apple, orange, &c., and the seeds of the strawberry and raspberry, pass through the digestive organs, not only unharmed, but theirgerminating powers are even improved by the warmth and trituration of the stomach. Indeed, the stomachs of quadrupeds and birds have been made the vehicles of propagating plants, and distributing them to the widest geographical latitudes. It is even said of some seeds that they will not germinate until they have passed through the digestive organs of an animal.

"And it was commanded them that they should not hurt the grass of the earth, neither any green thing, neither any tree."—Revelation ix.

1287.Why do animals that graze, crop the tender blades of grass, but avoid the tall stems?

Because they are tempted by the greater sweetness and tenderness of the young blades; and in this temptation a very important end is served; for, by avoiding the stems that have grown up,the animals spare the matured plant by which seeds are borne, and by which the supply of food is to be continued.

1288.Why do the eggs of butterflies lie dormant during the winter?

Because thecoldness of the winterwould be fatal to the life of the young insects; and the absence of vegetation would leave the caterpillars toperish of starvation, if they were developed during the winter months.

Fig. 76.—CATERPILLAR FEEDING.

1289.Why do caterpillars appear in the spring?

Because the increasing warmth of the sun developes the living embryo,at the same time that it developes the vegetable germ. The warmth, therefore, that calls the caterpillar from its embryo sleep, also kindles the germinating power of the vegetable upon which it is destined to feed. The worm awakes and finds the bountiful table of nature spread for it.

"Thou shalt plant vineyards, and dress them, but shalt neither drink of the wine, nor gather the grapes: for the worms shall eat them."—Deuteronomy xxviii.

1290.Why does the caterpillar eat voraciously?

Because itgrows rapidly, and a large amount of vegetable matter is necessary to supply the rapid growth of its animal substance. Caterpillars in the course of a month devour 60,000 times their own weight of aliment.

Fig. 77.—THE UNDER SIDE OF THE CHRYSALIS OF THE PEACOCK BUTTERFLY.Fig. 78.—THE SAME CHRYSALIS, WITH PART OF ITS SHEATH RAISED TO SHOW THE PARTIALLY-FORMED WINGS, &c.

Fig. 77.—THE UNDER SIDE OF THE CHRYSALIS OF THE PEACOCK BUTTERFLY.

Fig. 78.—THE SAME CHRYSALIS, WITH PART OF ITS SHEATH RAISED TO SHOW THE PARTIALLY-FORMED WINGS, &c.

1291.Why do caterpillars pass into the state of the chrysalis?

Because they are thereby prepared for the new existence which they are about to enjoy;new organs must be perfected in themto adapt them to the altered conditions of their lives.

Because, also, in the transformation of their bodies, differing materially from the laws of existence that pertain to other creatures, the Creator affords another illustration of his Omnipotence.

Because, also, during the stage that the insect sleeps in the chrysalis, the flowers and their sweet juices, upon, which the fly is to feed, are being prepared for it, just as, when it was sleeping in the egg, the green food was being prepared for the caterpillar. When, therefore, the beautiful fly spreads its silken wings, it finds asecond timethat, while it has slept, its meal has been prepared, and it now flies away joyously to feed upon the milk and honey of beautiful flowers which, at the time it passed into the chrysalis, had not yet unfolded their petals.

"For the moth shall eat them up like a garment, and the worm shall eat them like wool: but my righteousness shall be for ever, and my salvation from generation to generation."—Isaiah li.

Fig. 79.—THE PEACOCK BUTTERFLY.

Paley observes, that "themetamorphosisof insects from grubs into moths and flies, is an astonishing process. A hairy caterpillar is transformed into a butterfly. Observe the change. We have four beautiful wings where there were none before; a tubular proboscis, in the place of a mouth with jaws and teeth; six long legs, instead of fourteen feet. In another case, we see a white, smooth, soft worm, turned into a black, hard, crustaceous beetle, with gauze wings. These, as I said, are astonishing processes, and must require, as it should seem, a proportionably artificial apparatus. The hypothesis which appears to me most probable, is that, in the grub, there exists at the same time three animals, one within another, all nourished by the same digestion, and by a communicating circulation; but in different stages of maturity. The latest discoveries made by naturalists, seem to favour this supposition. The insect, already equipped with wings, is descried under the membranes both of the worm and nymph. In some species, the proboscis, the antennæ, the limbs, and wings of the fly, have been observed to be folded up within the body of the caterpillar; and with such nicety as to occupy a small space only under the two first wings. This being so, the outermost animal, which, besides its own proper character, serves as an integument to the other two, being the farthest advanced, dies, as we suppose, and drops off first. The second, the pupa or chrysalis, then offers itself to observation. This also, in its turn, dies; its dead and brittle husk falls to pieces, and makes way for the appearance of the fly or moth. Now, if this be the case, or indeed whatever explication be adopted, we have aprospective contrivance of the most curious kind; we have organisationsthree deep; yet a vascular system, which supplies nutrition, growth, and life, to all of them together."

"That which the palmer-worm hath left hath the locust eaten; and that which the locust hath left hath the canker-worm eaten; and that which the canker-worm hath left hath the caterpillar eaten."—Joel i.

Lord Brougham, in a note upon the above, does not support Paley's view. He says "It is more than probable that the parts which are to appear in the perfect insect donotexist in the larvæ, where there is not much difference between the larva and pupa, excepting at the time just previous to its becoming a pupa, at which time the larva is motionless and torpid. The caterpillar of a moth, when about to turn into a pupa, provides for the protection of the latter state, either by surrounding itself with a web, or by some other means. Soon after this is accomplished, the caterpillar becomes motionless, or nearly so; it can neither eat nor crawl. At this time, andnot before, the parts of the pupa are forming within the skin of the caterpillar, which may be easily seen by dissection."

It appears to the author, however, that Paley is partially right, and Lord Brougham totally wrong, in these remarks. When Lord Brougham asserts that the parts of the pupa are forming within the skin of the caterpillar at that time when the transformation begins, "and not before, which may be easily seen by dissection," he forgets, that although in some instances it is the first moment when, to the human eye, the organs of the new creaturebecome perceptible, that the "three deep" nature which Paley attributes to thegrub, must really have existedin the egg—that thebutterflyoriginatedin the egg, as certainly as did thecaterpillar, or thechrysalis, and that unless that egg had possessed its three mysterious embryos, it would have been impossible for the grub to have progressed to the stages of transformation. No one has ever known the embryo of a bird's egg to pass through three distinct and dissimilar states of existence; nor has any one ever known the embryo of the butterfly's egg to stop short at either of the stages, if the proper conditions of its existence and development were supplied to it.Why?Because the embryo of the insect has athreefoldnature, while that of the bird issingle.

"They shall cut down her forest, saith the Lord, though it cannot be searched; because they are more than the grasshoppers, and are innumerable."—Jeremiah xlvi.

1292.Why does the caterpillar become torpid when passing into the state of the chrysalis?

Because in all probability, where the difference between the first and the ultimate form is considerable, the organs of the insect having to undergo great changes, it would suffer considerable pain. Torpor comes upon the insect, it is thrown into a state similar to that of a person who has inhaled chloroform; and after what has, in all probability, proved a pleasant dream, the insect awakes to find itself changed and beautified.

1293.Why are the pupæ of grasshoppers and other insects, when about to undergo transformation, still active and sensitive?

Because, as there is but aslight differencebetween the form which they have in the pupa state, and that which they ultimately assume, they do not require the state of torpidity to save them from pain, nor to arrest their movements while their organs are being changed. With themthe outer skin is thrown off, and they are then perfect insects.

1294.Why do caterpillars, when about to pass through the chrysalis state, attach themselves to the leaves of plants, &c.?

Because they know instinctively that for a time they will beunable to controul their own movements, and to avoid danger. They therefore choose secure and dry places, underneath leaves, or in the crevices of old and dry walls, and there they firmly attach themselves, to await the time of their liberation.

1295.Why do insects attach their eggs, to leaves &c.?

Because, as the eggs have to be preserved during the winter, the insect attaches them to some surface which will be aprotection to them. Generally speaking, the eggs are attached to the permanent stems of plants, and not to those leafy portions which are liable to fall and decay. The spiderweaves a silken bagin which it deposits its eggs, and then it hangs the bag in a sheltered situation. Nature keeps her butterflies, moths, and caterpillars, locked up duringthe winter, in their egg-state; and we have to admire the various devices to which, if we may so speak, the same nature has resorted for thesecurityof the egg. Many insects enclose their eggs in a silken web; others cover them with a coat of hair, torn from their own bodies; some glue them together; and others, like the moth of the silk-worm, glue them to the leaves upon which they are deposited, that they may not be shaken off by the wind, or washed away by rain; some again make incisions into leaves, and hide an egg in each incision; whilst some envelope their eggs with a soft substance, which forms the first aliment of the young animal; and some again make a hole in the earth, and, having stored it with a quantity of proper food, deposit their eggs in it.

"Lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break through and steal."—Matt. vi.

1296.Why do butterflies fly by day?

Because they areorganised to enjoy light and warmth, and they live upon the sweets of flowers which by day are most accessible.

1297.Why do moths fly by night?

Because they areorganised to enjoy subdued lightand cool air; and as they take very little food during the short life they have in the winged state, they find sufficient by night. Some of the moths, like that of the silk-worm, take no food from the time they escape from the chrysalis until they die.

Because, also, they form the food of bats, owls, and other of the night-flying tribes.

1298.Why are the bodies of moths generally covered with a very thick down?

Because, as they fly by night, they are liable to the effects of cold and damp. The moths, therefore, are nearly all of them covered with a very thick down, quite distinguishable from the lighter down of butterflies.

1299.Why do moths fly against the candle flame?

Because their eyes are organisedto bear only a small amount of light. When, therefore, they come within the light of a candle, their sight is overpowered and their vision confused; and as they cannot distinguish objects, they pursue the light itself, and fly against the flame.

"Let him that glorieth glory in this that he understandeth and knoweth me, that I am the Lord which exercise loving-kindness, judgment, and righteousness in the earth: for in these things I delight, saith the Lord."—Jer. ix.

1300.Why do insects multiply so numerously?

Because they form the food of larger animals, and especially of birds. A single pair of sparrows and a nest of young ones have been estimated to consume upwards ofthree thousandinsects in a week.

1301.Why does the "death-watch" make a ticking noise?

Because the insect is one of the beetle tribe, having a horny case upon its head,with which it taps upon any hard substance, the ticking is the call of the insect to its species, just as the noise made by the cricket is a note of communication with other crickets.

There is a superstition connected with the death-watch, which, like most superstitions, is based upon the theory ofprobabilities. The death-watch is usually heard in the spring of the year, and a superstition runs to the effect that some one in the house will die before the year has ended. Persons who are superstitious are never very strict in the interpretation of their predictions; and therefore, whether a person dies in the house or out of it, in the same room where the death-watch was heard, or across the wide Atlantic, so that there be some kind of relationship, or even acquaintance, between the person who hears the omen, and the person dying, the event is sure to be connected with the prophetic sounds of the death-watch. Little weens the small timber-boring beetle, when he is tapping gently to call his mate, and perhaps peeping into every corner and crevice to find her, that he is sending dismay into the heart of some superstitious listener, who, in ignorance of a simple fact, overwhelms herself with an imaginary grief.

1302.Why are insects in the first stage, after leaving the egg, said to be in the "larva" state?

Because the term larva is derived from the Latinlarvated, meaning masked, clothed as with a mask; the term is meant to express that the future insect is disguised in its first form.

1303.Why are insects in the second state said to be in the "pupa" state?

Because the term is derived from the Latinpupa, from a slight resemblance in the manner in which the insects are enclosed, to that in which it was the fashion of the ancients tobandage their infants.

1304.Why are insects in the "pupa" stage also called "chrysalides?"

Because, as the Latin term implies, it is adorned with gems. Many chrysalides arestudded with golden and pearl-like spots.

"Thou hast set all the borders of the earth: thou hast made summer and winter."—Psalm lxxiv.

1305.Why are the perfect insects said to be in the "nymph" state?

Because their joyful existence, and their beautiful forms, give them a fancied resemblance to thenymphs of the heathen mythology. The nymphs were supposed goddesses of the mountains, forests, meadows, and waters.

This term has generally, but very improperly, been also applied to the pupa state, so thatpupa,chrysalis, andnymphhave all been employed to represent one state. This is obviously an error, as there is nothing in the condition of thepupaorchrysalisthat can at all accord with the mythological idea of anymph, and which, in reference to the beautiful and joyous fly, finds a much truer application.

1306.Whence does the snail obtain its shell?

Young snails come from the eggwith a shell upon their backs.

1307.How does the shell grow with the increase of size of the animal?

The soft slime which is yielded by the body of the animal,hardens upon the orifice of the shell, and thus increases its size.

Fig. 80.—COMMON GARDEN SNAIL.

1308.Why is the shell spiral?

Partly because of its original formation; but also because,as the shell grows, the opening is elongated; and thrown up, causing the spiral body of the shell to turn, and so to wind its growth aroundthe centre.

"Notwithstanding they hearkened not unto Moses; but some of them left it until the morning, and it bred worms, and stank: and Moses was wrath with them."—Exodus xvi.

1309.Why has the snail four tentacula attached to its head?

Because the insect, having no other limbs, is provided with those projecting members, the lower two serving asfeelersand the upper two also asfeelersandeyes. These, projecting in the front of the animal, impart to it a consciousness of surrounding objects, and especially of those which lie in its path.

1310.Why is the snail able to move, without feet?

Because it has attached to its body a fringe of muscular skin, which is capable of considerable contraction and expansion, and by alternately stretching and shortening this, the snail is able to draw himself along.

1311.Why do we see no snails in the winter time?

Because they bury themselves in the ground, or in holes, where they remainin a torpid statefor several months. Before they enter into the torpid state, they form with their slimy secretion, and with some earthy matters which they collect, a strong cement with which they seal up the opening to their shells.

1312.Why can snails live in shells thus sealed?

Because they leave, in the thin wall by which they close themselves in,a small hole, too small to admit water, but large enough to let in sufficient air to carry on their feeble respiration during their winter sleep.

1313.Why do insects abound in putrid waters, and in decaying substances?

Because they have been endowed with appetites and with constitutions that enable them to live upon and to enjoy corrupt matter. In this point of view the maggots of flies are exceedingly useful; a dead carcass is speedily threaded by them in every direction; thus that corrupt matter which, in a large mass, would poison the air, is taken up in small portions by millions of living bodies, and by themdispersed, and becomes innoxious.

"For he maketh small the drops of water: they pour down rain according to the vapour thereof."—Job xxxv.

1314.Why do we see, in tanks of rain water, insects rising to the surface?

Because numerous insects pass through their first stages of existence inwater, and among them the common gnat. The gnats of the previous season having deposited their eggs on the sides of the water-butt, the warm water developes them, and the larvæ of the gnats appear (Fig. 81;cnatural size of larva;blarva magnified).

Fig. 81.—LARVA AND PUPA OF GNAT.(Greatly magnified.)

1315.Why do they continually rise to the surface of the water?

Because they require to breathe air, and therefore they come up to the surface, where, elevating the tube (b) above the surface of the water, they are enabled to breathe.

1316.Why do some appear to have larger heads than others?

Those that have apparently larger heads, and that breathe through tubes attached to their heads (d) are in thepupa, or second stage of development, and underneath the large shield bywhich their heads are marked, their wings, feet, &c., are being formed.

"Because thy loving kindness is better than life, my lips shall praise thee."—Psalm lxiii.

1317.Why, when the water is disturbed, do the larvæ descend more rapidly than the pupæ?

Because the pupæ are in a torpid condition, awaiting the formation of their perfect organs.

1318.Why are the flies able to escape from the water?

Because, as their formation becomes perfected, and the fluids of the body of the pupa become absorbed in the production of the light texture of the wings, &c.,the body and its case become lighter than the water, and rise and float upon the surface. The pupa-case then forms a natural boat, from which the fly emerges, and spreading its wings, enters upon the final state of its existence.

Fig. 82.—THE PERFECT GNAT. ESCAPING FROM THE PUPA-CASE.(Greatly magnified.)

This interesting metamorphosis may be seen going on in the summer time, in every pond, brook, and reservoir. A fine sunny morning calls up millions of these little boats from beneath the surface, and the diver within that wonderful little bell breaks its sealed doors, and flies away to enjoy the bright sunshine.

1319.Why are beetles denominated "coleoptera?"

Because they have wings protected by horny sheaths; the termcoleopterasignifieswings in a sheath.

"They shall lie down in the dust; and the worms shall cover them."—Job xxi.

1320.Why have beetles hard horny wing-cases?

Because they live underground, or in holes excavated in wood, &c. If, therefore, their wings were not protected by a hard and firm covering, they would be constantlyliable to destructionfrom the movement of the insect within hard and rough bodies.

Fig. 83.—STAG-BEETLE, SHOWING ITS WINGS UNFOLDED, AND THE WING-CASES OPEN.

Theelytra, or scaly wings of the genus of scarabæus, or beetle, furnish an example of this kind. The true wing of the animal is a light, transparent membrane, finer than the finest gauze, and not unlike it. It is also, when expanded, in proportion to the size of the animal, very large. In order to protect this delicate structure, and, perhaps, also to preserve it in a due state of suppleness and humidity, a strong, hard case is given to it, in the shape of the horny wing which we call the elytron. When the animal is at rest, the gauze wings lie folded up under this impenetrable shield. When the beetle prepares for flying, he raises the integument, and spreads out his thin membrane to the air. And it cannot be observed without admiration, what a tissue of cordage,i. e.of muscular tendons, must run in various and complicated, but determinate directions, along this fine surface, in order to enable the animal, either to gatherit up into a certain precise form, whenever it desires to place its wings under the shelter which nature hath given to them, or to expand again their folds when wanted for action.

"The Lord is good; his mercy is everlasting; and his truth endureth to all generations."—Psalm c.

In some insects, the elytra cover the whole body; in others, half; in others only a small part of it; but in all, they completely hide and cover the true wings. Also,

Many, or most of the beetle species lodge in holes in the earth, environed by hard, rough substances, and have frequently to squeeze their way through narrow passages; in which situation, wings so tender, and so large, could scarcely have escaped injury, without both a firm covering to defend them, and the capacity of folding themselves up under its protection.

1321.Why have many of the beetle tribe large strong horns?

Because, as they live in holes in the earth, or in excavations in wood, they use their horns todig out their places of retreat.

1322.Why has the giraffe a small head?

Because, being set upon the end of a very long neck, the animal would beunable to raise itif it were heavy.

1323.Why has the giraffe a long neck?

Because itfeeds upon the branches of tall trees.

1324.Why has the giraffe a long and flexible tongue?

Because it is thereby enabled to lay hold of the tender twigs and branches,and draw them into its mouth, avoiding the coarser parts of the branches.

1325.Why are the nostrils of the giraffe small and narrow, and studded with hairs?

Because the hairs and the peculiar shape of the nasal passages are designed as a protection against the insects which inhabit the boughs of the trees upon which the giraffe feeds; and also against the sands of the desert, which storms raise into almost suffocating clouds.

"Bless the Lord, all his works, in all places of his dominion: bless the Lord, O my soul."—Psalm ciii.

Fig. 84.—GIRAFFE FEEDING.

1326. The distribution of animals, orZoological Geography, is of great interest, and should be carefully studied in connection withBotanical Geography(see1208). The highest department of the animal kingdom (writes the Rev. W. Milner) commences with the class ofBirds, which may be naturally divided into the three great orders of ærial, terrestrial, and aquatic. Aggregationinto immense flocks is a distinguishing feature of several species, especially of the aquatic order, which form separate colonies, building their nests in the same state, though other spots equally adapted are at no great distance. Hence the Vogel-bergs, or bird rocks of the northern seas, one of which at Westmannsharn in the Faroe group of islands, seldom intruded upon by man, presents a most extraordinary spectacle to the visitor. The Vogel-berg lies in a frightful chasm in the precipitous shores of the island, which rise to the height of a thousand feet, only accessible from the sea by a narrow passage. Here congregate a host of birds. Thousands of guillemots and auks swim in groupsaround the boat which conveys man to their domain, look curiously at him, and vanish beneath the water to rise in his immediate neighbourhood. The black guillemot comes close to the very oars. The seal stretches his head above the waves, not comprehending what has disturbed the repose of his asylum, while the rapacious skua pursues the puffin and gull. High in the air the birds seem like bees clustering about the rocks, whilst lower they fly past so close that they might be knocked down with a stick. But not less strange is the domicile of this colony. On some low rocks scarcely projecting above the water sit the glossy cormorants, turning their long necks on every side. Next are the skua gulls, regarded with an anxious eye by the kittiwakes above. Nest follows nest in crowded rows along the whole breadth of the rock, and nothing is visible but the heads of the mothers and the white rocks between. A little higher on the narrow shelves sit the guillemots and auks, arranged as on parade, with their white breasts to the sea, and so close that a hailstone could not pass between them. The puffins take the highest station, and, though scarcely visible, betray themselves by their flying backwards and forwards. The noise of such a multitude of birds is confounding, and in vain a person asks a question of his nearest neighbour. The harsh tones of the kittiwakes are heard above the whole, the intervals being filled with the monotonous note of the auk, and the softer voice of the guillemot. When Graba, from whose travels this description is principally drawn, visited the Vogel-berg, he was tempted by the sight of a crested cormorant to fire a gun, but what became of it, he remarks, it was impossible to ascertain. The air was darkened by the birds roused from their repose. Thousands hastened out of the chasm with a frightful noise, and spread themselves over the ocean. The puffins came wandering from their holes, and regarded the universal confusion with comic gestures. The kittiwakes remained composedly in their nests, whilst the cormorants tumbled headlong into the sea. Similar great congregations of the feathered race appear where the shores are rocky high, and precipitous, but this is strikingly the case, where

——"The northern ocean, in vast whirls,Boils round the naked melancholy islesOf farthest Thule; and the Atlantic surgePours in among the stormy Hebrides.Who can recount what transmigrations thereAre annual made? what nations come and go?And how the living clouds on clouds arise?Infinite wings! till all the plume-dark airAnd rude resounding shore are one wild cry."

——"The northern ocean, in vast whirls,

Boils round the naked melancholy isles

Of farthest Thule; and the Atlantic surge

Pours in among the stormy Hebrides.

Who can recount what transmigrations there

Are annual made? what nations come and go?

And how the living clouds on clouds arise?

Infinite wings! till all the plume-dark air

And rude resounding shore are one wild cry."

"He rained flesh upon them as dust, and feathered fowls like as the sand of the sea."—Psalm lxxviii.

1327. Most terrestrial birds, unacquainted with man, exhibit a remarkable tameness, and are slow in acquiring a dread of him, even after repeated lessons that danger is to be apprehended from his neighbourhood. Mr. Darwin speaks of a gun as almost superfluous in the unfrequented districts of South America, for with its muzzle he pushed a hawk off the branch of a tree. Once, while lying down, a mocking thrush alighted on the edge of a pitcher, made of the shell of a tortoise, which he was holding in his hand, and began very leisurely to sip the water, even allowing him to handle it while seated on the vessel. In Charles Island, which had been colonised about six years, he saw a boy sitting by a well with a switch in his hand, with which he killed the doves and finches as they came to drink; and for some time had been constantly in the habit of waiting by the well for the same purpose, to provide himself with his dinners. In the Falkland Islands, at Bourbon, and at Tristan d'Acunha, the same tamenesswas noticed by the early visitors. On the other hand, the small birds in the arctic regions of America, which have never been persecuted, exhibit the anomalous fact of great wildness. From a review of various facts, Mr. Darwin concludes, "first, that the wildness of birds with regard to man is a particular instinct directed against him, and not dependent on any general degree of caution arising from other sources of danger; secondly, that it is not acquired by individual birds in a short time, even when much persecuted; but that in the course of successive generations it becomes hereditary. Comparatively few young birds in any one year have been injured by man in England, yet almost all, even nestlings, are afraid of him; many individuals, however, both at the Galapagos and at the Falklands, have been pursued and injured by man, but yet have not learned a salutary dread of him."

"As a bird that wandereth from her nest; so is a man that wandereth from his place."—Psalm xxvii.

1328. Numerous species of birds may be regarded as the favourites of nature on account of the gracefulness given to their shape, and the richly-coloured plumage with which they are adorned, as evidenced in the gaudy liveries of many of the parrot tribe, and the forms and hues of the birds of paradise. But they are especially interesting to man for the faculty of song with which they are endowed; in some, "most musical, most melancholy," in others, sprightly and animating, inspiriting the sons of toil under the burdens peculiar to their station. It deserves to be remarked, as an instance of compensation and adjustment, that whilst the birds of the temperate zone are far inferior to those of tropical climes in point of beauty, they have far more melodious notes in connection with their less attractive appearance.

1329. From the powerful means of locomotion possessed by several of the bird tribe, and their great specific levity, air being admitted to the whole organisation as water to a sponge, it might be inferred, that the entire atmosphere was intended to be their domain, so that no species would be limited to a particular region. The common crow flies at the rate of twenty-five miles an hour; the rapidity of the eider-duck,Anas mollissima, is equal to ninety miles an hour; while the swifts and hawks travel at the astonishing speed of a hundred and fifty miles in the same time. It is true that some species have a very extensive range, as the nightingale, the common wild goose, and several of the vulture tribe. The same kind of osprey or fishing-eagle that wanders along the Scottish shores appears upon those of the south of Europe, and of New Holland. The lammergeyer haunts the heights of the Pyrenees, the mountains of Abyssinia, and the Mongolian steppes; and the penguin falcon occurs in Greenland, Europe, America, and Australia. In general, however, like plants and terrestrial quadrupeds, the birds are subject to geographical laws, definite limits circumscribing particular groups. The common grouse of our own country affords a striking exemplification of this arrangement, as it is nowhere met with out of Great Britain; and other examples occur of a very scanty area containing a species not to be found in any other region. The celebrated birds of paradise we exclusively confined to a small part of the torrid zone, embracing New Guinea and the contiguous islands; and the beautiful Lories are inhabitants of the same districts, being quite unknown to the New World. Parroquets are chiefly occupants of a zone extending a few degrees beyond each tropic, but the American group is quite distinct from the African, and neither of these have one in common with the parrots of India. The great eagle is limited to the highest summits of the Alps; and the condor, which soars above the peak of the loftiest of the Andes, never quits that chain. Humming-birds areentirely limited to the western hemisphere, where a particular species is sometimes bounded by the range of an island, while others are more extensively spread, theTrochilus flammifrons, common to Lima, being observed by Captain King upon the coast of the Straits of Magellan, in the depth of winter, sucking the flowers of a large fuchsia, then in bloom in the midst of a shower of snow. Among the birds incapable of flight, which rival the quadrupeds in their size, the intertropical countries of the globe have their distinct species, presenting similar general features of organisation, as the ostrich of Africa and Arabia, the cassowary of Java and Australia, and the touyou of Brazil. In the arctic regions, we meet with species peculiar to them, theStrix laeponicusor Lapland owl, and the eider-duck, an inhabitant of the shores, from whose nests the eider-down is obtained. Several families of maritime birds are likewise limited to particular oceanic localities. Approaching the fortieth parallel of latitude, the albatross is seen flitting along the surface of the waves, and soon afterwards the frigate and other tropical birds appear, which never wander far beyond the torrid zone. It thus appears, that, notwithstanding the great locomotive powers of birds, particular groups have had certain regions assigned to them as their sphere of existence, which they are adapted to occupy, and to which they adhere in the main, though it is easy to conceive of natural causes occasionally constraining to a migration into new and even distant territories. Captain Smyth informed Mr. Lyell, that when engaged in his survey of the Mediterranean, he encountered a gale in the Gulf of Lyons, at the distance of between twenty and thirty leagues from the coast of France, which bore along many land-birds of various species, some of which alighted on the ship, while others were thrown with violence against the sails. In this manner, many an islet in the deep, after ages of solitude and silence, uninterrupted except by the wave's wild dash, and the wind's fierce howl, may have received the song of birds, forced by the tempest from their home, and compelled to seek a new one under its direction.

"There is a path which no fowl knoweth, and which the vulture's eye hath not seen."—Job xviii.

1330. There is no feature more remarkable in the economy of birds than the periodical migrations, so systematically conducted, in which five-sixths of the whole feathered population engage. In the case of North America, according to an estimate by Dr. Richardson, the passenger-pigeons form themselves into vast flocks for the journey, one of which has been calculated to include 2,230,000,000 individuals. We are familiar with the cuckoo as our visitor in spring, and with the house-swallow as our guest through the summer, the latter usually departing in October to the warmer regions of the south, wintering in Africa, returning again when a more genial season revives its insect food. By cutting off two claws from the feet of a certain number of swallows, Dr. Jenner ascertained the fact of the same individuals re-appearing in their old haunts in the following year, and one was met with even after the lapse of seven years. The arctic birds migrate farther south, when the seas, lakes, and rivers become covered with unbroken sheets of ice; the swans, geese, ducks, divers, and coots flying off in regular phalanxes to regions where a less rigorous winter allows of access to the means of life. Hence, soon after, we lose the swallows, we gain the snipes and other waders, which have fled from the hard frozen north to our partially frozen morasses, where their ordinary nutriment may still be obtained. The equinoctial zone, where the seasonal change is that of humidity and drought furnishes an example of the same phenomenon. As soon as the Orinoco is swollen by the rains, overflows its banks, and inundates the country on eitherside, an innumerable quantity of aquatics leave its course for the West India islands on the north, and the valley of the Amazon on the south, the increased depth of the river, and the flooded state of the shores, depriving them of the usual supply of fish and insects. Upon the stream decreasing, and retiring within its bed, the birds return.

"The Lord is my light and my salvation; whom shall I fear? the Lord is the strength of my life; of whom shall I be afraid?"—Psalm xxvii.

1331. A comparison between the quadrupeds of the Old and New Worlds is in every point strikingly in favour of the former. Not only has the western continent no animals of such giant bulk as those of the eastern, but no examples of such high organisation, such power and courage, as the African lion and the Asiatic tiger display. Buffon's remark must indeed be considerably modified, respecting the cowardice of the American feline race; for the jaguar of the woods about the Amazon, when attacked by man, will not hesitate to accept his challenge, will even become the assailant, nor shrink from an encounter against the greatest odds. The following passages from the writings of Humboldt show that this transatlantic animal is not to be despised:—

"The night was gloomy; the Devil's Wall and its denticulated rocks appeared from time to time at a distance, illuminated by the burning of the savannahs, or wrapped in ruddy smoke. At the spot where the bushes were the thickest, our horses were frightened by the yell of an animal that seemed to follow us closely. It was a large jaguar, that had roamed for three years among these mountains. He had constantly escaped the pursuit of the boldest hunters, and had carried off horses and mules from the midst of enclosures; but, having no want of food, hadnot yetattacked men. The negro who conducted us uttered wild cries. He thought he should frighten the jaguar; but these means were of course without effect. The jaguar, like the wolf of Europe, follows travellers even when he will not attack them; the wolf in the open fields and in unsheltered places, the jaguar skirting the road, and appearing only at intervals between the bushes."

The same illustrious observer also remarks,—

"Near the Joval, nature assumes an awful and savage aspect. We there saw the largest jaguar we had ever met with. The natives themselves were astonished at its prodigious length, which surpassed that of all the tigers of India I had seen in the collections of Europe."

Still these were extraordinary specimens of the race, and leave the fact undoubted, that the most formidable of the westernFeræhas no pretensions to an equality with his congener, the tyrant of the jungles of Bengal.

1332. In vain also we look among the tribes of America for a rival in outward appearance to the giraffe, so remarkable for its height, its swan-like neck, gentle habits, and soft expressive eye; while of the animals most serviceable to mankind—the horse, the ox, the ass, the goat, and the hog—not a living example of either was known there before its occupancy by the Europeans. But, however inferior the animal race of the New may be as compared to those of the Old world, the balance between the two appears to have been pretty equal in remote ages; geological discovery has disproved the assertion of Buffon, that the creative force in America in relation to quadrupeds never possessed great vigour, and has established the fact, that it is only the more recent specimens of its energy that are upon an inferior scale. The relics of the unwieldly magatherium, of the gigantic sloth, and armadillo-like animals, discovered in great abundance imbedded in its soil, prove that at a former period it swarmed with monsters of equal bulk with those that now roam in the midst of Africa and Asia. The estuary deposit that forms the plains westward of Buenos Ayres, and covers the gigantic rocks of the Bando Oriental, appears to be the grave of extinct gigantic quadrupeds.

"But wild beasts of the desert shall lie there; and their houses shall be full of doleful creatures; and owls shall dwell there, and satyrs shall dance there."—Isaiah xiv.

1333. There are various animals which are very widely dispersed, enduring the extremes of tropical heat and of polar cold, which are either in a wild condition or in a state of domestication. Wild races, considered to be varieties of the domestic dog, occur in India, Sumatra, Australia, Beloochistan, Natolia, Nubia, various parts of Africa, and both the Americas; while in subjection to man, the dog is his faithful companion, and has followed his steps into every diversity of climate and of situation to which he has wandered. The north temperate zone of the Old Continent appears to be the native region of the ox, which passes in Lapland within the arctic circle, and has been spread over South America since its first introduction by the Spaniards. The horse, originally an inhabitant of the temperate parts of the Old World, has shared in a similar dispersion, and now exists in the high latitude of Iceland, in the desolate regions of Patagonia, and roams wild in immense herds over the Llanos of the Orinoco, leading a painful and restless life in the burning climate of the tropics. Humboldt draws a striking picture of the sufferings of these gifts of the Old World to the New, returned to a savage state in their western location.

"In the rainy season, the horses that wander in the savannah, and have not time to reach the rising grounds of the Llanos, perish by hundreds amidst the overflowings of the rivers. The mares are seen, followed by their colts, swimming, during a part of the day, to feed upon grass, the tops of which alone wave above the waters. In this state they are pursued by the crocodiles; and it is by no means uncommon to find the prints of the teeth of these carnivorous reptiles on their thighs. Pressed alternately by excess of drought and of humidity, they sometimes seek a pool, in the midst of a bare and dusty soil, to quench their thirst; and at other times flee from water and the overflowing rivers, as menaced by an enemy that encounters them in every direction. Harassed during the day by gad-flies and mosquitoes, the horses, mules, and cows find themselves attacked at night by enormous bats, that fasten on their backs, and cause wounds which become dangerous, because they are filled with acaridæ and other hurtful insects. In the time of great drought, the mules gnaw even the thorny melocactus (melon-thistle), in order to drink its cooling juice, and draw it forth as from a vegetable fountain. During the great inundations, these same animals lead an amphibious life, surrounded by crocodiles water-serpents, and manatees. Yet, such are the immutable laws of nature, their races are preserved in the struggle with the elements, and amid so many sufferings and dangers. When the waters retire, and the rivers return into their beds, the Savannah is spread over with a fine odoriferous grass; and the animals of old Europe and Upper Asia seem to enjoy, as in their native climates the renewed vegetation of spring."

1334. The first colonists of La Plata landed with seventy-two horses, in the year 1535, when, owing to a temporary desertion of the colony, the animals ran wild; and in 1580, only forty-five years afterwards, it had reached the Straits of Magellan. The ass has a more restricted range than the horse, not being capable of enduring so great a degree of cold, though usually far from being considered a delicate animal. To the warmer parts of the temperate zone, between the 20th and the 40th parallels of latitude, the ass seems best adapted, not propagating much beyond the 60th, and only occurring in a state of degeneration beyond the 52nd. The sheep and goat tribe are widely spread, equally supporting the extremes of temperature. According to Zimmerman, theArgaliorMouflon, the original race of sheep, still exists on all the great mountains of the two continents; and theCapricornandIbex, the ancestors of the common goat inhabit the high European elevations. From the 64th degree of north latitude the hog is met with all over the old continent, and also in the islands of the Indian Ocean, peopled by the Malay race; and since its introduction into theNew World, it has diffused itself over it, from the 50th parallel north as far as Patagonia. Originally the cat was not known in America, nor in any part of Oceanica; but it has now spread into almost every country of the globe. Among animals entirely wild, the most extensively diffused, are the fox, hare, squirrel, and ermine; but the species are different in every region of the world; nor is there perhaps one example to be found of a species perfectly identical naturally existing in distant localities of the earth.

"His going forth is from the end of the heaven, and his circuit unto the ends of it; and there is nothing hid from the heat thereof."—Psalm xix.

Respecting theinternal constitution and heat of the earth, differences of opinion, and some very wild speculation have existed. We find in Humboldt's "Cosmos" the following remarks:—

1335. "It has been computed at what depths liquid and even gaseous substances, from the pressure of their own superimposed strata, would attain a density exceeding that of platinum, or of iridium; and in order to bring the actual degree of ellipticity, which was known within very narrow limits, into harmony with the hypothesis of the infinite compressibility of matter, Leslie conceived the interior of the Earth to be a hollow sphere, filled with "an imponderable fluid of enormous expansive force." Such rash and arbitrary conjectures have given rise, in wholly unscientific circles, to still more fantastic notions. The hollow sphere has been peopled with plants and animals, on which two small subterranean revolving planets, Pluto and Proserpine, were supposed to shed a mild light. A constantly uniform temperature is supposed to prevail in these inner regions, and the air being rendered self-luminous by compression, might well render the planets of this lower world unnecessary. Near the north pole, in 82 deg. of latitude, an enormous opening is imagined, from which the polar light visible in Aurora streams forth, and by which a descent into the hollow sphere may be made. Sir Humphry Davy and myself were repeatedly and publicly invited by Captain Symmes to undertake this subterranean expedition; so powerful is the morbid inclination of men to fill unseen spaces with shapes of wonder, regardless of the counter-evidence of well-established facts, or universally recognised natural laws. Even the celebrated Halley, at the end of the 17th century, hollowed out the earth in his magnetic speculations; a freely rotating subterranean nucleus was supposed to occasion, by its varying positions, the diurnal and annual changes of the magnetic declination. It has been attempted in our own day, in tedious earnest, to invest with a scientific garb that which, in the pages of the ingenious Holberg, was an amusing fiction."

The following are among the speculations which Humboldt thus severely but justly condemns:—

"The increase of temperature observed is about 1 deg. Fahr. for every fifteen yards of descent. In all probability, however, the increase will be found to be in a geometrical progression as investigation is extended; in which case the present crust will be found to be much thinner than we have calculated it to be. And should this be found to be correct, the igneous theory will become a subject of much more importance, in a geological point of view, than we are at present disposed to consider it. Taking, then, as correct, the present observed rate of increase, the temperature would be as follows:

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