CONTENTSCHAPTER I.GENERAL INTRODUCTION.PAGEI. Relation of the Augustan Age to other Literary Epochs1–8Relation of the Augustan poetry to that of the preceding Age1Parallel of the Augustan Age with other great literary Epochs4—— especially with the Age of Louis XIV5Chief conditions modifying the poetry of the Augustan Age7II. Influence of the enthusiasm in favour of the Empire8–21General longing for peace8Revival of national sentiment and pride of Empire10Moral and religious reaction13Augustus the centre of the national enthusiasm14Deification of the Emperor in the poetry of the Age15—— illustrated by other extant works of art19Direction given to national sentiment by Augustus20III. Influence of Patronage on the Augustan Poetry21–31Poetry employed in the interest of the Government21Patrons of literature—Augustus22Personal influence of Maecenas23Pollio, Messala, Agrippa, Cornelius Gallus26Causes of the connexion between literature and social eminence28Effects of this connexion on the tone of literature29IV. Influence of material conditions on Literature31–37Wealth and luxury of Rome in the Augustan Age31Liberality of Augustus and Maecenas to Virgil and Horace33Effects of this on the art of these poets34Reaction from the luxury of the Age apparent in literature35V. General condition of literary culture as affecting the Augustan Poetry37–54Intellectual character of the last years of the Republic and earlier years of the Empire37Distinction between the earlier and later periods38Appreciation of Greek art and literature in both39Alexandrine influences on the Augustan poetry41Characteristics of the Alexandrine poets42Their treatment of mythological subjects43Scientific and learned character of their poetry44Their treatment of the passion of love45Their treatment of external Nature46Pictorial art of the later Greeks48Superiority of the Augustan to the Alexandrine literature49Friendly relations among the poets of the Augustan Age51Influence of these relations on their art52Hostility of other literary coteries53VI. Causes of the special devotion to Poetry in the Augustan Age54–58Effect of the Monarchy on the great forms of prose literature55Poetry later in feeling the effects of Despotism56The Augustan literature the maturest development of the national mind57CHAPTER II.VIRGIL’S PLACE IN ROMAN LITERATURE.Virgil’s pre-eminence acknowledged till recent times59Disparagement of his genius in the present century60I. Estimate of Virgil in former times60–68His former reputation as a great Epic Poet61Estimate of the Aeneid among the Romans61" " during the ‘Dark Ages’64" " at the revival of letters65" " during the 17th and 18th centuries67II. Change in the estimate of Virgil in the present century68–77Virgil’s alleged dissatisfaction with the Aeneid69Probable explanation of this70Adverse criticisms in the present century71Causes of these criticisms74Advance in Greek scholarship74Modern interest in remote antiquity74Literary reaction at the end of the 18th century75III. Virgil’s supreme importance as a representative writer77–87Virgil a great representative of his country and age78" " of the idea of Rome79" " of the sentiment of Italy80" " of the political feeling of his age81" " of its ethical and religious sensibility83" " of Roman culture and learning84" " of Roman art and style85The style of Virgil the maturity preceding decay86IV. Virgil’s claim to rank among the great Poets of the World87–92Distinction between Greek, Latin, and modern imagination87Vividness and realism of feeling characteristic of the Latin imagination89Modes in which this vividness and realism are manifested by Virgil90CHAPTER III.LIFE AND PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRGIL.I. Sources of our knowledge of Virgil’s Life93–99Various sources of ancient literary biography93Direct personal statements of the authors93Indirect self-revelations in their works94Evidence of contemporaries94Works of ancient Grammarians, etc.95Remains of ancient art95Knowledge of Virgil derived from his works95Testimony of Horace95Biographies of Probus and Donatus98Their value as evidence of facts and character98II. Life of Virgil99–121His name and the year of his birth99His birth-place as affecting his genius101His birth-place as affecting his culture103" " " his political feeling104Characteristics of the class from which he sprang105His early years107His studies at Rome109His later life in his native district113Loss of his farm115Publication of the Eclogues and preparation of the Georgics116Testimonies of Horace as to his life during this time117The Georgics composed at Naples119His death and wish to destroy the Aeneid120III. Personal Characteristics121–129His recluse and studious life122His personal appearance and habits123Impression of his character derived from Horace124" " " from his own works125His indifference to political freedom127His devotion to his art127CHAPTER IV.THE ECLOGUES.I. The Eclogues examined in the order of their composition130–152Character of the Eclogues indicated by expressions used in them130Order and time of their composition131Imitative character of the second and third132The fifth founded on the death and apotheosis of Julius Caesar137Purely Theocritean character of the seventh138The first and ninth Eclogues139Elements of interest in the sixth143The ‘Pollio’144Questions discussed in connexion with that poem146The eighth and tenth Eclogues148II. Relation of the Eclogues to the Greek Pastoral152–160Theocritean origin of Virgil’s Eclogues152Primitive pastoral poem among the Greeks154The ‘woes of Daphnis’155The love of the Cyclops for Galatea156Origin of the pastoral dialogue157Artistic form given to these primitive elements by Theocritus157Difference between the pastoral life of Sicily and rural life of Italy159III. Truth of feeling in the Eclogues161–173Inferiority of the Eclogues in truth and vividness of representation161Allusive personal references in the Eclogues161Mythological and geographical allusions162The sentiment of Nature in the Eclogues164The love of home and of the land165The passion of love167Style and rhythm of the Eclogues168Their Italian character172CHAPTER V.MOTIVES, FORM, SUBSTANCE, AND SOURCES OF THE GEORGICS.I. Original motives of the Poem174–180Desire to treat of rural life in the spirit of Hesiod175Influence of Maecenas on the choice of the subject177Virgil’s sympathy with the old class of husbandmen178II. Form of poetry adopted by Virgil180–184What forms of poetry available for Virgil’s purpose?180Character of didactic poetry among the Greeks182New type of didactic poetry introduced by Virgil183III. National interest and substance of the Poem185–190Italian character of the subject185Connexion of the subject with national history187Exceptional character of the concluding episode189IV. Sources of the Poem190–198Materials derived by Virgil from his own life191From Greek and Roman writers on agriculture191Relation of the Georgics to the ‘Works and Days’193" " to the Alexandrine Metaphrastae195CHAPTER VI.STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE POEM IN RELATION TO THE POEM OF LUCRETIUS.I. Personal affinities and contrast between Lucretius and Virgil199–204Influence of Lucretius on the ideas, method, and style of the Georgics199Virgil’s recognition of his relation to Lucretius200Identity of feeling in the two poets201Difference in position and sympathies202Difference between the philosophic poet and poetic artist203II. The Lucretian idea of Nature in the Georgics204–214Nature more fully revealed in Lucretius than in earlier poetry204Idea of the struggle of man with Nature in Lucretius205Lesson drawn by him from this idea207Presence of the same idea in other Roman writers207Virgil’s sense of the life of Nature derived from Lucretius208Idea of the struggle with Nature as ordained by Providence209Prominence thus given to the duty of labour211Lesson inculcated in the Georgics212Scientific beliefs of Lucretius as adopted or rejected by Virgil213III. Dedications and Invocations in the two Poems214–228Lucretius Virgil’s chief model in technical execution214Address to Maecenas compared with address to Memmius215Eulogy of Caesar compared with eulogy of Epicurus216Meaning of their Invocation of Supernatural aid217Varieties of religious feeling and belief in the Augustan Age218Rustic Paganism of Italy218Religious conceptions embodied in Greek art219Religious elements in Greek speculative philosophy221National religion of Rome222Meaning of the Invocation of Caesar224Union of various modes of religious belief in the Invocation225Proems to the other Books of the Georgics227IV. Comparison of Virgil with Lucretius in didactic exposition and illustration229–244Method of science in Lucretius, of art in Virgil229Greater selection and elimination of materials in Virgil230Illustration of Virgil’s subject from his sense of beauty231—— from his sense of the life of Nature232—— from his sympathy with the life of animals233—— from his conception of human energy in conflict with Nature234—— from literary and mythological associations235—— from astronomy, antiquity, religious usages239Inferiority of Virgil to Lucretius in the use of imaginative analogies240More uniform excellence in diction and rhythm241Virgil more of a conscious artist242V. The Episodes in the Georgics244–260Purpose of the episodes in Lucretius and in the Georgics244The minor episodes in the Georgics245Episodes at the end of Books iii. and iv.248Episode of the omens accompanying the death of Julius Caesar252Episode of the Glory of Italy255Episode at the end of Book ii.256CHAPTER VII.THE GEORGICS A POEM REPRESENTATIVE OF ITALY261–279The Georgics an original work of Latin genius261Technical value of the poem as an exposition of Italian husbandry263Relation of the illustrative matter to the cultivated Italian mind266Feeling of the dignity of labour an Italian sentiment267Italian feeling and representation of Nature268Italian character of the religious sentiment of the poem272" " of its ethical and political sentiment273" " of its artistic execution276CHAPTER VIII.THE ROMAN EPIC BEFORE THE TIME OF VIRGIL280–294Distinction between primitive and literary epic280Absence of primitive epics from Roman literature281The Roman epic originates in the imitation of the Greek epic282New character given to the Roman epic from the national sentiment and commemorative instinct283—— from admiration of great men284—— from capacity for works of massive execution285National characteristics of the poem of Naevius286Historical substance of the early Roman epic287Representative character of the Annals of Ennius288Later annalistic and panegyrical poems289New type of Roman epic introduced by Varro Atacinus291Type of historical epic rejected in the maturity of Roman art292CHAPTER IX.FORM AND SUBJECT OF THE AENEID.I. Purpose of the Aeneid and motives determining the form of the Poem295–300Literary motives of the poem295Motive originating in the state of public feeling296" " " in the position of Augustus297New problem in literary art presented to Virgil298The Aeneid the epic of the national fortunes299II. Adaptation of the legend of Aeneas to Virgil’s purpose300–310Adaptation of the legend of Romulus to a poem founded on national sentiment300Deficiency of the legend of Aeneas in national and human interest301Greek origin of the legend301Its late reception among the Romans303Vague and composite character of the legend304Grounds on which Virgil’s choice was justified305Connexion of the legend with the Homeric cycle of events305Its recognition by the State for more than two centuries306Connexion with the glory of the Julian family308Largeness of scope afforded by the vagueness of the legend309Adaptation to a poem representative of Rome in the Augustan Age309III. Composite character of the Aeneid illustrated by an examination of the Poem310–324Twofold purpose of Virgil in composing the Aeneid310Native and Greek sources employed by him310Prominence given to his double purpose in the statement of the subject of the poem311This double purpose traced in the details of the action313" " " in the ‘Inferno’ and in the ‘Shield of Aeneas’323The Aeneid a new type of epic poetry324CHAPTER X.THE AENEID AS THE EPIC OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.I. Modes of national Sentiment expressed in the Aeneid325–335Pride of Empire325Sense of national continuity328Patriotic Italian sentiment330Antagonism to other races333II. Influence of the Religious Idea of Rome on the action of the poem336–347Roman belief in the ‘Fortuna Urbis’336Idea of ‘Fate’ in the Aeneid337Compared with the same idea in Tacitus339Origin and meaning of the Roman idea of Fate340Influence of this idea on the religious motives of the poem341Ethical aspect of religion in the Aeneid344III. Place assigned to Augustus in the Aeneid347–354Augustus the typical embodiment of Roman imperialism347Meaning given by Virgil to his relation to Aeneas349Imaginative and ethical value of the idea on which the Aeneid is founded352CHAPTER XI.THE AENEID AS AN EPIC POEM OF HUMAN LIFE.I. General character of the action as affected by the Age in which the poem was written, and by the author’s genius355–364Dignity of the circumstances treated in the poem355Distinction of the actors356Interest to Roman readers of the revival of Homeric life357" " " of the new romance of Italy358Virgil’s narrative power359Inferiority to Homer in exhibiting a vivid image of life360" " from causes personal to Virgil360" " from the character of his Age361Virgil’s representation an artistic compromise363Sources of creative power in Virgil’s genius364II. Supernatural Agencies, Observances, and Beliefs in the Aeneid365–374Part played by the Olympian Divinities in the Aeneid365" by the Powers of the Italian mythology369Survivals of primitive religious worship in the Aeneid369Belief in local deities370Worship of the dead371Virgil’s ‘Inferno’373His exact acquaintance with religious ceremonial374III. Political and Social Life, etc. as represented in the Aeneid376–394Idea of a Paternal Government in the Aeneid376Sense of majesty attaching to Government378Relation of States to one another379Material civilisation381Social manners382Sea-adventure384Battle-scenes388Appeal to local associations392IV. Conception and Delineation of Character in the Aeneid395–408Weakness of dramatic imagination in Virgil395Conception and delineation of Aeneas396The minor characters of the poem400Turnus402Mezentius404Dido405V. On the Style, etc. of the Aeneid408–423Virgil’s imagination oratorical rather than dramatic408Characteristics of the speeches in the Aeneid409Descriptive faculty410Illustrative imagery413Rhythm and diction of the poem418Greatness of its style421
CONTENTSCHAPTER I.GENERAL INTRODUCTION.PAGEI. Relation of the Augustan Age to other Literary Epochs1–8Relation of the Augustan poetry to that of the preceding Age1Parallel of the Augustan Age with other great literary Epochs4—— especially with the Age of Louis XIV5Chief conditions modifying the poetry of the Augustan Age7II. Influence of the enthusiasm in favour of the Empire8–21General longing for peace8Revival of national sentiment and pride of Empire10Moral and religious reaction13Augustus the centre of the national enthusiasm14Deification of the Emperor in the poetry of the Age15—— illustrated by other extant works of art19Direction given to national sentiment by Augustus20III. Influence of Patronage on the Augustan Poetry21–31Poetry employed in the interest of the Government21Patrons of literature—Augustus22Personal influence of Maecenas23Pollio, Messala, Agrippa, Cornelius Gallus26Causes of the connexion between literature and social eminence28Effects of this connexion on the tone of literature29IV. Influence of material conditions on Literature31–37Wealth and luxury of Rome in the Augustan Age31Liberality of Augustus and Maecenas to Virgil and Horace33Effects of this on the art of these poets34Reaction from the luxury of the Age apparent in literature35V. General condition of literary culture as affecting the Augustan Poetry37–54Intellectual character of the last years of the Republic and earlier years of the Empire37Distinction between the earlier and later periods38Appreciation of Greek art and literature in both39Alexandrine influences on the Augustan poetry41Characteristics of the Alexandrine poets42Their treatment of mythological subjects43Scientific and learned character of their poetry44Their treatment of the passion of love45Their treatment of external Nature46Pictorial art of the later Greeks48Superiority of the Augustan to the Alexandrine literature49Friendly relations among the poets of the Augustan Age51Influence of these relations on their art52Hostility of other literary coteries53VI. Causes of the special devotion to Poetry in the Augustan Age54–58Effect of the Monarchy on the great forms of prose literature55Poetry later in feeling the effects of Despotism56The Augustan literature the maturest development of the national mind57CHAPTER II.VIRGIL’S PLACE IN ROMAN LITERATURE.Virgil’s pre-eminence acknowledged till recent times59Disparagement of his genius in the present century60I. Estimate of Virgil in former times60–68His former reputation as a great Epic Poet61Estimate of the Aeneid among the Romans61" " during the ‘Dark Ages’64" " at the revival of letters65" " during the 17th and 18th centuries67II. Change in the estimate of Virgil in the present century68–77Virgil’s alleged dissatisfaction with the Aeneid69Probable explanation of this70Adverse criticisms in the present century71Causes of these criticisms74Advance in Greek scholarship74Modern interest in remote antiquity74Literary reaction at the end of the 18th century75III. Virgil’s supreme importance as a representative writer77–87Virgil a great representative of his country and age78" " of the idea of Rome79" " of the sentiment of Italy80" " of the political feeling of his age81" " of its ethical and religious sensibility83" " of Roman culture and learning84" " of Roman art and style85The style of Virgil the maturity preceding decay86IV. Virgil’s claim to rank among the great Poets of the World87–92Distinction between Greek, Latin, and modern imagination87Vividness and realism of feeling characteristic of the Latin imagination89Modes in which this vividness and realism are manifested by Virgil90CHAPTER III.LIFE AND PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRGIL.I. Sources of our knowledge of Virgil’s Life93–99Various sources of ancient literary biography93Direct personal statements of the authors93Indirect self-revelations in their works94Evidence of contemporaries94Works of ancient Grammarians, etc.95Remains of ancient art95Knowledge of Virgil derived from his works95Testimony of Horace95Biographies of Probus and Donatus98Their value as evidence of facts and character98II. Life of Virgil99–121His name and the year of his birth99His birth-place as affecting his genius101His birth-place as affecting his culture103" " " his political feeling104Characteristics of the class from which he sprang105His early years107His studies at Rome109His later life in his native district113Loss of his farm115Publication of the Eclogues and preparation of the Georgics116Testimonies of Horace as to his life during this time117The Georgics composed at Naples119His death and wish to destroy the Aeneid120III. Personal Characteristics121–129His recluse and studious life122His personal appearance and habits123Impression of his character derived from Horace124" " " from his own works125His indifference to political freedom127His devotion to his art127CHAPTER IV.THE ECLOGUES.I. The Eclogues examined in the order of their composition130–152Character of the Eclogues indicated by expressions used in them130Order and time of their composition131Imitative character of the second and third132The fifth founded on the death and apotheosis of Julius Caesar137Purely Theocritean character of the seventh138The first and ninth Eclogues139Elements of interest in the sixth143The ‘Pollio’144Questions discussed in connexion with that poem146The eighth and tenth Eclogues148II. Relation of the Eclogues to the Greek Pastoral152–160Theocritean origin of Virgil’s Eclogues152Primitive pastoral poem among the Greeks154The ‘woes of Daphnis’155The love of the Cyclops for Galatea156Origin of the pastoral dialogue157Artistic form given to these primitive elements by Theocritus157Difference between the pastoral life of Sicily and rural life of Italy159III. Truth of feeling in the Eclogues161–173Inferiority of the Eclogues in truth and vividness of representation161Allusive personal references in the Eclogues161Mythological and geographical allusions162The sentiment of Nature in the Eclogues164The love of home and of the land165The passion of love167Style and rhythm of the Eclogues168Their Italian character172CHAPTER V.MOTIVES, FORM, SUBSTANCE, AND SOURCES OF THE GEORGICS.I. Original motives of the Poem174–180Desire to treat of rural life in the spirit of Hesiod175Influence of Maecenas on the choice of the subject177Virgil’s sympathy with the old class of husbandmen178II. Form of poetry adopted by Virgil180–184What forms of poetry available for Virgil’s purpose?180Character of didactic poetry among the Greeks182New type of didactic poetry introduced by Virgil183III. National interest and substance of the Poem185–190Italian character of the subject185Connexion of the subject with national history187Exceptional character of the concluding episode189IV. Sources of the Poem190–198Materials derived by Virgil from his own life191From Greek and Roman writers on agriculture191Relation of the Georgics to the ‘Works and Days’193" " to the Alexandrine Metaphrastae195CHAPTER VI.STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE POEM IN RELATION TO THE POEM OF LUCRETIUS.I. Personal affinities and contrast between Lucretius and Virgil199–204Influence of Lucretius on the ideas, method, and style of the Georgics199Virgil’s recognition of his relation to Lucretius200Identity of feeling in the two poets201Difference in position and sympathies202Difference between the philosophic poet and poetic artist203II. The Lucretian idea of Nature in the Georgics204–214Nature more fully revealed in Lucretius than in earlier poetry204Idea of the struggle of man with Nature in Lucretius205Lesson drawn by him from this idea207Presence of the same idea in other Roman writers207Virgil’s sense of the life of Nature derived from Lucretius208Idea of the struggle with Nature as ordained by Providence209Prominence thus given to the duty of labour211Lesson inculcated in the Georgics212Scientific beliefs of Lucretius as adopted or rejected by Virgil213III. Dedications and Invocations in the two Poems214–228Lucretius Virgil’s chief model in technical execution214Address to Maecenas compared with address to Memmius215Eulogy of Caesar compared with eulogy of Epicurus216Meaning of their Invocation of Supernatural aid217Varieties of religious feeling and belief in the Augustan Age218Rustic Paganism of Italy218Religious conceptions embodied in Greek art219Religious elements in Greek speculative philosophy221National religion of Rome222Meaning of the Invocation of Caesar224Union of various modes of religious belief in the Invocation225Proems to the other Books of the Georgics227IV. Comparison of Virgil with Lucretius in didactic exposition and illustration229–244Method of science in Lucretius, of art in Virgil229Greater selection and elimination of materials in Virgil230Illustration of Virgil’s subject from his sense of beauty231—— from his sense of the life of Nature232—— from his sympathy with the life of animals233—— from his conception of human energy in conflict with Nature234—— from literary and mythological associations235—— from astronomy, antiquity, religious usages239Inferiority of Virgil to Lucretius in the use of imaginative analogies240More uniform excellence in diction and rhythm241Virgil more of a conscious artist242V. The Episodes in the Georgics244–260Purpose of the episodes in Lucretius and in the Georgics244The minor episodes in the Georgics245Episodes at the end of Books iii. and iv.248Episode of the omens accompanying the death of Julius Caesar252Episode of the Glory of Italy255Episode at the end of Book ii.256CHAPTER VII.THE GEORGICS A POEM REPRESENTATIVE OF ITALY261–279The Georgics an original work of Latin genius261Technical value of the poem as an exposition of Italian husbandry263Relation of the illustrative matter to the cultivated Italian mind266Feeling of the dignity of labour an Italian sentiment267Italian feeling and representation of Nature268Italian character of the religious sentiment of the poem272" " of its ethical and political sentiment273" " of its artistic execution276CHAPTER VIII.THE ROMAN EPIC BEFORE THE TIME OF VIRGIL280–294Distinction between primitive and literary epic280Absence of primitive epics from Roman literature281The Roman epic originates in the imitation of the Greek epic282New character given to the Roman epic from the national sentiment and commemorative instinct283—— from admiration of great men284—— from capacity for works of massive execution285National characteristics of the poem of Naevius286Historical substance of the early Roman epic287Representative character of the Annals of Ennius288Later annalistic and panegyrical poems289New type of Roman epic introduced by Varro Atacinus291Type of historical epic rejected in the maturity of Roman art292CHAPTER IX.FORM AND SUBJECT OF THE AENEID.I. Purpose of the Aeneid and motives determining the form of the Poem295–300Literary motives of the poem295Motive originating in the state of public feeling296" " " in the position of Augustus297New problem in literary art presented to Virgil298The Aeneid the epic of the national fortunes299II. Adaptation of the legend of Aeneas to Virgil’s purpose300–310Adaptation of the legend of Romulus to a poem founded on national sentiment300Deficiency of the legend of Aeneas in national and human interest301Greek origin of the legend301Its late reception among the Romans303Vague and composite character of the legend304Grounds on which Virgil’s choice was justified305Connexion of the legend with the Homeric cycle of events305Its recognition by the State for more than two centuries306Connexion with the glory of the Julian family308Largeness of scope afforded by the vagueness of the legend309Adaptation to a poem representative of Rome in the Augustan Age309III. Composite character of the Aeneid illustrated by an examination of the Poem310–324Twofold purpose of Virgil in composing the Aeneid310Native and Greek sources employed by him310Prominence given to his double purpose in the statement of the subject of the poem311This double purpose traced in the details of the action313" " " in the ‘Inferno’ and in the ‘Shield of Aeneas’323The Aeneid a new type of epic poetry324CHAPTER X.THE AENEID AS THE EPIC OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.I. Modes of national Sentiment expressed in the Aeneid325–335Pride of Empire325Sense of national continuity328Patriotic Italian sentiment330Antagonism to other races333II. Influence of the Religious Idea of Rome on the action of the poem336–347Roman belief in the ‘Fortuna Urbis’336Idea of ‘Fate’ in the Aeneid337Compared with the same idea in Tacitus339Origin and meaning of the Roman idea of Fate340Influence of this idea on the religious motives of the poem341Ethical aspect of religion in the Aeneid344III. Place assigned to Augustus in the Aeneid347–354Augustus the typical embodiment of Roman imperialism347Meaning given by Virgil to his relation to Aeneas349Imaginative and ethical value of the idea on which the Aeneid is founded352CHAPTER XI.THE AENEID AS AN EPIC POEM OF HUMAN LIFE.I. General character of the action as affected by the Age in which the poem was written, and by the author’s genius355–364Dignity of the circumstances treated in the poem355Distinction of the actors356Interest to Roman readers of the revival of Homeric life357" " " of the new romance of Italy358Virgil’s narrative power359Inferiority to Homer in exhibiting a vivid image of life360" " from causes personal to Virgil360" " from the character of his Age361Virgil’s representation an artistic compromise363Sources of creative power in Virgil’s genius364II. Supernatural Agencies, Observances, and Beliefs in the Aeneid365–374Part played by the Olympian Divinities in the Aeneid365" by the Powers of the Italian mythology369Survivals of primitive religious worship in the Aeneid369Belief in local deities370Worship of the dead371Virgil’s ‘Inferno’373His exact acquaintance with religious ceremonial374III. Political and Social Life, etc. as represented in the Aeneid376–394Idea of a Paternal Government in the Aeneid376Sense of majesty attaching to Government378Relation of States to one another379Material civilisation381Social manners382Sea-adventure384Battle-scenes388Appeal to local associations392IV. Conception and Delineation of Character in the Aeneid395–408Weakness of dramatic imagination in Virgil395Conception and delineation of Aeneas396The minor characters of the poem400Turnus402Mezentius404Dido405V. On the Style, etc. of the Aeneid408–423Virgil’s imagination oratorical rather than dramatic408Characteristics of the speeches in the Aeneid409Descriptive faculty410Illustrative imagery413Rhythm and diction of the poem418Greatness of its style421
CONTENTSCHAPTER I.GENERAL INTRODUCTION.PAGEI. Relation of the Augustan Age to other Literary Epochs1–8Relation of the Augustan poetry to that of the preceding Age1Parallel of the Augustan Age with other great literary Epochs4—— especially with the Age of Louis XIV5Chief conditions modifying the poetry of the Augustan Age7II. Influence of the enthusiasm in favour of the Empire8–21General longing for peace8Revival of national sentiment and pride of Empire10Moral and religious reaction13Augustus the centre of the national enthusiasm14Deification of the Emperor in the poetry of the Age15—— illustrated by other extant works of art19Direction given to national sentiment by Augustus20III. Influence of Patronage on the Augustan Poetry21–31Poetry employed in the interest of the Government21Patrons of literature—Augustus22Personal influence of Maecenas23Pollio, Messala, Agrippa, Cornelius Gallus26Causes of the connexion between literature and social eminence28Effects of this connexion on the tone of literature29IV. Influence of material conditions on Literature31–37Wealth and luxury of Rome in the Augustan Age31Liberality of Augustus and Maecenas to Virgil and Horace33Effects of this on the art of these poets34Reaction from the luxury of the Age apparent in literature35V. General condition of literary culture as affecting the Augustan Poetry37–54Intellectual character of the last years of the Republic and earlier years of the Empire37Distinction between the earlier and later periods38Appreciation of Greek art and literature in both39Alexandrine influences on the Augustan poetry41Characteristics of the Alexandrine poets42Their treatment of mythological subjects43Scientific and learned character of their poetry44Their treatment of the passion of love45Their treatment of external Nature46Pictorial art of the later Greeks48Superiority of the Augustan to the Alexandrine literature49Friendly relations among the poets of the Augustan Age51Influence of these relations on their art52Hostility of other literary coteries53VI. Causes of the special devotion to Poetry in the Augustan Age54–58Effect of the Monarchy on the great forms of prose literature55Poetry later in feeling the effects of Despotism56The Augustan literature the maturest development of the national mind57CHAPTER II.VIRGIL’S PLACE IN ROMAN LITERATURE.Virgil’s pre-eminence acknowledged till recent times59Disparagement of his genius in the present century60I. Estimate of Virgil in former times60–68His former reputation as a great Epic Poet61Estimate of the Aeneid among the Romans61" " during the ‘Dark Ages’64" " at the revival of letters65" " during the 17th and 18th centuries67II. Change in the estimate of Virgil in the present century68–77Virgil’s alleged dissatisfaction with the Aeneid69Probable explanation of this70Adverse criticisms in the present century71Causes of these criticisms74Advance in Greek scholarship74Modern interest in remote antiquity74Literary reaction at the end of the 18th century75III. Virgil’s supreme importance as a representative writer77–87Virgil a great representative of his country and age78" " of the idea of Rome79" " of the sentiment of Italy80" " of the political feeling of his age81" " of its ethical and religious sensibility83" " of Roman culture and learning84" " of Roman art and style85The style of Virgil the maturity preceding decay86IV. Virgil’s claim to rank among the great Poets of the World87–92Distinction between Greek, Latin, and modern imagination87Vividness and realism of feeling characteristic of the Latin imagination89Modes in which this vividness and realism are manifested by Virgil90CHAPTER III.LIFE AND PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRGIL.I. Sources of our knowledge of Virgil’s Life93–99Various sources of ancient literary biography93Direct personal statements of the authors93Indirect self-revelations in their works94Evidence of contemporaries94Works of ancient Grammarians, etc.95Remains of ancient art95Knowledge of Virgil derived from his works95Testimony of Horace95Biographies of Probus and Donatus98Their value as evidence of facts and character98II. Life of Virgil99–121His name and the year of his birth99His birth-place as affecting his genius101His birth-place as affecting his culture103" " " his political feeling104Characteristics of the class from which he sprang105His early years107His studies at Rome109His later life in his native district113Loss of his farm115Publication of the Eclogues and preparation of the Georgics116Testimonies of Horace as to his life during this time117The Georgics composed at Naples119His death and wish to destroy the Aeneid120III. Personal Characteristics121–129His recluse and studious life122His personal appearance and habits123Impression of his character derived from Horace124" " " from his own works125His indifference to political freedom127His devotion to his art127CHAPTER IV.THE ECLOGUES.I. The Eclogues examined in the order of their composition130–152Character of the Eclogues indicated by expressions used in them130Order and time of their composition131Imitative character of the second and third132The fifth founded on the death and apotheosis of Julius Caesar137Purely Theocritean character of the seventh138The first and ninth Eclogues139Elements of interest in the sixth143The ‘Pollio’144Questions discussed in connexion with that poem146The eighth and tenth Eclogues148II. Relation of the Eclogues to the Greek Pastoral152–160Theocritean origin of Virgil’s Eclogues152Primitive pastoral poem among the Greeks154The ‘woes of Daphnis’155The love of the Cyclops for Galatea156Origin of the pastoral dialogue157Artistic form given to these primitive elements by Theocritus157Difference between the pastoral life of Sicily and rural life of Italy159III. Truth of feeling in the Eclogues161–173Inferiority of the Eclogues in truth and vividness of representation161Allusive personal references in the Eclogues161Mythological and geographical allusions162The sentiment of Nature in the Eclogues164The love of home and of the land165The passion of love167Style and rhythm of the Eclogues168Their Italian character172CHAPTER V.MOTIVES, FORM, SUBSTANCE, AND SOURCES OF THE GEORGICS.I. Original motives of the Poem174–180Desire to treat of rural life in the spirit of Hesiod175Influence of Maecenas on the choice of the subject177Virgil’s sympathy with the old class of husbandmen178II. Form of poetry adopted by Virgil180–184What forms of poetry available for Virgil’s purpose?180Character of didactic poetry among the Greeks182New type of didactic poetry introduced by Virgil183III. National interest and substance of the Poem185–190Italian character of the subject185Connexion of the subject with national history187Exceptional character of the concluding episode189IV. Sources of the Poem190–198Materials derived by Virgil from his own life191From Greek and Roman writers on agriculture191Relation of the Georgics to the ‘Works and Days’193" " to the Alexandrine Metaphrastae195CHAPTER VI.STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE POEM IN RELATION TO THE POEM OF LUCRETIUS.I. Personal affinities and contrast between Lucretius and Virgil199–204Influence of Lucretius on the ideas, method, and style of the Georgics199Virgil’s recognition of his relation to Lucretius200Identity of feeling in the two poets201Difference in position and sympathies202Difference between the philosophic poet and poetic artist203II. The Lucretian idea of Nature in the Georgics204–214Nature more fully revealed in Lucretius than in earlier poetry204Idea of the struggle of man with Nature in Lucretius205Lesson drawn by him from this idea207Presence of the same idea in other Roman writers207Virgil’s sense of the life of Nature derived from Lucretius208Idea of the struggle with Nature as ordained by Providence209Prominence thus given to the duty of labour211Lesson inculcated in the Georgics212Scientific beliefs of Lucretius as adopted or rejected by Virgil213III. Dedications and Invocations in the two Poems214–228Lucretius Virgil’s chief model in technical execution214Address to Maecenas compared with address to Memmius215Eulogy of Caesar compared with eulogy of Epicurus216Meaning of their Invocation of Supernatural aid217Varieties of religious feeling and belief in the Augustan Age218Rustic Paganism of Italy218Religious conceptions embodied in Greek art219Religious elements in Greek speculative philosophy221National religion of Rome222Meaning of the Invocation of Caesar224Union of various modes of religious belief in the Invocation225Proems to the other Books of the Georgics227IV. Comparison of Virgil with Lucretius in didactic exposition and illustration229–244Method of science in Lucretius, of art in Virgil229Greater selection and elimination of materials in Virgil230Illustration of Virgil’s subject from his sense of beauty231—— from his sense of the life of Nature232—— from his sympathy with the life of animals233—— from his conception of human energy in conflict with Nature234—— from literary and mythological associations235—— from astronomy, antiquity, religious usages239Inferiority of Virgil to Lucretius in the use of imaginative analogies240More uniform excellence in diction and rhythm241Virgil more of a conscious artist242V. The Episodes in the Georgics244–260Purpose of the episodes in Lucretius and in the Georgics244The minor episodes in the Georgics245Episodes at the end of Books iii. and iv.248Episode of the omens accompanying the death of Julius Caesar252Episode of the Glory of Italy255Episode at the end of Book ii.256CHAPTER VII.THE GEORGICS A POEM REPRESENTATIVE OF ITALY261–279The Georgics an original work of Latin genius261Technical value of the poem as an exposition of Italian husbandry263Relation of the illustrative matter to the cultivated Italian mind266Feeling of the dignity of labour an Italian sentiment267Italian feeling and representation of Nature268Italian character of the religious sentiment of the poem272" " of its ethical and political sentiment273" " of its artistic execution276CHAPTER VIII.THE ROMAN EPIC BEFORE THE TIME OF VIRGIL280–294Distinction between primitive and literary epic280Absence of primitive epics from Roman literature281The Roman epic originates in the imitation of the Greek epic282New character given to the Roman epic from the national sentiment and commemorative instinct283—— from admiration of great men284—— from capacity for works of massive execution285National characteristics of the poem of Naevius286Historical substance of the early Roman epic287Representative character of the Annals of Ennius288Later annalistic and panegyrical poems289New type of Roman epic introduced by Varro Atacinus291Type of historical epic rejected in the maturity of Roman art292CHAPTER IX.FORM AND SUBJECT OF THE AENEID.I. Purpose of the Aeneid and motives determining the form of the Poem295–300Literary motives of the poem295Motive originating in the state of public feeling296" " " in the position of Augustus297New problem in literary art presented to Virgil298The Aeneid the epic of the national fortunes299II. Adaptation of the legend of Aeneas to Virgil’s purpose300–310Adaptation of the legend of Romulus to a poem founded on national sentiment300Deficiency of the legend of Aeneas in national and human interest301Greek origin of the legend301Its late reception among the Romans303Vague and composite character of the legend304Grounds on which Virgil’s choice was justified305Connexion of the legend with the Homeric cycle of events305Its recognition by the State for more than two centuries306Connexion with the glory of the Julian family308Largeness of scope afforded by the vagueness of the legend309Adaptation to a poem representative of Rome in the Augustan Age309III. Composite character of the Aeneid illustrated by an examination of the Poem310–324Twofold purpose of Virgil in composing the Aeneid310Native and Greek sources employed by him310Prominence given to his double purpose in the statement of the subject of the poem311This double purpose traced in the details of the action313" " " in the ‘Inferno’ and in the ‘Shield of Aeneas’323The Aeneid a new type of epic poetry324CHAPTER X.THE AENEID AS THE EPIC OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.I. Modes of national Sentiment expressed in the Aeneid325–335Pride of Empire325Sense of national continuity328Patriotic Italian sentiment330Antagonism to other races333II. Influence of the Religious Idea of Rome on the action of the poem336–347Roman belief in the ‘Fortuna Urbis’336Idea of ‘Fate’ in the Aeneid337Compared with the same idea in Tacitus339Origin and meaning of the Roman idea of Fate340Influence of this idea on the religious motives of the poem341Ethical aspect of religion in the Aeneid344III. Place assigned to Augustus in the Aeneid347–354Augustus the typical embodiment of Roman imperialism347Meaning given by Virgil to his relation to Aeneas349Imaginative and ethical value of the idea on which the Aeneid is founded352CHAPTER XI.THE AENEID AS AN EPIC POEM OF HUMAN LIFE.I. General character of the action as affected by the Age in which the poem was written, and by the author’s genius355–364Dignity of the circumstances treated in the poem355Distinction of the actors356Interest to Roman readers of the revival of Homeric life357" " " of the new romance of Italy358Virgil’s narrative power359Inferiority to Homer in exhibiting a vivid image of life360" " from causes personal to Virgil360" " from the character of his Age361Virgil’s representation an artistic compromise363Sources of creative power in Virgil’s genius364II. Supernatural Agencies, Observances, and Beliefs in the Aeneid365–374Part played by the Olympian Divinities in the Aeneid365" by the Powers of the Italian mythology369Survivals of primitive religious worship in the Aeneid369Belief in local deities370Worship of the dead371Virgil’s ‘Inferno’373His exact acquaintance with religious ceremonial374III. Political and Social Life, etc. as represented in the Aeneid376–394Idea of a Paternal Government in the Aeneid376Sense of majesty attaching to Government378Relation of States to one another379Material civilisation381Social manners382Sea-adventure384Battle-scenes388Appeal to local associations392IV. Conception and Delineation of Character in the Aeneid395–408Weakness of dramatic imagination in Virgil395Conception and delineation of Aeneas396The minor characters of the poem400Turnus402Mezentius404Dido405V. On the Style, etc. of the Aeneid408–423Virgil’s imagination oratorical rather than dramatic408Characteristics of the speeches in the Aeneid409Descriptive faculty410Illustrative imagery413Rhythm and diction of the poem418Greatness of its style421