1st Grade2nd3rd4th5th6th7thSchoolsCl.Pu.Cl.Pu.Cl.Pu.Cl.Pu.Cl.Pu.Cl.Pu.Cl.Pu.A.{Boys3112399311441363115396395{Girls310731133116310531113191283B.{Boys5183519441574160519951774144{Girls5178518451964140518841514149C.{Boys2892902100298298279264{Girls2+1992+1962+11012+1952+1972+189277D.{Boys313931234140312731083103393{Girls3+11193+113231173+1139302831103101E.{Boys312141493113277274272265{Girls31154152310131163115277260F.{Boys31382932832673983107137{Girls3+11222+11022+11043104277279265G.{Boys415131402119413831213993105{Girls41474+11574+114841343106280393H.{Boys414241363119311541393109266{Girls31313136413141423102280269I.{Boys3963963862732772683102{Girls2792682822792682713102J.{Boys2952912902802812702641{Girls2+1872+11092+1983932662682661K.{Boys415341454143311831203121384{Girls51704+11534139415431233103393L.{Boys414341454134414441294132275{Girls4158414841414132413641574131M.{Boys713361115912992102270274{Girls1361081152+21242+2115397272N.{Boys41511106110821132852105272{Girls31091+41251+31272+21082+11002+2106264O.{Boys111981281181029557{Girls59059871266104588598473P.{Boys3126283311631033103268396{Girls31133117310531133992803100Q.{Boys4155519251684158415541493116{Girls41545+118941635171414431182111R.{Boys15415913111231072833104{Girls18612814111531103+1131277S.{Boys51854151413941353111275{Girls41595172414631084148279Total(Classes)134131126122115104912———————————————(Pupils)503648784676445842353753309943Average number of pupils per class37.637.337.136.536.836.134.1Schools for Abnormals{Boys4+1477545+15746666+16530219{Girls185341374733189
Cl.—Class.Pu.—Pupils.1.—Classes made up of children requiring individual attention.
Total ClassesTotal PupilsCondensed table of all groups————————————————————SchoolsBoys'Girls'Coeds.BoysGirlsClassesPupilsAveragefor class.A.222076773642150335.8B.32321214119564240937.6C.1414661864434126237.1D.2221383384046167936.5E.182067173638140737.0F.1616362365335127636.5G.2224287386548173836.2H.232182678144160736.5I.181559854933114734.8J.1516359560634120135.3K.242688493550181036.4L.2628902100354190535.3M.892268076739144737.1N.14131374078940147937.0O.3770967737138037.5P.192069572739142236.5Q.29281093105057214337.6R.883185088847173837.0S.222279681244160836.5————————————————Total number of Pupils35235312014967152098253017636.6Schools for Abnormals3393842564264015.6
In addition to the special features in this table, to which we have already called attention, it may be observed that the total number of boys', girls', and co-educational classes; the total number of boys and of girls in attendance at each school; and the average number of pupils per class in each school are also included.
The law limits the number of pupils in a class to thirty-five, except temporarily or in case of stringency in financial conditions, and in no case must there be more than forty.[6]It is seen in the table that the average is above thirty-five in all but one school, but it has been exceedingly difficult in the rapidly growing city of Christiania to avoid congestion in the schools. In only one of the nineteen schools does the general average come within the rule. If they plead economic stringency then the averages of all fall within the limits.
Now a large percentage of children continue their education after the completion of the elementary course. In 1907, there were nine thousand, eight hundred and ninety-five pupils in the accredited middle schools,[7]and one thousand, five hundred and ninety-three in the gymnasia. About eighteen thousand others attended non-accredited secondary schools and those of still lower standards—evening schools, continuation schools, and various preparatory schools. Approximately two thousand were in technical schoolsand about one thousand in teachers' seminaries. Nearly every town of any considerable consequence has a middle school where pupils from the town and surrounding territory may receive its benefits. The larger cities have, in addition to a liberal supply of middle schools, one or more gymnasia, according to their size. The gymnasia draw from a wider territory than do the middle schools because they are fewer and farther apart.
In addition to the six teachers' seminaries maintained by the state, there are four private ones—ten in all. Table II indicates the aggregate attendance at these institutions and the number of those who passed the advanced examinations during the years designated.
The university, of course, draws its students from all over the State. It has an attendance of one thousand, three hundred or more, about five hundred and fifty of whom are annually enrolled direct from the gymnasia. These students represent the best products of the country and generally they work with earnestness and zeal.
Table Giving Attendance at Teachers' Seminaries and the Number Passing Advanced Examinations.
Took Examination.Year.Attendance.Male.Female.Total.1901-027552041353391902-039801921293211903-049532161844001904-059021741192931905-06955208147355———————Totals9947141,708Annual Average199143342
Private schools have played an important role in Norway. They have had a long and interesting history. A number of them do part or all of the work represented by the state primary and secondary schools and teachers' seminaries. Most of them are located in the larger cities and receive recognition and patronage from some of the best homes in the land. Their influence upon education generally has been wholesome. The valuable and attractive features introduced by them have operated like spurs on those under state direction. The cooperative activity which has characterized the relationship between the two kinds of schools has resulted in the betterment of both and in the rapid advancement of educational ideals and activities throughout the state.
There are, of course, some fundamental differences existing between them. The private schools charge a regular tuition in every grade of primary and secondary work. The state primary schools are free and the tuition in its secondary schools is less than that charged in the private schools. It is self-evident that private schools are dependent upon tuition receipts for both running expenses and profits, while the state and communal schools are supported largely by public taxation.[8]Paralleling so nearly the work of the state schools, yet being more expensive, the private schools have been under the necessity of offering certain inducements in order to secure pupils. They have been made attractive in location, in buildings, in equipment, in the personnel of their faculties, and in other ways, and their efforts have been richly rewarded as a rule.
All classes of schools are subject to state regulations and inspection. Certain definite requirements must be met before a private school may even begin to operate, and still higher standards must be maintained in order for the work to be accredited by the state. Standards of excellence are naturally set by state schools and the requirements fixed by the state inhibit the starting of inferior schools under the pretense of offering something "just as good." During recent years some of the private schools—those well-known and respectedbecause of the nature of work and high standards of excellence maintained—have been given special recognition by the state, and a few of them receive annuities. When advancement in nature or improvement in quality of school work is rewarded by increase in patronage from the state, zest is furnished in the contest for first recognition.
Though the history of the rise, development and influence of the private schools of Norway, together with a discussion of their present status and worth, might furnish an interesting chapter, it becomes necessary to let this slight mention suffice and to confine this work to a treatise of the schools instituted and directed by the state. It may be added, however, that the work of the accredited private schools equals in quality and receives the same recognition as that done in state schools. For example, all graduates from the private gymnasia pass the same examinations forartiumas those who complete the work of the state gymnasia and enter the university on exactly the same footing.
The compulsory school laws which operate in Norway determine the age (seven years) at which children shall enter school and the regularity of their attendance. With this in mind, it is readily understood that as a rule each class marches steadily forward, one grade each year, until the completion of the school life. As a consequence there is but little variation in the ages of pupils doing the work of any certain grade, and the proportion of pupils of normal age in the several grades is very large. In order to illustrate definitely, a concrete situation is presented in Table III, which shows the exact conditions existing at a certain time in one of their representative cities.
Table showing the age of pupils on April 30, 1908, in the several grades, also the number in each Grade and relation to normal age.
Age and year of birth.6-77-88-99-1010-1111-1212-1313-1414-1515-1616-17GradeNo. of Classes19021901190018991898189718961895189418931892Total11342730471790164105038213033273017952631848393126222564173031936524678412233228716203937714144255115322009152851113664222610513918561342569803878790281582112923133003X[2]22022143T[1]8242730804542455643233996384135371962139330186Per ct.19080.110.215.115.114.313.212.711.76.51.1———19070.111.315.315.013.513.112.611.96.21.0——19060.110.915.514.614.013.412.511.66.60.8——19050.111.215.314.714.013.612.711.96.40.1——
No. of Pupils of Normal Age.Per Cent. of Normal Age.GradeUnderNorm.OverUnderNorm.Over12748371740.596.03.523345252810.793.55.832242943620.591.97.643339074850.888.310.953235376530.883.815.463131986490.882.217.072828012340.991.18.0X[2].421—97.72.3T[1].206271412839Per ct.1908——————0.789.99.41907——————0.890.98.31906——————0.991.87.31905——————1.191.77.2
1. Primary schools of Kristiana exclusive of schools for abnormal children.2. Classes requiring special individual attention.
This table speaks for itself and needs no explanation. It is worthy of note, however, that in comparatively few instances do the ages vary more than two or three years, and that six years is the widest difference in age to be found among all the pupils of any given grade of work. Furthermore, we call attention to the fact that those above normal age in no year aggregated as much as ten per cent of the entire number in attendance. 10.1 per cent represents the entire number outside the normal age—those above plus those below—for the year 1908. During the three former years the percentage was still smaller. The reduction in numbers of pupils in the sixth and seventh grades is due in large part to the fact that so many pass from the fifth grade into the middle school.
The same conditions of uniformity exist in the secondary schools. Having entered at the age of seven and having spent five or more years in the primary school, the pupils upon entrance to the middle school are generally twelve or more years old. In some middle schools the average age of those entering will at times be less than twelve years. This latter condition is usually due to some local situation or rule regarding age at entrance upon school work. In order to follow the age question to nearer its limits we will present Table IV.
Table showing the ages of pupils in State and Communal Secondary Schools.
Middle SchoolGymnasiumI.II.III.IV.I.II.III.DateTrondhjem(A)12-1(C)13-314-215-616-1017-1818-19-1-06Kristiansand(A)1213-514-215-216-317-718-310-1-00Kristiansund(B)12-713-514-815-516-216-918-49-1-09Fredrikkstad(B)12-713-414-215-215-1016-1017-87-1-08Lillihammer(B)12-213-21415-31616-618-17-1-06Larvik(B)12-213-314-215-115-1016-1018-28-1-03
[Note A: State secondary school.]
[Note B: Communal secondary schools.]
[Note C: Age in years and months.]
Attention is called to the step from the last year in the middle school to the first year in the gymnasium. In several instances there is considerably less than a year of difference in age. This is but another illustration of the tendencies of the sifting that goes on in the natural process of selecting the fittest. Those of keenest intellect are the ones who reach a specific requirement in least time and then proceed in the pursuit of advance education. The ones sifted out are more generally those whose advance has been more difficult, or those who have lagged behind others of their own age. The absence of these tends to lower the average age in the succeeding grade. Similar conditions in emphasized form are in evidence when we study the ages of those who enter the university from year to year. While the ages of those just entering the third and final year of the gymnasium are on the average more than eighteen, the ones who enter the university the following year in September average nineteen years of age or a little less.
In addition to the tables showing the ages of pupils throughout the several grades of preparatory and secondary education, the following one is inserted to show the average age of those in attendance at four of the teachers' seminaries. The advance in age with advance of grade is not as regular here as in the other schools.
Table Showing Age of Pupils in the Teachers' Seminaries at the Beginning of the Year, 1906-7.
Average age[A] in grades.I.II.III.Holmestrand19-721-322-1Levanger2019-821-4Hamar19-220-221-7Stord19-619-1121
[Note A: Age in years and months.]
There is not as close correspondence between age or grade and scholarship in the seminaries as we find in the other schools. The greater variation is due to several causes, among them are the following: (1) The law requires that a teacher must be at least twenty years of age.[9](2) The previous education of those in attendance varies greatly. Many are desirous of getting as thorough and complete preparation as their circumstances admit, while others are seemingly anxious to enter on the lowest standard admissible. (3) Teachers who are eager to improve their qualifications frequently return to the seminary after a few years of teaching experience in order to complete the course and prepare for the better class of positions.
Comparisons between the educational equipment of the American youth and that of his Norwegian cousinat any given age are exceedingly difficult to make. We have not yet established any specific units or norms by which education may be measured. We can make neither definite nor satisfactory quantitative or qualitative measurements of accomplishment. However, a careful analysis of the respective courses of study, the qualification of teachers, and plans of work, supported by the testimony of those who have been teachers in both countries, seems to warrant the statement that the completion of the gymnasial course of study in Norway is comparable to the completion of the sophomore year of work in our American colleges and universities. The average age of students is about the same in both instances.
The American children spend a less portion of the year in school than do the children in Norway. While in our schools we generally have but thirty-six weeks of five days each in a year, inclusive of all regular and special holidays, the schools of Norway are in operation forty weeks of six days each, exclusive of holidays. Leaving out any consideration of holidays, the American school year usually amounts to one hundred eighty days, while in Norway they have two hundred and forty days of school. In other words, eight years of primary school and four years of high school in America represent only three-fourths as many days of instruction and study as are included in five years of primary school, four years of middle school, and three years of gymnasium in Norway. That is to say, to provide the same number of days of instruction it would take sixteen school years in America to equal twelve in Norway.
The specialization which characterizes the work of the students upon entrance to the Norwegian university brings their study within much narrower limits than that of our ordinary juniors in college. Their general cultural education concludes with the taking ofartiumwhile ours usually continues throughout the liberal arts course in college or until the degree of Bachelor of Arts has been received. A certain amount of specialization is common among our students during the later years of their college education, but it covers a wider range than in Norway and the greater portion of it is reserved for post graduate courses. In Norway the professional studies are taken up without any preliminaries immediately upon entrance to the university. In the better professional schools of America, one, two, or three years of collegiate work is required as a preparation for entrance.
The highest educational authority of Norway is vested in the Department of Ecclesiastical and Educational Affairs (Kirke-og Undervisnings-Departmentet), and the chief functionary in this department of government is a member of the King's cabinet (Statsraad). The work of the department is separated into two divisions, one of which supervises the ecclesiastical activities and the other the educational work of the country. This latter division is again separated into two bureaus, one having charge of primary education andthe other being in control of secondary educational affairs. These bureaus perform the functions usually devolving upon such offices, the work being largely clerical. In addition there are the diocesan directors (Stift Direktorer) bearing the immediate responsibilities in primary education, and a state educational commission (Undervisningsraad) having large authority in secondary education.
Next to the department itself the school directors have authority over primary education. In fact the director has all but complete control in his territory even though the department is recognized as having the higher authority or powers. The King's cabinet appoints seven directors for the six dioceses into which the state is divided; two for the most northern, because of its greater extent, and one for each of the other five. The directors are paid by the state and are amenable only to the state, hence they exercise their powers in an endeavor to effect the best possible results educationally without fear or favor of local influences. They act independently in their respective territories and do not constitute a committee in any sense whatever.
The commission having chief oversight of secondary education consists of seven men appointed by the King's cabinet. They are chosen because of their efficiency in educational affairs without regard to the part of the country to which they belong.[10]They work always as a committee, and as experts serve the statefor the general welfare of secondary education. The many privileges and duties exercised by this commission may be grouped together under the heads of inspection and supervision of secondary schools, and arrangements for having examinations. Several of the men constituting this commission are at the same time rectors of leading secondary schools in the country. In fact they are chosen because of their familiarity with and expertness in just such kind of work. When it becomes necessary to seek advice in hygienic questions a physician of recognized ability is added to the commission. His judgment and instruction are respected and adhered to very closely.
The rural communes are divided into school districts or circles (Skolekredser). Each district supports and maintains a primary school with at least two divisions—an infant school (Smaaskole) for children from seven to ten years of age, and a higher one designed for children from ten to fourteen years of age. In districts where distances are great or roadways difficult, two or more infant schools are provided.
Companies operating one or more manufacturing establishments or industrial concerns, and generally employing thirty or more laborers, are required to provide a primary school for the children of the men in their employ. When once started these schools are to be kept up unless the number of the employed is reduced below twenty. In case there are other children who desire to attend such school, they shall have the right to do so providing it does not interfere with the instruction of those for whom the school was established.In return for this the school treasury receives from the communal treasury a yearly amount proportioned to the total cost for all pupils in the school.[11]
While the law requires that instruction shall be provided six days in the week for at least twelve weeks each year, it also grants to the communes the privilege of extending the time to fifteen weeks.[B] It further provides the right to maintain six weeks additional, voluntary instruction each year.[12]These privileges are generally taken advantage of by both communes and pupils. The communes desire the extension of time for school, and the pupils are very glad of the opportunity to attend the extra time, even though their presence is not compulsory. In fact the compulsory education law has been so rigidly enforced for so long a time that regular attendance has become habitual, and the exact provisions and requirements of the law are rarely thought of by the pupils. There is, in reality, no law requiring children to attend the schools provided by the state, but a certain amount of education is obligatory. It is mandatory that schools be maintained in all of the districts, but individual children may receive their instruction in private schools if they choose, so long as educational requirements are met from year to year. Pupils who belong to the schools are required to be in attendance regularly, and children who receive instruction elsewhere than in the state schools must meet the requirements calculated to bring them to a certain educational standard by the time they are fifteenyears of age. Failure in this subjects parents, guardians, and those providing schools for children of laborers in their employ to fine or imprisonment.[13]
The work in the infant school includes or amounts to thirty lessons per week while in the higher one there are thirty-six lessons. Accordingly, the pupils in the lower grades receive a minimum of three hundred sixty lessons a year, and this number may be increased to four hundred fifty or six hundred thirty. In the higher grades they have at least four hundred thirty-two lessons a year, and if the time is extended they have five hundred forty or seven hundred fifty-six lessons a year.
Each rural commune has its own school board (Skolestyret) consisting of a priest; the chairman of the municipal council; one or two teachers[14]chosen by the body of teachers; as many other members (men or women) as the communal council deems it advisable to select; and the rectors of higher schools, if there be any,under the supervision and inspection of the school board.
In the towns and cities the school board consists of at least one priest[15]; a member of the city's executive council;[16]as many other members chosen for three years as the municipal council deems it advisable to select, at least half of whom must be chosen from among parents who at the time of election have children in the city primary schools; one or two teachers;[17]and, wherever the school board controls higher schools, the rectors of such schools.
The members of the school board select their own chairman and act together as a committee or board. Among its more important duties are appointment of teachers and special committees, provision of course of study with specific instructions regarding its presentation, and the estimation of sums of money necessary to meet demands in the maintenance of the schools for theyear. This estimate of expenses is sent by the board each year to the communal council which has charge of the dispensing of finances for the commune.
The course of study, including the plan of instruction and directions regarding the supervision of the schools as given by the board, is minutely detailed and specifically stated. It includes a list of studies to be pursued, the manner and order of their presentation, and the number of hours per week to be devoted to each subject; an outline of arrangements for entrance, promotion, and leaving examinations, with provisions for exemption therefrom wherever such is deemed advisable; all necessary arrangements for vacations; and other matters considered essential in the maintenance and carrying on of a school.
For each primary school, or for the several schools, using the same building, the board appoints a committee of inspection (Tilsynsutvalg). This committee consists of a member of the school board (chosen by the board), who is chairman of the committee, and three other members. These latter members are chosen in the city by the parents of children attending the school, and in the rural districts by such parents and other taxpayers. A priest appointed by church authority is added to committees serving town or city schools.
This committee of inspection exercises constant oversight of the school, keeping the board informed with reference to all matters requiring attention by that body. By the consent of the communal council this committee may have an amount provided from the school funds for its use in carrying out its work. Theinspection is with special reference to the physical and moral well-being of those connected with the institution. Among the special objects of its endeavors may be enumerated the solving of all hygienic questions, regular attendance, good discipline, and proper moral conduct. The committee must also see to it that children of school age, not in attendance at the state primary schools, receive instruction in such quantity and of such quality as to meet all state requirements. In general it is an outstretched arm of the school board, feeling after the betterment of the common schools in every possible direction.
Another committee (called the school committee—Skoleraad) is appointed by the school board for each of the primary schools in the city. The duties of the two committees are in a way complementary. While the committee of inspection is occupied in matters external in large measure, the school committee exercises functions more pedagogical in nature, though it also has general watch care over the affairs of the school. If there be a superintendent of schools (Skoleinspektor), he is a memberex officioof the school committee, and its chairman. Under other conditions the school board designates which of the appointed members of the committee shall be its chairman. In towns where the number of teachers exceeds sixty, the school board may direct that the school committee shall consist of the superintendent and the principals of the several schools asex officiomembers and any determined number of other teachers selected by the body of teachers. The elected members are to be male and female in proportionto their respective numbers on the teaching staff, exclusive of those who areex officiomembers of the committee. The sexes separate into special meetings for the purpose of election, each choosing its allotted number of representatives. Election is for two years, one-half retiring each year, the first time according to lot. Members whose terms expire are required to serve longer in case of re-election. This school committee holds regular meetings, according to its own appointment, at which the members are required to be present. Furthermore, the chairman may call additional meetings in cases of necessity, and he is required to call special meetings when requested by the school board to do so. A majority vote of the members is sufficient for the passage of any proposition. While the duties of this committee are not specifically outlined, it is intended that its work shall concern chiefly the internal workings of the schools. Its functions are mainly pedagogical in character as already stated and as evidenced in the following provisions in the law. "The school board shall permit the school committee to voice its opinions in every affair which concerns: (1) the general supervision of primary schools, (2) general provisions concerning regulations and discipline, and (3) text books and outlines of instruction." In addition the committee is required to express itself regarding any matter relating to the good of the school when asked by the board for advice.
The school board may also order that there be a teachers' commission (Laererraad) for each school or for the several schools using the same buildings, consistingof the teachers in the school. The chairman of this committee is the superintendent of schools, a school principal, or other member, according to the determination of the board. The duties devolving upon this commission are in each case outlined by the board.
The superintendent of schools (Skoleinspektor) has general direction of all the primary schools in the city system. His duties are similar to those of the superintendent in American towns and cities. He takes the lead in directing the policies of the schools and exercises large powers in making them efficient. He is provided with well-equipped offices, generally in one of the school buildings, where he and his clerks, supplied by the school board, do the greater portion of their work.
A principal or headmaster (Overlaerer) is generally placed in charge of each school. His duties are comparable to those performed by ward principals in the United States. While the superintendent is the superior officer and exercises general control and authority, the principal has immediate charge of the work of the school. He controls its activities in harmony with and under the direction of the superintendent, consulting the wishes of the higher official and respecting his opinions. The superintendent recognizes that for the one in immediate charge of a school to have his hands tied or his liberties too circumscribed means the hampering of the work; hence, he gives to the principals working under him wide latitude in carrying out their ideas. For example, if the principal is a believer incoeducation or, on the other hand, a staunch advocate of segregation of the sexes for instructional purposes, he is usually privileged to carry his policy into execution in his school, even though the views of the superintendent are not wholly in accord therewith. Throughout their work they seek each other's counsel and advice, and cooperate successfully.
The private citizen in Norway plays only an indirect part in school affairs, yet his interests are conserved in various ways. The local pastor, who is a memberex officioof the school board, generally guards the interests of the masses. His influence and vote may be regarded usually as a reflection of the popular mind. The chairman of the municipal council, who also is a member of the board by virtue of his position, is indirectly the choice of the people. The teacher or teachers chosen to occupy on the school board nearly always work in harmony with the public will. The committee of inspection has a majority of its members chosen directly by vote of the people immediately concerned. The press is free and educational movements are continually discussed in the leading papers. Further than this, educational affairs are common topics of conversation, being talked of on all occasions under various circumstances and conditions. It may be said to their credit that those discussing these subjects do so intelligently and critically. The masses are alive to the educational situation, are intensely interested in their schools, and are acquainted with the provisions of the law concerning them. The people being so democratic in tendency and so very frank inthe expression of their feelings and opinions, naturally reflect public sentiment; which because of being understood has more weight and is correspondingly a greater factor in legislative activities.
The primary schools receive their financial support from the state, county, and commune. The state provides for city schools one-third of straight salaries, which range between twelve hundred and fourteen hundred crowns for men, and between eight hundred and nine hundred crowns for women; two-thirds of additional salary paid because of long service to the limit of eight hundred crowns per year for men and five hundred crowns per year for women; and one-third of salaries paid for positions requiring only part time, for teaching by the hour, and for teaching in continuation schools. In certain cases where the treasuries are depleted the state treasury furnishes as high as forty-five per cent of teachers' salaries within the fixed limits mentioned above. In the rural communes the grant received from the state amounts to forty-five per cent of the teachers' salaries, and where finances are low this amount may be increased to sixty per cent. The amount of this state grant is figured on the basis of salaries that do not exceed twenty-four crowns per week in the second or higher division, and nineteen crowns in the first or infant division of the primary school, except in the county of Finnmarken where the bases may be respectively twenty-eight crowns and twenty-two crowns per week.
In each county (Amt) the county council provides funds for the following purposes: raising teachers'salaries in case of long service, erecting school buildings, supplying teachers' homes, paying substitute teachers, purchasing apparatus, relieving communes and municipalities where school expenses are disproportionately high, and maintaining continuation and artisan schools. Whatever is required to defray the expenses of the primary schools, in addition to state and county grants, tuition, receipts from school lands or holdings, etc., is furnished by the commune or municipality through its council.
The secondary schools are either state or communal. The state schools are provided with grounds, buildings, and equipment by the communes in which they are located; the remaining expenses are met by state grants, tuition fees, etc. The expense of maintaining communal schools falls largely upon the communes. The state furnishes one-third of the salaries in both classes of schools, and all additional amounts paid to teachers because of long service. While most of the secondary schools charge regular tuition fees, all of them have funds which supply free scholarships to a number of pupils each year. In some communes they have been able already to provide free middle schools, and it appears at least possible that all state and communal schools may sometime be free. The aim in financing the school system is to equalize the burden of expense as far as possible, and to recognize, at the same time, the efforts of those directly concerned. In order to obtain the best results, authority has been strongly centralized; school boards, communal and county councils, and state officials exercise large discretionary powers.
The school buildings of Norway are justly reputed to be the most magnificent, best located, and finest edifices of the country. They are built of substantial materials according to attractive architectural designs, and are provided with liberal equipment. The larger buildings are usually constructed of stone, brick and stone, or brick and cement; while the smaller ones are built of lumber and stone. In the erection of buildings, great care is exercised to make them spacious and permanent. All materials used are selected because of their durability and suitability to purpose. In order to guarantee the best hygienic conditions, the law provides that buildings must meet the approval of experts in hygiene before they can be used for school purposes. This means that the services of these experts must be secured in getting out designs for school buildings, whether in the erection of new or the remodeling of old ones.
The school buildings are heated by furnaces or stoves. The newer ones are modern in every respect and, of course, have excellent heating systems. Those which have done service for several decades are usually heated by stoves.
The buildings are divided into rooms in such a manner that the daylight nearly always enters from the left or the rear of the pupils when they are seated at their desks. This rule is disregarded only in rare cases. During the short days of winter it is essential to provide artificial light. In cities and large towns they useelectricity for lighting the school buildings; in the country or in small towns, where the municipalities do not maintain any central lighting plant, various devices are installed. Sometimes gasoline is used and again ordinary oil lamps are common. An abundance of light of the best procurable quality is generally provided.
Besides admitting light the outside windows are of use in providing ventilation for the school rooms. They are opened wide during intermissions between classes, so that when the children come in from their exercise on the play grounds they enter an atmosphere nearly as pure and fresh as that out of doors. In addition, many schoolhouses, especially those built recently, have regular ventilating devices.
The class room furniture in Norway, like that used in many other European schools, is about as primitive in design and lacking in attractiveness as anything found in the whole country. Its evolution surely has been greatly retarded. In each room there is a small platform high enough to enable the instructor to see all his pupils with ease. On this platform is a desk and a high chair in which the teacher sits most of the time while giving instruction.
The pupils' seats and desks are made of heavy lumber and attached to a common base. This makes them clumsy, and they appear very queer to one accustomed to the better designs now in use in some countries. Those of recent make are for but one pupil, though older ones, some of which are still in use, accommodate three or four. In construction the seatis generally a solid flat bench with a low back. The desk has a slightly sloping top, a small inconvenient shelf for books, and a receptacle for pencils, pens, rulers, and other articles used by school children. The Norwegians deserve commendation for the care exercised in the arrangement of seats and desks. The distance and proportion between them are regulated according to scientific principles looking to the physical welfare of the occupants. The bodily posture of children in school determines in large measure what it will be out of school. Far too little attention has been given the physical side of education, and one of the important problems in connection therewith is the proper construction of schoolroom furniture.
In the smaller buildings, classrooms have commodious cupboards for apparatus (maps, charts, globes, plates, etc.), and various things with which the children work (sewing materials, exercise books, etc.). While they have a liberal supply of excellent illustrative material and teaching apparatus and the best of facilities for storing it, mechanical appliances for its display and devices for its convenient use are woefully lacking. Maps and charts are held in the hand or hung on a nail or other fixture in the room; while globes and the like are placed on chairs or improvised stands. In general the apparatus is awkward to manipulate and as a result much of its value is lost.