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Are you my Romans? For you I left my country and my friends. For love of you I have sacrificed my Saxons and all the Germans, my blood. I have adopted you as my sons; I have preferred you to all. For you I have had stirred up against me the envy and hatred of all. And now you have rejected your father; you have destroyed my friends by a cruel death; you have excluded me whomyou should not exclude, because I will never suffer those to be exiled from my affections whom I embrace with paternal love.[406:1]

Soon he fled from Rome never to return, and tried to raise an army in Germany but failed. The Germans refused to sacrifice their blood and wealth for a useless chimera and even threatened to elect a new king. Then he appealed to Italy for assistance, but Venice alone promised aid and that was small. Otto III.'s universal rule dwindled to the little mountain of Paterno—like Napoleon's St. Helena—and there he died in 1002 in the arms of the faithful Sylvester II. at the age of 22, childless and deserted, and his body was carried over the Alps to rest by the side of Charles the Great. And the youthful Pope survived the young Emperor just a twelvemonth.

The direct line of Otto the Great was at an end. Henry II., the Saint, who was in Otto III.'s service in Rome (1001) and received the royal and imperial insignia at the young Emperor's death pending a new election, claimed the German throne as the next in descent.[406:2]By satisfactory promises to the lay and secular princes he defeated his rivals and was crowned German King at Mainz (1002).

In his political policy Henry II. followed in the path already formed. He subdued the strong internal foes in Germany, pacified the neighbouring peoples, provided for the union of Burgundy with Germany, assumed the iron crown of Lombardy, and accepted the imperial crown at Rome in 1014. His ecclesiastical policy was very pronounced. He was a devout and ascetic champion of the Papacy and stood stoutly for reformssuch as the abolition of simony, the denunciation of the marriage of priests and the correction of monastic abuses. He urged the enforcement of these necessary changes through a general council and laboured for peace. In all these endeavours he had the sincere co-operation of Pope Benedict VIII. The bishopric of Bamberg was created during this rule.

Conrad II. (1024-1039) aimed to build up a powerful centralised Germany and through it to rule the Empire. Though compelled to fight formidable internal conspiracies all his life, yet he succeeded in making the crown the recognised and respected authority in Germany. Like Otto I. he used the lesser nobles to curb the power of the greater nobles. He forced obedience to his royal laws everywhere. To perpetuate his rule and to establish the principle of kingly heredity he had his son and heir, Henry III., crowned and coronated at Aachen (1028). Since political power depended largely upon landed wealth Henry III. received both the Duchy of Bavaria (1029) and the Duchy of Swabia (1038).

The foreign policy of Conrad II. was equally wise. He made friends of the powerful King Canute and his Danes by marrying Henry III. to Canute's daughter. The Polish King was reduced to a vassal duke and Bohemia and Lucatia were won back, while the Bulgarians were effectually held in check. He assumed the crown of Burgundy, which became an integral part of Germany (1032) and gave the crown to his son (1038). Early in his rule (1026) Conrad had entered Italy and assumed the iron crown of Lombardy. Then he made his way to Rome in 1027 on Easter day and was there crowned Emperor by Pope John XIX. in the presence of a great multitude of Romans andGermans. Through the Normans he then extended his imperial sway over southern Italy, but ten years later he was forced to make a journey to Rome to reconquer that part of his Empire.

In Germany Conrad II. ruled the clergy with a rod of iron, filled bishoprics for purely political ends, and used the Church to build up his royal powers. In Lombardy he won over the clerical party at that time hostile to the Pope, and thus smoothed his march to Rome. In John XIX. he found one of the worst examples of the utter worldliness into which the successors of Peter could degenerate. John XIX. before his election had been only a business man, but he was a brother of the presiding Pontiff Benedict VIII., and a member of the powerful Tusculan family. By dint of money[408:1]he won the office and in one day was hurried through all the clerical orders and installed into power (1024). Hoping for a powerful ally, John XIX. had invited Conrad II. to Rome. A great Lateran Synod followed the coronation of Conrad II. on Easter day,[408:2]but apparently nothing was said about reforms in the Church, although badly needed. When Conrad died in 1039 the German Empire had reached its pinnacle of greatness. No sovereign since Charles the Great had exercised such powers, for the German and Italian princes were subject to the imperial crown and the clergy were dependent upon it.

Henry III. (1029-1056) came to the German throne with brighter prospects than any of his predecessors. What a field for an Alexander, a Cæsar, or a Napoleon! What an opportunity to cut Germany loose from theEmpire and make her the greatest power in Europe! The Polish monarchy was falling to pieces; Hungary was rent by the pagan and Christian parties; Canute's northern empire had broken down; Italy, chronically subdivided, was awaiting a master; and the young king was also Duke of Bavaria, Franconia, and Swabia. Hindesheim, a contemporary, declared that no one in the Empire mourned the loss of Conrad because such better things were expected of his son, one of the most highly cultured young men of the age.[409:1]

Henry III. continued the policy of Otto I. by seeking to increase the power of the crown at the expense of the petty rulers. Hence duchies were given to his relatives or to loyal vassals. The lesser nobility and the commons were used to counteract the influence of the lords and princes. His reign, in consequence, was disturbed by no serious insurrections. The border states were subdued—Bohemia in 1041 and Hungary in 1044.[409:2]To keep the peace and put down feuds the Truce of God was proclaimed in 1041 throughout Germany. All feuds were to cease from Wednesday eve till Monday morning and absolution from sin was the reward for keeping the Truce.[409:3]Those who purposely broke it were penalised. Burgundy extended it to the periods between Advent and Epiphany, and from Septuagesima to the first Sunday after Easter. Henry III. soon made himself master of Italy and like many a predecessor assumed the iron crown of Lombardy and then established his supremacy over the Normans in the south. Out of a rule of seventeen years hespent but sixty-four weeks in Italy. In 1046 he was coronated Emperor at Rome and made Patrician.

Like Charles the Great and Otto the Great Henry III. assumed the headship of the Church. The Papacy, at that time, was a three-headed monster which needed a Hercules to slay it. Benedict IX., another member of the Tusculum family, elected Pope when a boy of eighteen (1033), had led a life of indescribable crime and, in consequence, had been driven from the city (1044) but returned and in 1046 held the Vatican.[410:1]Sylvester III. was elected anti-Pope when Benedict IX. was driven out and lived in St. Peter's. Gregory VI. literally bought the papal throne of Benedict IX. (1045) for 1000 pounds of silver and bribed the people into approval. He took up his residence at St. Maria Maggiore.[410:2]Learning of these disorders, Henry III. went to Italy and in 1046 held the Council of Sutri in which Gregory VI. acknowledged his guilt, divested himself of his papal insignia and begged forgiveness. Benedict IX. and Sylvester III. were declared usurpers, simoniacs, and intruders, hence they were deposed. Benedict IX. hid himself for future trouble, Sylvester III. returned to his bishopric and Gregory VI. was sent into exile in Germany. The Bishop of Bamberg, a German, was chosen Pope in a council held in Rome and assumed the title of Clement II. (1046) and immediately coronated Henry III. and his wife with the imperial honours.[410:3]This is the beginning of a series of German Popes who were to do much to purify and strengthen the Church. Before Henry died three such Popes were elected. Clement II. soon assembleda council in Rome to extirpate simony and to that end had several canons enacted. But his reign of less than a year, was too short to accomplish much. Henry III. died in 1056 with his great Empire full of trouble from border wars and rebellious nobles. The Empire was on the wane and his son took up a crown of difficulties.

On Germany the effects of the creation of the Holy Roman Empire were very marked. It established the recognised right of the German King to wear the Italian and imperial crowns and made Aachen, Milan, and Rome the coronation cities. It tended to weaken the allegiance of the Germans to their king when he became Emperor and spent most of his time, together with German wealth and blood, in Italy. It fused the German King and the Roman Emperor into a product different from either and effected the whole subsequent history of both Germany and the Empire. The two systems were very different: one was centralised, the other local; one rested upon a "sublime theory," the other grew out of anarchy; one was ruled by an absolute monarch, the other by a limited monarch; one was based on the equality of all citizens, the other founded on inequality. As a result of the fusion both offices lost and won certain attributes and the product was a "German Emperor" who was the necessary head of feudalism which became so deeply rooted that it took ages to throw it off. To help on the process of disintegration Otto the Great allowed the five great duchies to be subdivided and thus created a second order of nobility and greatly increased the number of nobles. In short Germany was weakened, impoverished, divided, and stunted. The denationalisation of Germany was continued until 1870. Whatmight not have been the splendid career of Germany had Otto the Great and his successors devoted their time and talent to the creation of a powerful German national state as did the French and English kings? It must be added, however, that this peculiar relation with Italy opened the way for learning, art, and a more refined civilisation in the North and that, in turn, Germany became the schoolmaster of Poland and Bohemia and perpetuated the language, literature, and law of Rome.

On Italy the Holy Roman Empire left a deep and permanent impression. It gave Italy a long line of foreign rulers who seldom cared much for her real interests and only sought to exploit her for selfish ends. It prevented the establishment of a powerful national state as a republic, or as a monarchy, under some native noble, or a Pope, until 1859. On the contrary it encouraged decentralisation and local division of the people. Italy became the scene, cause, and victim of countless wars and invasions by foreign rulers; or of innumerable local contests which sapped the nation of all strength and ambition.

On the Empire the results were plainly seen. The Empire of the Cæsars and of Charles the Great was revived on a German basis with a German Emperor and kept alive till 1806 when Napoleon dealt it a death-blow. Its earlier extent and later claims were never realised. It was forced into a continual struggle for its existence with the Italian republics and German dukes, with the Papacy, and with the national states of Europe. The three theories about the relation of the world-empire to the world-church received final development.

1. The Holy Empire, or ideal theory, united theChurch and the state, the cross and the sceptre, to attain their legitimate boundaries, namely, the world. Hence the Papacy and the Empire were but two sides of the same thing and their two heads co-operated to rule the same regions and peoples, but in different spheres. The Pope ruled the souls of men; the Emperor their bodies; but both were necessary, equal, and established by God. It was a confusion of these two powers and ideas that produced such mediæval anachronisms as churchmen who were worldly princes with large estates, who led their flocks to war, and who became the prime ministers of kings; and secular rulers who appointed Church officials and called and presided over councils. This was the theory held by dreamers and theorists, but it was never realised.

2. The papal theory made the Pope alone God's representative on earth and maintained that the Emperor received his right to rule from St. Peter's successor. For historical proof of the genuineness of this position attention was called to the power of the keys, the Donation of Constantine, the coronation of Pepin, the restoration of the Empire in the West. Such figures as the sun and the moon, the body and the soul, etc., were used with telling effect by the clerical party who advanced this theory. It was upheld by Nicholas I., Hildebrand, Alexander III., Innocent III., and culminated with Boniface VIII. at the jubilee of 1300 when, seated on the throne of Constantine, girded with the imperial sword, wearing a crown, and waving a sceptre, he shouted to the throng of loyal pilgrims: "I am Cæsar—I am Emperor."

3. The imperial theory put the Emperor above the Pope as God's vice-regent on earth and reduced the Pope to the position of chief bishop in the Empire. Itwas held that historical evidence to support this position could be found in the Jewish theocracy; the words of Jesus and the apostles about civil power; the seniority of the Empire over the Papacy; the attitude of Constantine and later Emperors; the work of Charles the Great, Otto the Great, and their illustrious successors. This theory was defended by the Emperors, kings, civil lawyers, and members of the imperial party.

So far as the Papacy was concerned the Holy Roman Empire created a rival world-ruler with whom for five hundred years the Popes were in almost endless strife. Under powerful rulers like Otto the Great the Papacy was subjected to the Empire more absolutely than in the day of Charles the Great. Under the great German Emperors much was done to reform the Church and to advance its interests and influence in the world. Each Emperor took a coronation oath to defend and protect the Church against heretics, schismatics, infidels, pagans, and all other enemies, and that obligation was as a rule faithfully and loyally kept. But all things considered was the Papacy stronger or weaker, better or worse, for the creation of the Holy Roman Empire? Does the fact that the Papacy declined with the decay and death of the Empire suggest a necessary dependence of the former on the latter?

FOOTNOTES:

[384:1]See Strassburg oaths (842), and treaties of Verdun (843) and Meersen (870). Given in Thatcher and McNeal, No. 16-19; Ogg, § 24.

[385:1]Robinson,Readings, i., 158ff.; Thatcher and McNeal, No. 20, 21.

[386:1]Pertz, i., 405.

[386:2]See Thatcher and McNeal, No. 22.

[386:3]He was a great-grandson of Charles the Great through his mother Gisela, a daughter of Louis the Pious.

[386:4]He was by birth a Neustrian Frank and also claimed descent from Charles the Great. He had large estates in Lorraine as well as central Italy.

[386:5]Pope Formosus had a rather checkered career. He was Bishop of Porto and papal legate. John VIII. had excommunicated him for political motives. Marinus restored him to power. He was the first Pope to be elevated from another see to that of Rome.Moeller, ii., 172.

[387:1]Thatcher and McNeal, No. 22.

[387:2]Ibid., No. 23.

[387:3]Emerton,Med. Europe, 94.

[387:4]Robinson,Readings, i., 195; Ogg, § 29.

[388:1]Bryce,Holy Rom. Emp., ch. 6, p. 83.

[389:1]Bryce,Holy Rom. Emp., 79.

[389:2]Greenwood, bk. viii., ch. 1.

[390:1]Robinson,Readings, i., 245.

[390:2]Saxon Chronicle, quoted in Emerton,Med. Europe, 102.

[390:3]Robinson,Readings, i., 247.

[391:1]Bryce,Holy Rom. Emp., 77; Thatcher and McNeal, No. 26.

[391:2]Bryce,Holy Rom. Emp., ch. 7.

[392:1]Thatcher and McNeal, No. 27; Robinson,Readings, i., 249.

[393:1]Pertz, iv., 328, 330.

[393:2]Thatcher and McNeal, No. 28.

[394:1]Pertz, iii., 459.

[394:2]Hauck,Kircheng. Deutschl., i., 69.

[395:1]Bryce, 88. Fisher,Med. Emp., i.; Thatcher and McNeal, No. 29.

[395:2]Thatcher and McNeal, No. 53.

[395:3]Mon. Ger. Hist. Leges, ii., 177; Watterich, i., 675; Thatcher and McNeal, No. 54.

[395:4]Robinson,Readings, i., 253.

[395:5]Luitprand,Hist. Ottonis, ch. 5.

[396:1]Thatcher and McNeal, No. 29.

[397:1]Greenwood, bk. viii., 477; Gregorovius,Rome in M. A., bk. vi., 346.

[397:2]Thatcher and McNeal, No. 55.

[398:1]Greenwood, bk. viii., 483.

[399:1]Henderson,Select. Hist. Docs., 442, gives the highly amusing account of the ambassador Luitprand.

[399:2]Bryce, ch. 9.

[399:3]Thatcher and McNeal, No. 30, 31.

[399:4]Maitland,Dark Ages, 499.

[399:5]Hauck, iii., 333. Archbishop Bruno was thought to be in league with the devil. William of Hirschau wrote an elaborate apology for classical learning as an appendix to his work on astronomy.The trick played by Henry II. on Bishop Meinwerk of Paderborn illustrates the prevailing ignorance of Latin. Henry II. had "fa" erased from the mass for the dead. The Bishop did not understand Latin so offered up a prayer for he and she mules.—Fisher,Med. Emp., ii., 90.

[399:5]Hauck, iii., 333. Archbishop Bruno was thought to be in league with the devil. William of Hirschau wrote an elaborate apology for classical learning as an appendix to his work on astronomy.

The trick played by Henry II. on Bishop Meinwerk of Paderborn illustrates the prevailing ignorance of Latin. Henry II. had "fa" erased from the mass for the dead. The Bishop did not understand Latin so offered up a prayer for he and she mules.—Fisher,Med. Emp., ii., 90.

[401:1]Uhlriz,Otto II. und Otto III.;Jahrb. d. Deutsch. Reiches.

[401:2]Bryce, ch. 9; Henderson, 442.

[402:1]He was buried in St. Peter's and is the only German Emperor sleeping on Roman soil.

[402:2]Milman,Lat. Christ., iii., 189; Greenwood, bk. viii., 497.

[403:1]Mabillon,Act. Ord. St. Benedict, vi., 30; Robinson,Readings, i., 259.

[404:1]Milman, ii., 481.

[404:2]SeeChap. XVIII.

[405:1]Thacher and McNeal, No. 289.

[405:2]Hodgkin,Italy and her Invaders, viii., 273; Mombert,Charles the Great, 485.

[406:1]Fisher,Med. Emp., ii., 203; Mombert,Charles the Great.

[406:2]Henry II. was the great-grandson of Otto I.

[408:1]Glaber, I., i., ch. 4.

[408:2]Rudolph, King of Burgundy, and Canute, King of England and Denmark were both present at the coronation.

[409:1]Steindorff,Jahrb. d. Deutsch. Reichs unter Heinrich III.

[409:2]Thatcher and McNeal, No. 32.

[409:3]Thatcher and McNeal, No. 242, 243.

[410:1]Schaff, iv., 298; Milman, ii., 505.

[410:2]Muratori, iii., 2, p. 345;Hefele, iv., 707; Giesebrecht, ii., 643.

[410:3]Thatcher and McNeal, No. 57.

[415:1]See Potthast,Wegweiser.

Outline: I.—Decline of the Papacy after Nicholas I. (858-867). II.—Reform efforts before the time of Hildebrand. III.—The youth and education of Hildebrand. IV.—The Hildebrandine Popes. V.—Sources.

Nicholas I., through the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals, had raised the Church above the state, made the Pope supreme in the Church, and inaugurated needed reforms.[418:1]From Nicholas I. to Hildebrand (867-1049), for about two centuries, the Popes as a rule were men of very ordinary ability and education. Many of them gained the papal office by crime, or force, or bribery, and used it for corrupt purposes. Most of the fifty Popes and six anti-Popes of this period were Italians. The chair of St. Peter was far more political and worldly than spiritual. The latter part of the ninth century Rome saw twelve Popes elected in twenty-three years. Hadrian II. (867-872), an ex-married man with a family, connected with many a domestic scandal,[418:2]succeeded Nicholas I., and defended the papal pretensions with ability and dignity. Then followed John VIII. (872-882), an active,passionate, shrewd prelate, who was killed by a relative covetous of the papal throne with its wealth and influence. Stephen VI. (896-897) in revenge caused the body of Formosus, his predecessor, to be exhumed, clad in pontifical robes, seated on the pontifical throne, tried by a synod, deposed as a usurper, the fingers with which the pontifical blessing was given cut off, and thrown into the Tiber. He, himself, was cast into prison and there strangled to death (897).

During the tenth century the Papacy was a reflection of the chaotic, anarchistic condition of the state, the demoralisation and depravity of society, and the ignorance, superstition, and crime of the day.[419:1]The head of the Church had lost all dignity and independence, and the office had become a prey to greed, force, and intrigue. Most of the Popes ended their careers in deposition, prison, or murder. The Marquises of Tuscany and the Counts of Tusculum ruled the city of Rome and dictated the election of Popes for more than half a century. Three bold, beautiful, wealthy Roman women,—Theodora and her two daughters—Marozia and Theodora—filled the chair of St. Peter with their lovers and their bastards.[419:2]This period has been given the significant name of pornocracy. John X. (914-928), the first warrior-Pope, lead an army against the Saracens and defeated them. He was imprisoned and murdered by the wicked Marozia (928). John XII. (955-963) was governor of Rome and frequently appeared dressed as a soldier.[419:3]The Papacy was openly bought and sold for money.Benedict VIII. and John XIX. were both indebted for their elevation to acknowledged bribery, and the latter was only a layman when elected but in one day passed through all the requisite clerical degrees and thus qualified for the high office. The most conspicuous case was that of Gregory VI. who paid one thousand pounds in silver for the empty honour.[420:1]The office of the Papacy practically became hereditary. Laymen as well as churchmen were elected. Benedict IX. (1033-1045) ascended the papal throne at the age of ten and thought of marrying in order to transmit his infamous rule.[420:2]

The higher clergy in this period of disorder were for the most part secular princes. They ruled large tracts of land, possessed and exercised royal prerogatives, and were granted immunities and privileges such as market rights, coinage, tolls, feudal judicature, etc. Furthermore they assumed secular titles and offices. The leading statesmen of the day were chosen from the clergy. Louis the Infant made the Abbot of Corvey a count (900), and gave the Bishop of Tours the same title (902). Henry I. made the Bishop of Tule also the Duke of Tule (928).[420:3]Otto I. gave his own brother, the Archbishop of Köln, the duchy of Lorraine and made him Count of Brandenburg and Magdeburg. Otto III. and Henry III. also made many such grants to churchmen. These higher clergy were married in many cases, or lived with mistresses, and had families.After the time of Otto I. they began to counteract the power of the nobles, hence they were made more and more dependent upon kings, who claimed the right to appoint them, who invested them with their power, and to whom they swore allegiance. They appeared at the court of the king like nobles, and in the event of war led their troops in person to the battlefield. Depositions for alleged disloyalty were very common. As the bishops became more involved in secular affairs they naturally neglected their spiritual duties. Simony crept in as a consequence and was shamefully practised. Often the worst fitted instead of the best prepared persons were given the coveted sinecures. It was but natural that the moral example set by the Pope should reveal itself in the lives of the clergy.

Greedy hands were raised against the monasteries, and their rich lands were frequently given as fiefs to laymen.[421:1]The abbots began to strive for worldly reputation and power. Hence the old discipline was neglected, and disorders and excesses of all kinds prevailed among the monks and nuns.[421:2]The common priests and monks were probably better as a rule than either Popes or bishops, still in too many cases they were prone to follow the example set by their superiors. The laity were undoubtedly on a lower moral and intellectual plane than the priesthood.[421:3]Consequently few complaints were made by them against the sins and crimes of Popes, bishops, abbots, and priests. The denunciation of flagrant abuses and the cry for reform, as far as there was any, came from the better clergy. Of the eighty councils held in France during the eleventhcentury, every one denounced the lawlessness of the laity and the unchastity and simony of the clergy.[422:1]

The manifold corruptions of the tenth century and the first part of the eleventh produced a clergy that had almost forfeited its spiritual character. Religion was a cloak for immorality, for licentious self-indulgence, and for corruption and venality which can scarcely be equalled in the entire history of the Christian Church. It was a matter of common notoriety that France and Germany were addicted, almost equal to Italy, to a shameless traffic in ecclesiastical offices and preferments.

The most startling picture of the condition of the clergy comes from the pen of Desiderius, Abbot of Monte Cassino, who later became Pope Victor III.:

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