No book has furnished a wider field for the speculation and visionary projects of those who substitute their own imagination and enthusiastic feelings for the teaching of Scripture, than the Song of Solomon; the varieties and absurdities of which are a solemn warning against departing from the rules of sound philology and critical interpretation.An enumeration of all the different interpretations of this Song would be too lengthy, and is not required. It will be sufficient to glance at the leading expositions. We begin with the Jewish.[21]323–246,B.C.18It has been supposed that the Septuagint, which may be regarded as the oldest Jewish exegetical tradition, contains some intimation that the translators of the Old Testament into Greek and their Jewish brethren of those days must have interpreted the Song of Solomon in an allegorical manner. The only passage adduced in corroboration of this opinion is, Ch. iv. 8, where the Septuagint rendersמֵראֹשׁ אֲמָנָהfrom the top of Amana, byἀπὸἀρχῆςπίστεως,from the top of faith. That this appeal is nugatory is obvious from the rendering ofתִּרְצָהTirzahbyεὐδοκία,delight, vi. 4, and ofבַּתנָדִיבnoble daughterbyθύγατερ Ναδάβ,daughter of Nadab, vii. 1; whence it is evident that the Septuagint frequently mistookproper namesfor appellatives and adjectives, andvice versâ. It appears inconceivable that a profound scholar like Keil, who is well acquainted with the frequent errors of the Septuagint, should quote this as a special and sufficient proof that “the Alexandrian version took this Song in an allegorical sense,”19especially as he knew that some have drawn from it the very opposite conclusion, who have argued that if the authors of the Septuagint had understood this book in any other than its obvious sense, they would have betrayed it in the translation.20180,B.C.Jesus Sirach, xlvii. 14–17, is next adduced as furnishing some clue to the Jewish interpretation of this book. Ecclesiasticus, according to some, is a name given to itκατ’ ἐξοχὴν, because of its being the most remarkable and useful of the ecclesiastical or apocryphal books; others say it was so called from its resemblance to Solomon’sEcclesiastes, and others, again, with more probability, that this name was given to it by the Latins, to denoteits use in the church. Its Greek name, however,Σοφία Ἰησοῦ υἱοῦ Σειράχ,wisdom of Jesus[22]son of Sirach, is more appropriate. It specifies at once the author, who mentions his own name in Ch. l. 27. The age given to the book here, is that which is thought most probable.21This apocryphal writer says in his apostrophe to Solomon,—“How wise wast thou in thy youth, and, as a flood, filled with understanding! Thy mind covered the earth, and thou filledst it with enigmatic sayings. Thy name went forth to the distant isles, and thou wast beloved for thy peace. Countries admired thee for songs, and proverbs, and enigmas, and solutions.” The 17th verse is supposed to include the whole writings of Solomon contained in the Old Testament; and it is affirmed thatπαραβολαὶ αἰνιγμάτωνin verse 15, cannot be understood to mean the Proverbs (παροιμία) since these are separately mentioned in verse 17, hence it follows that they refer to the allegorical interpretation of this Song.22Even Hengstenberg, who, though a defender of the allegorical interpretation, remarks,23“Sirach xlvii. 17, has wrongly been referred to in support of the allegorical interpretation. For the wordsἐν ᾠδαῖς καὶ παροίμιαις καὶ παραβολαῖς καὶ ἐν ἑρμηνείαις ἀπεθαύμασάν σε χῶραιdepend upon the historical narration in the Books of the Kings, and do not refer to the writings comprised in the Canon. This is evident from the mention of theἑρμηνείαι, wherebythe solutionsof the enigmas in contradistinction to the enigmas themselves, can alone be meant. Comp. 1 Kings x. 1–3. Whereas in the Canon no suchἑρμηνείαιare to be found. Verse 15, in which Keil finds a special reference to the allegorical interpretation, likewise alludes to 1 Kings x., especially to verse 24.”120,B.C.The Book of Wisdom has also been supposed to contain a clue to the interpretation of this Song. The author and the age of the Book are points of great contest.[23]All that can be concluded with any degree of probability is, that the author was an Alexandrian Jew, who lived after the transplanting of the Greek philosophy into Egypt, and that he seems to refer to the oppression of the later Ptolemies.24In ch. viii. 2, Solomon is represented as speaking to Wisdom; “Her I loved and sought from my youth, I sought to bring her home for my bride, and I became a lover of her beauty.” Because Solomon is here made to speak of Wisdom as his bride, it has been maintained to be an explanation of the Song of Songs, as though the brides were necessarily the same.25Let any impartial reader peruse the description of Wisdom in the chapter quoted, and that of the bride in the Song of Songs, and he will be convinced that there is no intentional resemblance whatever.37–95,A.D.Josephus is also said to have understood this Song in an allegorical sense, although it is not in a single instance quoted by him. His arrangement of the Books of the Old Testament is the only ground of this argument. It is said, as he26mentions twenty-two books which are justly accredited as Divine, (τὰ δικαίως θεῖα πεπιστευμένα) and describes five as belonging to Moses, thirteen to the Prophets, and the remaining four as containing hymns to God, and rules of life for men (αἱ δὲ λοιπαὶ τέσσαρες ὕμνους εἰς τὸν Θεὸν καὶ τοῖς ἀνθρώποις ὑποθήκας τοῦ βίου περιέχουσιν)viz., the Psalms, Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes, no place is left for this Song except among the Prophets; and if Josephus placed it there, it follows that he must have understood it allegorically.27But were we to admit that Josephus placed this Song among the prophetical writings, we should deny the conclusion attempted to be drawn from it. For according to the same mode of argumentation, we might infer that Josephus understood[24]Ruth and Esther allegorically, for he also places these books among the prophetical writings. The fact is, that this historian, as he tells us himself, reckons the historical books among the prophetical ones. But we demur to the assertion that Josephus put this Song among the prophetical writings; it is far more likely that he placed it among the four books which he describes as consisting of hymns to God and precepts for the life of men.28We come now to the Talmud, in which passages from this Song are quoted and interpreted. This elaborate work, consists of what is called theMishna, constituting the text, and theGemara, which is a commentary upon it, derived from two sources,viz.—Jerusalem and Babylon. The Jews, from time immemorial, had anunwrittenlawתּוֹרָה שֶׁבַּעַל פֶּהδόγματα ἄγραφα, in addition to thewrittenone,תּוֹרָה שֶׁבַּכְּתָב,ἔγγραφος, contained in the Pentateuch. Hillel of Babylon (born 75B.C.), who, next to Ezra, was celebrated by posterity as the restorer of the law,29first arranged and divided this oral law into six parts:—1, concerning sowing; 2, women; 3, festivals; 4, the rights of property; 5, holy things; 6, pure and impure things. This, which comprises everything that appertains to the Jewish law, was calledמִשְׁנָהMishna,δευτέρωσις, or the second recension of the law. In order to reconcile the Sadducees, who denied every law not founded on Holy Writ, Hillel laid down seven hermeneutic rules, whereby the Scriptures might be interpreted in such a manner that the oral law could be deduced from it.30When fears were afterwards entertained lest the oral tradition should be lost, Rabbi Judah Hakkadosh (i.e.holy), in the year 220A.D., collected everything that had been said upon the subject, preserving the division of Hillel, and probably making some additions of his[25]own. This he did in a manner so masterly and satisfactory, that it superseded every other previous attempt, and constitutes the presentMishna.TheMishnabecame the chief object of study. The rules of Hillel were increased and much acted on; expositions were given upon the reasons that led to the decisions in the Mishna; the expounders were calledאֲמוֹרָאִיםAmoraim,public lecturers, and the expositionגְמָרָאGemara.After the death of Judah, many of his learned disciples, objecting to the appointment of his second son Gamaliel, to his father’s office, emigrated to Babylon, and having erected schools there, pursued the study of the Mishna. The academy they established in Sura rivalled the one in Tiberias. The Gemara of Tiberias, collated about 358 (A.D.) by an unknown individual, is calledTalmud Jerushalmi; and the Gemara of Sura, the compilation of which was begun by R. Ashe (352–427), continued by his disciple and friend, Rabina, and finished about 525, is calledTalmud Babli. The latter surpasses the former in comprehensiveness, perspicuity, and depth, is about four times as large, and fills 2947 folio pages. Both united are calledThe Talmudתַּלְמוּדbook of instruction; and alsoגְמָרָאGemara. It contains the civil and ceremonial law, debates on various branches of art and science, moral sayings, anecdotes, expositions on different passages of Scripture, &c.31100–500,A.D.—In Yadaim, (Sect. iii. 5.) we find that R. Akiba, one of the greatest Rabbins who lived in the first century, and president of the Academy of Bai-Barc, said, “The whole world was not worthy of the day in which this sublime Song was given to Israel; for all the Scriptures are holy, but this sublime Song is most holy.” There can, therefore, be no doubt that the mysteries which this distinguished Rabbi found in the Song of Songs, he regarded as greater than those he discovered in any other portion of the Sacred Scriptures.[26]Subsequent Rabbins quote and explain different passages. Thus, Ch. i. 2 is discussed in Abodah Sarah (Sect. 2, p. 35). It is asked, “How are the words, ‘Thy love is better than wine’ understood?” Answer:When Rabbi Dimi came to Babylon, he said, “This verse is thus understood: the Congregation of Israel said to God, ‘Lord of the Universe, the words of thy friends (namely, the sages) are more excellent than even the wine of the Law.’”Here we see that the beloved is taken to beGod, and the loved onethe Congregation of Israel.Ch. i. 3, is quoted and expounded, a little further on, in the same tract of the Talmud, in the following manner. “R. Nachman ben R. Chasdah once said, in his discourse, the words ‘Delicious is the odour of thy perfumes,’ denote a learned man; for such an one is like a box of perfumes; if it is covered up, no one can smell the perfumes, but when it is opened the odour becomes widely diffused. It is so with a learned man without disciples, no one knows of his learning; but if he gets a circle of disciples his name and his learning become widely diffused. And not only this, but he himself will increase learning by teaching, so that things which he formerly did not understand will now become plain to him; for it is written in the same verseעלמות אהבוךDAMSELS LOVE THEE;readעלומותHIDDEN THINGSwill love thee, i.e.,will become plain to thee; and not only this, but even the angel of death will love him; read thenעל־מותHE WHO IS OVER DEATHwill love thee; and still more, he will inherit both worlds, this world and the world to come; read alsoעולמותWORLDSlove thee.”Ch. i. 13, 14, and v. 13, are quoted and explained in Sabbath, p. 88, b., “Rabbi Joshuah ben Levi saith, What is meant byצרור המור דודי לי בין שדי יליןis the congregation of Israel, who is saying before the Holy One thus: O Lord, though my beloved (i.e. God) oppresses me, and is embittered against me, yet he still lodges with me.Byאשכול הכופר דודי לי בכרמי עין גדיis meant, He who is the owner of all things, will forgive me the[27]sin of the calf, with which I covered myself.A question is raised,How doesבכרמיsignify my covering?Then Rabbi Mar-Sutra ben Rabbi Nachman quotesכסא של כובס שכורמי עליו את הכלאםfrom another part of the Talmud (Kelim 35), whereכרםmeansto cover. R. Joshuah ben Levi proceeds,What is meant byלחייו כערוגת הבושםis, At every commandment which proceedeth from the mouth of the Holy One on Mount Sinai, the world was filled with aromatics.A question is asked,If the world was filled at the first commandment, where was the odour diffused at the second commandment?Answer,The Holy One sent his wind from his stores, and carried them away successively, as it is written,שפתותיו שושניםdo not readשושניםbutששוניםrepeating in succession.Rabbi Joshuah ben Levi concludes,At every commandment uttered by the mouth of the Holy One, the soul of Israel was drawn out of them, as it is written, ‘My soul went out when he spake.’A question is again asked,If their soul was drawn out at the first commandment, how could they receive the second?Answer.He (i.e. God) caused the dew to come down, by which he will raise the dead, and revived them, as it is written, ‘Thou, O God, didst send a plentiful rain, whereby thou didst confirm thine inheritance, when it was weary.’” Ps. lxviii. 9.32Here, again, we see that the bridegroom is taken to be the Holy One, the Owner of all things, and the bride the congregation of Israel. The reader, looking into the text of the Talmud quoted in the note, will observe that most of this interpretation has been obtained, either by the separation of words, the transposition and change of letters, or by substituting[28]in the commentary words, similar in sound to those in the Scriptures. Thus,צרורa bundle, a bag, is explained byמיצרoppress;מורmyrrhbyמימרembitter;אשכולa clusterbyאיש שהכל לוHe whose are all things;כופרcypress flowersbyכפרpardon;עין גדיEn-gedibyעון עגלthe sin of the calf.This mode of interpretation is not confined to the Song of Songs, but is applied to all parts of the Bible, and is an illustration of the way in which the hermeneutic rules laid down by Rabbi Hillel, and augmented by R. Ishmael, and others, were carried out.550,A.D.—The Targum or Chaldee paraphrase is the first entire commentary upon the Song of Songs which has been handed down to us. The author is unknown. Kitto erroneously affirms, that it was “made several centuries before the time of Christ, and probably before the traditionary interpretation of the author himself (i.e.the author of this Song) would entirely be lost.”33The inferior style in which it is written, the copious use it makes of legends of a very late date, and especially the mention it makes of theGemara(Ch. i. 2), which was not completed till nearly the middle ofthe sixth century, prove most distinctly that this paraphrase was made in the sixth century. Hävernick,34however, is equally wrong in affirming that the Mahomedans are mentioned in Ch. i. 7. Thatthe sons of Ishmaelhere alluded to are not the Mahomedans, is evident from Ch. vi. 7. of the same paraphrase, where we are told that theseבְּנוֹי דְיִשְׁמָעֵאלheaded by Alexander the Great, came to wage war against Jerusalem at the time of the Maccabees.The Targum takes the Song of Songs as an allegory, describing prophetically the history of the Jewish nation, beginning with their Exodus from Egypt, and detailing their doings and sufferings, down to the coming of the Messiah, and the building of the third Temple.[29]Thus, according to this allegory, Ch. i. 3, describes Jehovah’s fame, which went abroad in consequence of the wonders he wrought when bringing the Israelites out of Egypt; verse 12 describes the departure of Moses to receive the two tables of stone, and how the Israelites, in the mean time, made the golden calf; verse 14 describes the pardon of that sin, and the erection of the Tabernacle; Ch. iii. 6–11, describes the passage of the Israelites, under the leadership of Joshua, over the Jordan, their attacking and conquering the Canaanites, and the building of Solomon’s Temple; Ch. v. 2, describes the Babylonian captivity; Ch. vi. 2, the deliverance of Israel through Cyrus; and the building of the second Temple; Ch. vi. 7, &c., describes the battles of the Maccabees; Ch. vii. 11, 12, the present dispersion of the Jews, and their future anxiety to learn the time of their restoration; Ch. viii. 5, &c., describes the resurrection of the dead, the final ingathering of Israel, the building of the third Temple, &c., &c.“The beloved,” according to the Targum, isthe Lord; “the loved one” isthe Congregation of Israel; “the companions of the beloved” (Ch. i. 7) arethe Edomites and the Ishmaelites; “the daughters of Jerusalem” are, in Ch. i. 5,the Gentile nations; in ii. 7, iii. 5, viii. 4,the Congregation of Israel; and in v. 8,the prophets; “the brothers of the loved one” arethe false prophets; “the little sister,” in viii. 8, isthe people of Israel; the speakers in the same verse arethe angels; the speaker in viii. 13, isthe Lord; “the companions,” in the same verse arethe Sanhedrim.The following specimen of the Targum, on the first chapter of this Song, will give the reader an idea of the way in which the paraphrase develops the allegorical construction of this book.1.The Song of Songs, &c.—The songs and praises which Solomon the prophet, King of Israel, sang, by the spirit of prophecy, before God, the Lord of the whole world. Ten songs weresungin this world, but this song is the most celebrated of them all. Thefirstsong Adam sang when his sins were forgiven him, and when the sabbath-day came, and protected him, he opened his mouth and said, “A song for the sabbath-day,”&c. (Ps. xcii.) Thesecondsong Moses and the children of Israel sang when the[30]Lord of the world divided the Red Sea for them, they all opened their mouths and sang as one man, the song, as it is written, “Then sang Moses and the children of Israel.” (Exod. xv. 1.) Thethirdsong the children of Israel sang when the well of water was given to them, as it is written, “Then sang Israel.” (Numb. xxi. 17.) Thefourthsong Moses the prophet sang, when his time came to depart from this world, in which he reproved the people of the house of Israel, as it is written: “Give ear, O heavens, and I will speak.” (Deut. xxxii. 1.) Thefifthsong Joshua the son of Nun sang, when he waged war in Gibeon, and the sun and moon stood still for him thirty-six hours, and when they left off singing their song, he himself opened his mouth and sang this song, as it is written: “Then sang Joshua before the Lord.” (Josh. x. 12.) Thesixthsong Barak and Deborah sang in the day when the Lord delivered Sisera and his army into the hands of the children of Israel, as it is written: “Then sang Deborah, &c.” (Judg. v. 11.) Theseventhsong Hannah sang when a son was given her by the Lord, as it is written: “And Hannah prayed prophetically, and said.” (1 Sam. ii. 1, and the Targumin loco.) Theeighthsong David the King of Israel sang for all the wonders which the Lord did for him. He opened his mouth and sang a hymn, as it is written: “And David sang in prophecy before the Lord.” (2 Sam. xxii. 1, and the Targumin loco.) Theninthsong Solomon the King of Israel sang by the Holy Spirit before God, the Lord of the whole world. And thetenthsong the children of the captivity shall sing when they shall be delivered from their captivity, as it is written and declared by Isaiah the prophet: “This song shall be unto you for joy, as in the night in which the feast of the passover is celebrated; and gladness of heart as when the people go to appear before the Lord three times in the year, with all kinds of music, and with the sound of the timbrel, to go up to the mountain of the Lord, and to worship before the Lord, the Mighty One of Israel.” (Is. xxx. 29, and the Targumin loco.)2.Let him kiss me, &c.—Solomon the prophet said, “Blessed be the name of the Lord who has given us the law through Moses the great scribe, written upon two tables of stone; and the six parts of the Mishna and the Talmud traditionally, and who spoke with us face to face, as a man that kissed his friend, because of his great love wherewith he loved us above the seventy nations.”353.Thy perfumes, &c.—At the report of thy wonders and mighty deeds which thou hast done for thy people the house of Israel, all the nations trembled who heard of thy famous strength, and thy great miracles; and in all the earth was heard thy holy name, which is more excellent than the anointing oil that was poured upon the heads of kings and priests; therefore the righteous love to walk after thy good way, because they shall inherit both this world and the world to come.4.Draw me, &c.—When the people of the house of Israel went out of Egypt the shechinah of the Lord of the world went before them in a pillar of cloud by day, and in a pillar of fire by night, and the righteous of that[31]generation said, Lord of the whole world, draw us after thee, and we will run in thy good way! Bring us to the foot of Mount Sinai, and give us thy law out of thy treasury in heaven, and we will rejoice and be gladin the twenty-two letters36with which it is written, and we will remember them, and love thy divine nature, and withdraw ourselves from the idols of the nations; and all the righteous, who do that which is right before thee, shall fear thee and love thy commandments.5.I am swarthy, &c.—When the house of Israel made the calf, their faces became black, like the sons of Cush, who dwelt in the tents of Kedar; but when they returned by repentance, and were forgiven, the shining splendour of their faces was increased to that of angels, because they made the curtains for the tabernacle, and the shechinah of the Lord dwelt among them; and Moses, their teacher, went up to heaven and made peace between them and their King.6.Do not look down upon me, &c.—The congregation of Israel said before all the nations, Do not despise me because I am blacker than you, for I have done your deeds, and worshipped the sun and moon; for false prophets have been the cause that the fierce anger of the Lord has come upon me, and they taught me to worship your idols, and to walk in your laws; but the Lord of the world, who is my God, I did not serve, and did not walk in his precepts, and did not keep his commandments and laws.7.Tell me, &c.—When the time came for Moses the prophet to depart from this world, he said to the Lord, It is revealed to me that this people will sin, and be carried into captivity; show me now how they shall be governed and dwell among the nations, whose decrees are oppressive as the heat and the scorching sun in the summer solstice, and wherefore is it that they shall wander among the flocks of the sons of Esau and Ishmael, who make their idols equal to thee, as though they were thy companions.8.If thou knowest not, &c.—The Holy One, blessed be his name, said to Moses, the prophet, “I suffer myself to be entreated to abolish their captivity; the congregation of Israel, which is like a fair damsel, and which my soul loves, she shall walk in the ways of the righteous, and shall order her prayers according to the order of her governors and leaders, and instruct her children, who are like to the kids of the goats, to go to the synagogue and the schools; and by the merits of this they shall be governed in the captivity, until the time that I send King Messiah, and he shall lead them quietly to their habitations; yea, he shall bring them to the house of the sanctuary, which David and Solomon, the shepherds of Israel, shall build for them.”9.I compare thee, &c.—When Israel went out of Egypt, Pharaoh and his hosts pursued after them with chariots and horsemen, and their way was shut up on the four sides of them; on the right hand and on the left were wildernesses full of fiery serpents, and behind them was wicked Pharaoh with his army, and before them was the Red Sea, what did the holy blessed God do? He was manifested in the power of his might upon the Red Sea, and dried the sea up, but the mud he did not dry up. The wicked and the mixed multitude, and the strangers who were among them,[32]said, The waters of the sea he was able to dry up, but the mud he was not able to dry up. In that very hour the fierce anger of the Lord came upon them, and he sought to drown them in the waters of the sea, as Pharaoh, and his army, and his chariots, and his horsemen, and his horses were drowned, had it not been for Moses the Prophet, who spread his hands in prayer before the Lord, and turned away the anger of the Lord from them. Then he and the righteous of that generation opened their mouths, and sang a song, and passed through the Red Sea on dry land, through the merits of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the beloved of the Lord.10.Beautiful are thy cheeks, &c.—When they went out into the wilderness the Lord said to Moses, “How comely is this people, that the words of the law should be given unto them, and they shall be as a bridle in their jaws, that they may not depart out of the good way, as a horse turneth not aside that has a bridle in his jaws; and how fair is their neck to bear the yoke of my commandments; and it shall be upon them as a yoke upon the neck of a bullock which plougheth in the field, and feeds both itself and its owner.”11.Circlets of gold, &c.—Then was it said to Moses, “Go up into heaven, and I will give thee the two tables of stone, hewn out of the sapphire of the throne of my glory, shining as the best gold, disposed in rows, written with my finger, on which are engraven the ten commandments, purer than silver that is purified seven times seven, which is the number of the things explained in them in forty-nine various ways, and I shall give them by thy hands to the people of the house of Israel.”12.While the King, &c.—Whilst Moses, their teacher, was in heaven to receive the two tables of stone, and the law and the commandments, the wicked of that generation and the mixed multitude that was among them rose up and made a golden calf, and caused their works to stink, and an evil report of them went out in the world; for before this time a fragrant odour of them was diffused in the world, but afterwards they stank like nard, the smell of which is very bad, and the plague of leprosy came down upon their flesh.13.A bag of myrrh, &c.—At that time the Lord said to Moses, “Go down, for the people have corrupted themselves, desist from speaking to me, and I will destroy them.” Then Moses returned and asked mercy of the Lord, and the Lord remembered for them the binding of Isaac, whom his father bound, on Mount Moriah, upon the altar; and the Lord turned from his fierce anger, and caused his shechinah to dwell among them as before.14.A bunch of cypress flowers, &c.—So then went Moses down with the two tables of stone in his hands; and, because of the sins of Israel, his hands grew heavy, and the tables fell and were broken. Then went Moses and ground the calf to powder, and scattered the dust of it upon the brook, and made the children of Israel to drink it, and slew all that deserved to die, and went up a second time into heaven, and prayed before the Lord, and made atonement for the children of Israel; then was the commandment to make a tabernacle and an ark. Immediately Moses hastened and made the tabernacle, and all its furniture, and the ark; and he put in the ark the two other tables, and appointed the sons of Aaron, the priests, to offer the offerings upon the altar, and to pour the wine upon the offerings;[33]but from whence had they wine to pour? For in the wilderness they had no proper place for sowing; neither had they fig-trees, nor vines, nor pomegranates; but they went to the vineyards of En-gedi, and took clusters of grapes from thence, and pressed wine out of them, and poured it upon the altar, the fourth part of a hin to one lamb.15.Behold thou art beautiful, &c.—When the children of Israel performed the will of their King, he himself praised them in the family of the holy angels, and said, “How fair are thy works, my daughter, my beloved, O congregation of Israel, in the time that thou doest my will, and studiest in the words of my law; and how well ordered are thy works and thy affairs, as young doves that are fit to be offered upon the altar!”16.Behold thou art comely, &c.—The congregation of Israel answered before the Lord of the world, and thus said, “How fair is the shechinah of thy holiness, when thou dwellest among us, and receivest prayers with acceptance; and when thou dwellest in our beloved bed, and our children are multiplied in the world, and we increase and multiply like a tree that is planted by a stream of water, whose leaf is fair, and whose fruit is plenteous!”17.The beams of, &c.—Solomon, the prophet, said, “How beautiful is the house of the sanctuary of the Lord, which is built by my hands, of wood of Gulmish; but far more beautiful will be the house of the sanctuary which shall be built in the days of the King Messiah, the beams of which will be of the cedars of the garden of Eden, and whose rafters will be of cypress, pine, and box.”The precedent of the Talmud in taking the beloved asthe Lord, and the loved one asthe Congregation of Israel, and in explaining the text in such a manner as to make it square with her doings, has quite prepared us for the Chaldee exposition, the author of which most probably was himself one of the later Talmudists. How could the paraphrast do otherwise? “Are not the words ofthe sagesmore excellent than even the wine of the Law?”37“Is not he who transgresses the words of the scribes more guilty than he who transgresses the words of the Law?”38Having, therefore, been once settled by the sages that this Song describes the doings and sufferings of Israel, it only remained for the expositors to apply their exegetical canons, viz.: of transposing, changing, or omitting letters; explaining words by others of a similar sound; making each letter of a word begin another word; reducing an expression to its numerical value, and explaining the text accordingly, &c. &c., in order to palm upon this book, in a consecutive[34]order, the remarkable events in connection with the history of the Jews.Thus, the love of God to Israel, which was greater than to allthe seventy other nationsmentioned in Ch. i. 2, was obtained by reducing the wordייןto its numerical value,seventy;the two worlds, in verse 3, which the pious are to inherit, were obtained by changingעלמותmaidens, intoעולמותworlds, according to the example of the Talmud;39the twenty-two letterswith which the Law is written, in verse 4, were obtained by reducing the wordבךto its numerical value;the Tabernacle, in verse 5, was obtained from the wordירעות, andthe effected peaceby changing the proper nameשלמהintoשלוםpeace; the worship ofthe sun and moon, in verse 6, was obtained from the wordשמשsun;the ploughing bullock, in verse 10, was obtained by changingתוריםringlet, andחרוזיםnecklace, intoתור חרז;the two tables shining as the best gold, verse 11, were obtained by renderingתורי זהבgolden Laws, andthe seven times seven, orthe forty different interpretations of the Law, by reducing the wordזהבto its numerical value,זbeingseven, andהandבseven, and then multiplying seven by seven;the binding of Isaac, in verse 13, was obtained by renderingצרור המורbyערור המוריהthe binding of Moriah;the sin of the calf, andthe atonement of that, in verse 14, were obtained by changingעין גדיEn-gedi, intoעון עגלthe sin of the calf, and by substitutingכפרpardon, forכופרcypress-flower, according to the example of the Talmud.40This is the development of Hagadic exegesis, and this the paraphrase appealed to in support of the allegorical interpretation, and in the track of which future allegorists more or less follow.892–942. From the Chaldee paraphrase to R. Saadias Gaon, a period of about 350 years, thick darkness covers the annals of Jewish literature. With him, however, a new epoch begins to dawn. Saadias was born at Pithom, in Egypt, about the year 892, and died in the year 942. He was “Gaon,” or spiritual head of[35]the Jews in Babylon, and is well known by his translation of the Bible into Arabic, the Pentateuch of which is inserted in Walton’s Polyglott.41Among the many philosophical and exegetical works this eminent man bequeathed to posterity, is a commentary on the Song of Songs, which was originally written in Arabic, and was translated into Hebrew by some unknown individual. This work is exceedingly rare, and I have happily found a copy of the original Constantinople edition in the British Museum, of which Dukes was not aware when he wrote his “Literarische Mittheilungen.” The view that Saadias takes is that “Solomon relates in it the history of the Jews, beginning with their Exodus from Egypt, and extending it beyond the coming of the Messiah.” Thus far he agrees with the Targum, but his commentary on the text is entirely at variance with that paraphrase.According to Saadias, Ch. i. 2–iii. 5, describes the bondage of Israel in Egypt, their liberation, the giving of the Law, the battles with Sihon, Og, and the King of Aroar, the wrath of God at the time of the spies, &c. Ch. iii. 6–iv. 7, describes the erection of the Tabernacle, the various journeys in the wilderness, the high position of Moses and Aaron, &c. Hitherto Israel has been called by the appellationmy loved one, for they had not as yet entered Canaan; henceforth they are calledbride(כלה), because God takes them into the promised land; just as a bridegroom calls his loved onebride, when he takes her home. Ch. iv. 8–v. 1, describes Israel’s entrance into Canaan, the building of the first Temple, the separation of[36]Judah and Israel, the Shechinah departing from Israel and abiding with Judah, and the people coming up to Jerusalem to the three great festivals. Ch. v. 2–vi. 3, describes the rebellion of Israel and Ahaz, God sending prophets to warn them to repent, the destruction of the Temple, the Babylonian captivity, Israel’s liberation, the building of the second Temple, and the covenant of God with his repenting people. Ch. vi. 4–ix. describes the twofold condition of the people that returned from Babylon, some of whom were godly, while others took strange women, forgot the holy language, and were therefore calledשחרdawn, being neither real light nor real darkness, neither pious nor wicked. Ch. vi. 10–vii. 9, refers to the present dispersion, in which the Jews, though being many days without a king, without a priest, &c., say we still live in the fear of God, and are His. Ch. vii. 12–viii. 4, refers to the sufferings of the Messiah ben Joseph, the manifestation of the Messiah ben David, the obedience of Israel to God in those days, and to the Lord’s rejoicing over them as a bridegroom over his bride. Ch. viii. 5, to the end, describes Israel restored, the third Temple built, and all the people walking according to the will of the Lord.The principal persons in this Song are understood in the following manner: “the beloved” isthe Lord; “the loved one,”the Congregation of Israel; “the companions of the beloved,” (Ch. i. 7,) areMoses,Aaron, andMiriam; “the daughters of Jerusalem,”the Congregation of Israel; “the little sister,”the two tribes and a half; “the speaker,”the Lord; “the inhabitant of the gardens,” isthe sages; “the companions,” in the same verse, arethe Israeliteswishing to listen to the teaching of their sages.The following is a specimen of R. Saadias’s commentary, the Hebrew of which is given in the note.421–3.The Song of Songs, &c.—Know, my brother, that you will find a great diversity of opinions as regards the interpretation of this Song of[37]Songs; and it must be confessed that there is reason for it, since the Song of Songs is like a lock, the key of which hath been lost. Some maintain that it refers to the kingdom of Israel; others say that it refers to the days of the Messiah; and others again affirm that it refers to the time of the dispersion and the Messiah, and assert that bybeloved(דוד) the Messiah is meant, and bybride(כלה) is meant the law (תורה). But this is a sin, an error, and a great heresy. The truth is, that bybeloved(דוד) is meantthe Lord, for it is written, “I will sing to my beloved a song of love respecting his vineyard” (Isa. v. 1), which the prophet Isaiah explains (verse 7), “The vineyard of the Lord of Hosts is the house of Israel.” Solomon relates in this book the history of the Jews commencing with their Exodus from Egypt until after the coming of the Messiah, and compares the position of Israel to God to that of a bride to a bridegroom, because she (Israel) is dear to him, and he to her. When he first takes her from her father’s house he calls hermy friend(רעיתי), when he brings her to his house he calls hermy bride(כלה), when she finds favour in his eyes he calls hermy sister(אחותי), and praises her from head to foot; then he is angry with her, and she returns and praises him from head to foot; then he praises her a second time. And, because it is unlawful for a bridegroom and bride to come together without a marriage-contract and witnesses, therefore Solomon begins with the words, “Let him give me kisses of his mouth;” that is, the commandments and the statutes, comprising both the written and the oral law which the Lord gave to Israel through the pious Moses, Aaron, and Miriam, so that Israel’s fame went forth into the world in consequence of their wisdom, as it is written, “And thy renown went forth among the heathen for thy beauty,” &c. (Ezek. xvi. 14), so much so that many of the nations desired to be gathered under the wings of the shechinah and become Jews; and these are the mixed multitudes, Jethro and others, and therefore it is said, “Thy perfumes are good in odour,” that is, the Lord tried them from the departure out of Egypt till their entrance into Canaan whether they would walk in his ways, as it is written, “Thou didst follow me in the wilderness,” &c. Jer. ii. 2.4.Draw me, &c.—Having related in this verse how Israel walked in the fear of the Lord, and received the ten commandments in the 6th of[38]Sivan, and then made the calf on the 17th of Tamuz, Solomon in astonishment says in their name,5.I am swarthy, &c.—That is, I am swarthy, but comely; I am swarthy because of making the calf, but comely because of receiving the ten commandments; and Israel says that his sin has been forgiven through the three thousand men, the wicked among Israel, who served idols, who were killed before the sun to atone for the great sin, as it is written, “For thou hadst done it in secret, but I will do it before all Israel, and before the sun”(2 Sam. xii. 11, 12); and the nations made mekeeperof the service of other gods, for I served strange gods, as it is written, “And they changed their glory into the likeness of a calf that eateth grass” (Psal. cv. 25.)The reader will have observed that this early commentator does already compare the Song of Songsto a lock, the key of which has been lost, and refers to several modes in which it has been interpreted.1000–1040. The allegorical interpretation was nevertheless introduced into the Jewish liturgical services in the middle ages, when they were seeking, from traditions, dogmas, biblical events, &c., to construct sacred hymns and poems to be said or sung at their feasts and fasts.43Being regarded as representing the departure of Israel from Egypt (יציאת מצרים), and their subsequent history in confirmation of Jehovah’s covenant with them, the Song of Songs is used in a poetical paraphrase on the first and second morning services of the Passover feast, which was designed to celebrate the Exodus from Egypt as the commencement of the conjugal relation between God and his people. For the same reason, the book itself is read in the synagogue on the Sabbath of the middle days of the Passover (חול המועד של פסח). The poetical paraphrase above alluded to is in an alphabetical form, has the author’s name in it, and each stanza closes with a quotation from the book in regular order, which renders the paraphrastic meaning artificial and obscure. Some idea of it may be gathered from the following version which we have made of R. Solomon[39]ben Judah Hababli’s paraphrase, comprising the first five verses of the Song of Songs.
No book has furnished a wider field for the speculation and visionary projects of those who substitute their own imagination and enthusiastic feelings for the teaching of Scripture, than the Song of Solomon; the varieties and absurdities of which are a solemn warning against departing from the rules of sound philology and critical interpretation.An enumeration of all the different interpretations of this Song would be too lengthy, and is not required. It will be sufficient to glance at the leading expositions. We begin with the Jewish.[21]323–246,B.C.18It has been supposed that the Septuagint, which may be regarded as the oldest Jewish exegetical tradition, contains some intimation that the translators of the Old Testament into Greek and their Jewish brethren of those days must have interpreted the Song of Solomon in an allegorical manner. The only passage adduced in corroboration of this opinion is, Ch. iv. 8, where the Septuagint rendersמֵראֹשׁ אֲמָנָהfrom the top of Amana, byἀπὸἀρχῆςπίστεως,from the top of faith. That this appeal is nugatory is obvious from the rendering ofתִּרְצָהTirzahbyεὐδοκία,delight, vi. 4, and ofבַּתנָדִיבnoble daughterbyθύγατερ Ναδάβ,daughter of Nadab, vii. 1; whence it is evident that the Septuagint frequently mistookproper namesfor appellatives and adjectives, andvice versâ. It appears inconceivable that a profound scholar like Keil, who is well acquainted with the frequent errors of the Septuagint, should quote this as a special and sufficient proof that “the Alexandrian version took this Song in an allegorical sense,”19especially as he knew that some have drawn from it the very opposite conclusion, who have argued that if the authors of the Septuagint had understood this book in any other than its obvious sense, they would have betrayed it in the translation.20180,B.C.Jesus Sirach, xlvii. 14–17, is next adduced as furnishing some clue to the Jewish interpretation of this book. Ecclesiasticus, according to some, is a name given to itκατ’ ἐξοχὴν, because of its being the most remarkable and useful of the ecclesiastical or apocryphal books; others say it was so called from its resemblance to Solomon’sEcclesiastes, and others, again, with more probability, that this name was given to it by the Latins, to denoteits use in the church. Its Greek name, however,Σοφία Ἰησοῦ υἱοῦ Σειράχ,wisdom of Jesus[22]son of Sirach, is more appropriate. It specifies at once the author, who mentions his own name in Ch. l. 27. The age given to the book here, is that which is thought most probable.21This apocryphal writer says in his apostrophe to Solomon,—“How wise wast thou in thy youth, and, as a flood, filled with understanding! Thy mind covered the earth, and thou filledst it with enigmatic sayings. Thy name went forth to the distant isles, and thou wast beloved for thy peace. Countries admired thee for songs, and proverbs, and enigmas, and solutions.” The 17th verse is supposed to include the whole writings of Solomon contained in the Old Testament; and it is affirmed thatπαραβολαὶ αἰνιγμάτωνin verse 15, cannot be understood to mean the Proverbs (παροιμία) since these are separately mentioned in verse 17, hence it follows that they refer to the allegorical interpretation of this Song.22Even Hengstenberg, who, though a defender of the allegorical interpretation, remarks,23“Sirach xlvii. 17, has wrongly been referred to in support of the allegorical interpretation. For the wordsἐν ᾠδαῖς καὶ παροίμιαις καὶ παραβολαῖς καὶ ἐν ἑρμηνείαις ἀπεθαύμασάν σε χῶραιdepend upon the historical narration in the Books of the Kings, and do not refer to the writings comprised in the Canon. This is evident from the mention of theἑρμηνείαι, wherebythe solutionsof the enigmas in contradistinction to the enigmas themselves, can alone be meant. Comp. 1 Kings x. 1–3. Whereas in the Canon no suchἑρμηνείαιare to be found. Verse 15, in which Keil finds a special reference to the allegorical interpretation, likewise alludes to 1 Kings x., especially to verse 24.”120,B.C.The Book of Wisdom has also been supposed to contain a clue to the interpretation of this Song. The author and the age of the Book are points of great contest.[23]All that can be concluded with any degree of probability is, that the author was an Alexandrian Jew, who lived after the transplanting of the Greek philosophy into Egypt, and that he seems to refer to the oppression of the later Ptolemies.24In ch. viii. 2, Solomon is represented as speaking to Wisdom; “Her I loved and sought from my youth, I sought to bring her home for my bride, and I became a lover of her beauty.” Because Solomon is here made to speak of Wisdom as his bride, it has been maintained to be an explanation of the Song of Songs, as though the brides were necessarily the same.25Let any impartial reader peruse the description of Wisdom in the chapter quoted, and that of the bride in the Song of Songs, and he will be convinced that there is no intentional resemblance whatever.37–95,A.D.Josephus is also said to have understood this Song in an allegorical sense, although it is not in a single instance quoted by him. His arrangement of the Books of the Old Testament is the only ground of this argument. It is said, as he26mentions twenty-two books which are justly accredited as Divine, (τὰ δικαίως θεῖα πεπιστευμένα) and describes five as belonging to Moses, thirteen to the Prophets, and the remaining four as containing hymns to God, and rules of life for men (αἱ δὲ λοιπαὶ τέσσαρες ὕμνους εἰς τὸν Θεὸν καὶ τοῖς ἀνθρώποις ὑποθήκας τοῦ βίου περιέχουσιν)viz., the Psalms, Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes, no place is left for this Song except among the Prophets; and if Josephus placed it there, it follows that he must have understood it allegorically.27But were we to admit that Josephus placed this Song among the prophetical writings, we should deny the conclusion attempted to be drawn from it. For according to the same mode of argumentation, we might infer that Josephus understood[24]Ruth and Esther allegorically, for he also places these books among the prophetical writings. The fact is, that this historian, as he tells us himself, reckons the historical books among the prophetical ones. But we demur to the assertion that Josephus put this Song among the prophetical writings; it is far more likely that he placed it among the four books which he describes as consisting of hymns to God and precepts for the life of men.28We come now to the Talmud, in which passages from this Song are quoted and interpreted. This elaborate work, consists of what is called theMishna, constituting the text, and theGemara, which is a commentary upon it, derived from two sources,viz.—Jerusalem and Babylon. The Jews, from time immemorial, had anunwrittenlawתּוֹרָה שֶׁבַּעַל פֶּהδόγματα ἄγραφα, in addition to thewrittenone,תּוֹרָה שֶׁבַּכְּתָב,ἔγγραφος, contained in the Pentateuch. Hillel of Babylon (born 75B.C.), who, next to Ezra, was celebrated by posterity as the restorer of the law,29first arranged and divided this oral law into six parts:—1, concerning sowing; 2, women; 3, festivals; 4, the rights of property; 5, holy things; 6, pure and impure things. This, which comprises everything that appertains to the Jewish law, was calledמִשְׁנָהMishna,δευτέρωσις, or the second recension of the law. In order to reconcile the Sadducees, who denied every law not founded on Holy Writ, Hillel laid down seven hermeneutic rules, whereby the Scriptures might be interpreted in such a manner that the oral law could be deduced from it.30When fears were afterwards entertained lest the oral tradition should be lost, Rabbi Judah Hakkadosh (i.e.holy), in the year 220A.D., collected everything that had been said upon the subject, preserving the division of Hillel, and probably making some additions of his[25]own. This he did in a manner so masterly and satisfactory, that it superseded every other previous attempt, and constitutes the presentMishna.TheMishnabecame the chief object of study. The rules of Hillel were increased and much acted on; expositions were given upon the reasons that led to the decisions in the Mishna; the expounders were calledאֲמוֹרָאִיםAmoraim,public lecturers, and the expositionגְמָרָאGemara.After the death of Judah, many of his learned disciples, objecting to the appointment of his second son Gamaliel, to his father’s office, emigrated to Babylon, and having erected schools there, pursued the study of the Mishna. The academy they established in Sura rivalled the one in Tiberias. The Gemara of Tiberias, collated about 358 (A.D.) by an unknown individual, is calledTalmud Jerushalmi; and the Gemara of Sura, the compilation of which was begun by R. Ashe (352–427), continued by his disciple and friend, Rabina, and finished about 525, is calledTalmud Babli. The latter surpasses the former in comprehensiveness, perspicuity, and depth, is about four times as large, and fills 2947 folio pages. Both united are calledThe Talmudתַּלְמוּדbook of instruction; and alsoגְמָרָאGemara. It contains the civil and ceremonial law, debates on various branches of art and science, moral sayings, anecdotes, expositions on different passages of Scripture, &c.31100–500,A.D.—In Yadaim, (Sect. iii. 5.) we find that R. Akiba, one of the greatest Rabbins who lived in the first century, and president of the Academy of Bai-Barc, said, “The whole world was not worthy of the day in which this sublime Song was given to Israel; for all the Scriptures are holy, but this sublime Song is most holy.” There can, therefore, be no doubt that the mysteries which this distinguished Rabbi found in the Song of Songs, he regarded as greater than those he discovered in any other portion of the Sacred Scriptures.[26]Subsequent Rabbins quote and explain different passages. Thus, Ch. i. 2 is discussed in Abodah Sarah (Sect. 2, p. 35). It is asked, “How are the words, ‘Thy love is better than wine’ understood?” Answer:When Rabbi Dimi came to Babylon, he said, “This verse is thus understood: the Congregation of Israel said to God, ‘Lord of the Universe, the words of thy friends (namely, the sages) are more excellent than even the wine of the Law.’”Here we see that the beloved is taken to beGod, and the loved onethe Congregation of Israel.Ch. i. 3, is quoted and expounded, a little further on, in the same tract of the Talmud, in the following manner. “R. Nachman ben R. Chasdah once said, in his discourse, the words ‘Delicious is the odour of thy perfumes,’ denote a learned man; for such an one is like a box of perfumes; if it is covered up, no one can smell the perfumes, but when it is opened the odour becomes widely diffused. It is so with a learned man without disciples, no one knows of his learning; but if he gets a circle of disciples his name and his learning become widely diffused. And not only this, but he himself will increase learning by teaching, so that things which he formerly did not understand will now become plain to him; for it is written in the same verseעלמות אהבוךDAMSELS LOVE THEE;readעלומותHIDDEN THINGSwill love thee, i.e.,will become plain to thee; and not only this, but even the angel of death will love him; read thenעל־מותHE WHO IS OVER DEATHwill love thee; and still more, he will inherit both worlds, this world and the world to come; read alsoעולמותWORLDSlove thee.”Ch. i. 13, 14, and v. 13, are quoted and explained in Sabbath, p. 88, b., “Rabbi Joshuah ben Levi saith, What is meant byצרור המור דודי לי בין שדי יליןis the congregation of Israel, who is saying before the Holy One thus: O Lord, though my beloved (i.e. God) oppresses me, and is embittered against me, yet he still lodges with me.Byאשכול הכופר דודי לי בכרמי עין גדיis meant, He who is the owner of all things, will forgive me the[27]sin of the calf, with which I covered myself.A question is raised,How doesבכרמיsignify my covering?Then Rabbi Mar-Sutra ben Rabbi Nachman quotesכסא של כובס שכורמי עליו את הכלאםfrom another part of the Talmud (Kelim 35), whereכרםmeansto cover. R. Joshuah ben Levi proceeds,What is meant byלחייו כערוגת הבושםis, At every commandment which proceedeth from the mouth of the Holy One on Mount Sinai, the world was filled with aromatics.A question is asked,If the world was filled at the first commandment, where was the odour diffused at the second commandment?Answer,The Holy One sent his wind from his stores, and carried them away successively, as it is written,שפתותיו שושניםdo not readשושניםbutששוניםrepeating in succession.Rabbi Joshuah ben Levi concludes,At every commandment uttered by the mouth of the Holy One, the soul of Israel was drawn out of them, as it is written, ‘My soul went out when he spake.’A question is again asked,If their soul was drawn out at the first commandment, how could they receive the second?Answer.He (i.e. God) caused the dew to come down, by which he will raise the dead, and revived them, as it is written, ‘Thou, O God, didst send a plentiful rain, whereby thou didst confirm thine inheritance, when it was weary.’” Ps. lxviii. 9.32Here, again, we see that the bridegroom is taken to be the Holy One, the Owner of all things, and the bride the congregation of Israel. The reader, looking into the text of the Talmud quoted in the note, will observe that most of this interpretation has been obtained, either by the separation of words, the transposition and change of letters, or by substituting[28]in the commentary words, similar in sound to those in the Scriptures. Thus,צרורa bundle, a bag, is explained byמיצרoppress;מורmyrrhbyמימרembitter;אשכולa clusterbyאיש שהכל לוHe whose are all things;כופרcypress flowersbyכפרpardon;עין גדיEn-gedibyעון עגלthe sin of the calf.This mode of interpretation is not confined to the Song of Songs, but is applied to all parts of the Bible, and is an illustration of the way in which the hermeneutic rules laid down by Rabbi Hillel, and augmented by R. Ishmael, and others, were carried out.550,A.D.—The Targum or Chaldee paraphrase is the first entire commentary upon the Song of Songs which has been handed down to us. The author is unknown. Kitto erroneously affirms, that it was “made several centuries before the time of Christ, and probably before the traditionary interpretation of the author himself (i.e.the author of this Song) would entirely be lost.”33The inferior style in which it is written, the copious use it makes of legends of a very late date, and especially the mention it makes of theGemara(Ch. i. 2), which was not completed till nearly the middle ofthe sixth century, prove most distinctly that this paraphrase was made in the sixth century. Hävernick,34however, is equally wrong in affirming that the Mahomedans are mentioned in Ch. i. 7. Thatthe sons of Ishmaelhere alluded to are not the Mahomedans, is evident from Ch. vi. 7. of the same paraphrase, where we are told that theseבְּנוֹי דְיִשְׁמָעֵאלheaded by Alexander the Great, came to wage war against Jerusalem at the time of the Maccabees.The Targum takes the Song of Songs as an allegory, describing prophetically the history of the Jewish nation, beginning with their Exodus from Egypt, and detailing their doings and sufferings, down to the coming of the Messiah, and the building of the third Temple.[29]Thus, according to this allegory, Ch. i. 3, describes Jehovah’s fame, which went abroad in consequence of the wonders he wrought when bringing the Israelites out of Egypt; verse 12 describes the departure of Moses to receive the two tables of stone, and how the Israelites, in the mean time, made the golden calf; verse 14 describes the pardon of that sin, and the erection of the Tabernacle; Ch. iii. 6–11, describes the passage of the Israelites, under the leadership of Joshua, over the Jordan, their attacking and conquering the Canaanites, and the building of Solomon’s Temple; Ch. v. 2, describes the Babylonian captivity; Ch. vi. 2, the deliverance of Israel through Cyrus; and the building of the second Temple; Ch. vi. 7, &c., describes the battles of the Maccabees; Ch. vii. 11, 12, the present dispersion of the Jews, and their future anxiety to learn the time of their restoration; Ch. viii. 5, &c., describes the resurrection of the dead, the final ingathering of Israel, the building of the third Temple, &c., &c.“The beloved,” according to the Targum, isthe Lord; “the loved one” isthe Congregation of Israel; “the companions of the beloved” (Ch. i. 7) arethe Edomites and the Ishmaelites; “the daughters of Jerusalem” are, in Ch. i. 5,the Gentile nations; in ii. 7, iii. 5, viii. 4,the Congregation of Israel; and in v. 8,the prophets; “the brothers of the loved one” arethe false prophets; “the little sister,” in viii. 8, isthe people of Israel; the speakers in the same verse arethe angels; the speaker in viii. 13, isthe Lord; “the companions,” in the same verse arethe Sanhedrim.The following specimen of the Targum, on the first chapter of this Song, will give the reader an idea of the way in which the paraphrase develops the allegorical construction of this book.1.The Song of Songs, &c.—The songs and praises which Solomon the prophet, King of Israel, sang, by the spirit of prophecy, before God, the Lord of the whole world. Ten songs weresungin this world, but this song is the most celebrated of them all. Thefirstsong Adam sang when his sins were forgiven him, and when the sabbath-day came, and protected him, he opened his mouth and said, “A song for the sabbath-day,”&c. (Ps. xcii.) Thesecondsong Moses and the children of Israel sang when the[30]Lord of the world divided the Red Sea for them, they all opened their mouths and sang as one man, the song, as it is written, “Then sang Moses and the children of Israel.” (Exod. xv. 1.) Thethirdsong the children of Israel sang when the well of water was given to them, as it is written, “Then sang Israel.” (Numb. xxi. 17.) Thefourthsong Moses the prophet sang, when his time came to depart from this world, in which he reproved the people of the house of Israel, as it is written: “Give ear, O heavens, and I will speak.” (Deut. xxxii. 1.) Thefifthsong Joshua the son of Nun sang, when he waged war in Gibeon, and the sun and moon stood still for him thirty-six hours, and when they left off singing their song, he himself opened his mouth and sang this song, as it is written: “Then sang Joshua before the Lord.” (Josh. x. 12.) Thesixthsong Barak and Deborah sang in the day when the Lord delivered Sisera and his army into the hands of the children of Israel, as it is written: “Then sang Deborah, &c.” (Judg. v. 11.) Theseventhsong Hannah sang when a son was given her by the Lord, as it is written: “And Hannah prayed prophetically, and said.” (1 Sam. ii. 1, and the Targumin loco.) Theeighthsong David the King of Israel sang for all the wonders which the Lord did for him. He opened his mouth and sang a hymn, as it is written: “And David sang in prophecy before the Lord.” (2 Sam. xxii. 1, and the Targumin loco.) Theninthsong Solomon the King of Israel sang by the Holy Spirit before God, the Lord of the whole world. And thetenthsong the children of the captivity shall sing when they shall be delivered from their captivity, as it is written and declared by Isaiah the prophet: “This song shall be unto you for joy, as in the night in which the feast of the passover is celebrated; and gladness of heart as when the people go to appear before the Lord three times in the year, with all kinds of music, and with the sound of the timbrel, to go up to the mountain of the Lord, and to worship before the Lord, the Mighty One of Israel.” (Is. xxx. 29, and the Targumin loco.)2.Let him kiss me, &c.—Solomon the prophet said, “Blessed be the name of the Lord who has given us the law through Moses the great scribe, written upon two tables of stone; and the six parts of the Mishna and the Talmud traditionally, and who spoke with us face to face, as a man that kissed his friend, because of his great love wherewith he loved us above the seventy nations.”353.Thy perfumes, &c.—At the report of thy wonders and mighty deeds which thou hast done for thy people the house of Israel, all the nations trembled who heard of thy famous strength, and thy great miracles; and in all the earth was heard thy holy name, which is more excellent than the anointing oil that was poured upon the heads of kings and priests; therefore the righteous love to walk after thy good way, because they shall inherit both this world and the world to come.4.Draw me, &c.—When the people of the house of Israel went out of Egypt the shechinah of the Lord of the world went before them in a pillar of cloud by day, and in a pillar of fire by night, and the righteous of that[31]generation said, Lord of the whole world, draw us after thee, and we will run in thy good way! Bring us to the foot of Mount Sinai, and give us thy law out of thy treasury in heaven, and we will rejoice and be gladin the twenty-two letters36with which it is written, and we will remember them, and love thy divine nature, and withdraw ourselves from the idols of the nations; and all the righteous, who do that which is right before thee, shall fear thee and love thy commandments.5.I am swarthy, &c.—When the house of Israel made the calf, their faces became black, like the sons of Cush, who dwelt in the tents of Kedar; but when they returned by repentance, and were forgiven, the shining splendour of their faces was increased to that of angels, because they made the curtains for the tabernacle, and the shechinah of the Lord dwelt among them; and Moses, their teacher, went up to heaven and made peace between them and their King.6.Do not look down upon me, &c.—The congregation of Israel said before all the nations, Do not despise me because I am blacker than you, for I have done your deeds, and worshipped the sun and moon; for false prophets have been the cause that the fierce anger of the Lord has come upon me, and they taught me to worship your idols, and to walk in your laws; but the Lord of the world, who is my God, I did not serve, and did not walk in his precepts, and did not keep his commandments and laws.7.Tell me, &c.—When the time came for Moses the prophet to depart from this world, he said to the Lord, It is revealed to me that this people will sin, and be carried into captivity; show me now how they shall be governed and dwell among the nations, whose decrees are oppressive as the heat and the scorching sun in the summer solstice, and wherefore is it that they shall wander among the flocks of the sons of Esau and Ishmael, who make their idols equal to thee, as though they were thy companions.8.If thou knowest not, &c.—The Holy One, blessed be his name, said to Moses, the prophet, “I suffer myself to be entreated to abolish their captivity; the congregation of Israel, which is like a fair damsel, and which my soul loves, she shall walk in the ways of the righteous, and shall order her prayers according to the order of her governors and leaders, and instruct her children, who are like to the kids of the goats, to go to the synagogue and the schools; and by the merits of this they shall be governed in the captivity, until the time that I send King Messiah, and he shall lead them quietly to their habitations; yea, he shall bring them to the house of the sanctuary, which David and Solomon, the shepherds of Israel, shall build for them.”9.I compare thee, &c.—When Israel went out of Egypt, Pharaoh and his hosts pursued after them with chariots and horsemen, and their way was shut up on the four sides of them; on the right hand and on the left were wildernesses full of fiery serpents, and behind them was wicked Pharaoh with his army, and before them was the Red Sea, what did the holy blessed God do? He was manifested in the power of his might upon the Red Sea, and dried the sea up, but the mud he did not dry up. The wicked and the mixed multitude, and the strangers who were among them,[32]said, The waters of the sea he was able to dry up, but the mud he was not able to dry up. In that very hour the fierce anger of the Lord came upon them, and he sought to drown them in the waters of the sea, as Pharaoh, and his army, and his chariots, and his horsemen, and his horses were drowned, had it not been for Moses the Prophet, who spread his hands in prayer before the Lord, and turned away the anger of the Lord from them. Then he and the righteous of that generation opened their mouths, and sang a song, and passed through the Red Sea on dry land, through the merits of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the beloved of the Lord.10.Beautiful are thy cheeks, &c.—When they went out into the wilderness the Lord said to Moses, “How comely is this people, that the words of the law should be given unto them, and they shall be as a bridle in their jaws, that they may not depart out of the good way, as a horse turneth not aside that has a bridle in his jaws; and how fair is their neck to bear the yoke of my commandments; and it shall be upon them as a yoke upon the neck of a bullock which plougheth in the field, and feeds both itself and its owner.”11.Circlets of gold, &c.—Then was it said to Moses, “Go up into heaven, and I will give thee the two tables of stone, hewn out of the sapphire of the throne of my glory, shining as the best gold, disposed in rows, written with my finger, on which are engraven the ten commandments, purer than silver that is purified seven times seven, which is the number of the things explained in them in forty-nine various ways, and I shall give them by thy hands to the people of the house of Israel.”12.While the King, &c.—Whilst Moses, their teacher, was in heaven to receive the two tables of stone, and the law and the commandments, the wicked of that generation and the mixed multitude that was among them rose up and made a golden calf, and caused their works to stink, and an evil report of them went out in the world; for before this time a fragrant odour of them was diffused in the world, but afterwards they stank like nard, the smell of which is very bad, and the plague of leprosy came down upon their flesh.13.A bag of myrrh, &c.—At that time the Lord said to Moses, “Go down, for the people have corrupted themselves, desist from speaking to me, and I will destroy them.” Then Moses returned and asked mercy of the Lord, and the Lord remembered for them the binding of Isaac, whom his father bound, on Mount Moriah, upon the altar; and the Lord turned from his fierce anger, and caused his shechinah to dwell among them as before.14.A bunch of cypress flowers, &c.—So then went Moses down with the two tables of stone in his hands; and, because of the sins of Israel, his hands grew heavy, and the tables fell and were broken. Then went Moses and ground the calf to powder, and scattered the dust of it upon the brook, and made the children of Israel to drink it, and slew all that deserved to die, and went up a second time into heaven, and prayed before the Lord, and made atonement for the children of Israel; then was the commandment to make a tabernacle and an ark. Immediately Moses hastened and made the tabernacle, and all its furniture, and the ark; and he put in the ark the two other tables, and appointed the sons of Aaron, the priests, to offer the offerings upon the altar, and to pour the wine upon the offerings;[33]but from whence had they wine to pour? For in the wilderness they had no proper place for sowing; neither had they fig-trees, nor vines, nor pomegranates; but they went to the vineyards of En-gedi, and took clusters of grapes from thence, and pressed wine out of them, and poured it upon the altar, the fourth part of a hin to one lamb.15.Behold thou art beautiful, &c.—When the children of Israel performed the will of their King, he himself praised them in the family of the holy angels, and said, “How fair are thy works, my daughter, my beloved, O congregation of Israel, in the time that thou doest my will, and studiest in the words of my law; and how well ordered are thy works and thy affairs, as young doves that are fit to be offered upon the altar!”16.Behold thou art comely, &c.—The congregation of Israel answered before the Lord of the world, and thus said, “How fair is the shechinah of thy holiness, when thou dwellest among us, and receivest prayers with acceptance; and when thou dwellest in our beloved bed, and our children are multiplied in the world, and we increase and multiply like a tree that is planted by a stream of water, whose leaf is fair, and whose fruit is plenteous!”17.The beams of, &c.—Solomon, the prophet, said, “How beautiful is the house of the sanctuary of the Lord, which is built by my hands, of wood of Gulmish; but far more beautiful will be the house of the sanctuary which shall be built in the days of the King Messiah, the beams of which will be of the cedars of the garden of Eden, and whose rafters will be of cypress, pine, and box.”The precedent of the Talmud in taking the beloved asthe Lord, and the loved one asthe Congregation of Israel, and in explaining the text in such a manner as to make it square with her doings, has quite prepared us for the Chaldee exposition, the author of which most probably was himself one of the later Talmudists. How could the paraphrast do otherwise? “Are not the words ofthe sagesmore excellent than even the wine of the Law?”37“Is not he who transgresses the words of the scribes more guilty than he who transgresses the words of the Law?”38Having, therefore, been once settled by the sages that this Song describes the doings and sufferings of Israel, it only remained for the expositors to apply their exegetical canons, viz.: of transposing, changing, or omitting letters; explaining words by others of a similar sound; making each letter of a word begin another word; reducing an expression to its numerical value, and explaining the text accordingly, &c. &c., in order to palm upon this book, in a consecutive[34]order, the remarkable events in connection with the history of the Jews.Thus, the love of God to Israel, which was greater than to allthe seventy other nationsmentioned in Ch. i. 2, was obtained by reducing the wordייןto its numerical value,seventy;the two worlds, in verse 3, which the pious are to inherit, were obtained by changingעלמותmaidens, intoעולמותworlds, according to the example of the Talmud;39the twenty-two letterswith which the Law is written, in verse 4, were obtained by reducing the wordבךto its numerical value;the Tabernacle, in verse 5, was obtained from the wordירעות, andthe effected peaceby changing the proper nameשלמהintoשלוםpeace; the worship ofthe sun and moon, in verse 6, was obtained from the wordשמשsun;the ploughing bullock, in verse 10, was obtained by changingתוריםringlet, andחרוזיםnecklace, intoתור חרז;the two tables shining as the best gold, verse 11, were obtained by renderingתורי זהבgolden Laws, andthe seven times seven, orthe forty different interpretations of the Law, by reducing the wordזהבto its numerical value,זbeingseven, andהandבseven, and then multiplying seven by seven;the binding of Isaac, in verse 13, was obtained by renderingצרור המורbyערור המוריהthe binding of Moriah;the sin of the calf, andthe atonement of that, in verse 14, were obtained by changingעין גדיEn-gedi, intoעון עגלthe sin of the calf, and by substitutingכפרpardon, forכופרcypress-flower, according to the example of the Talmud.40This is the development of Hagadic exegesis, and this the paraphrase appealed to in support of the allegorical interpretation, and in the track of which future allegorists more or less follow.892–942. From the Chaldee paraphrase to R. Saadias Gaon, a period of about 350 years, thick darkness covers the annals of Jewish literature. With him, however, a new epoch begins to dawn. Saadias was born at Pithom, in Egypt, about the year 892, and died in the year 942. He was “Gaon,” or spiritual head of[35]the Jews in Babylon, and is well known by his translation of the Bible into Arabic, the Pentateuch of which is inserted in Walton’s Polyglott.41Among the many philosophical and exegetical works this eminent man bequeathed to posterity, is a commentary on the Song of Songs, which was originally written in Arabic, and was translated into Hebrew by some unknown individual. This work is exceedingly rare, and I have happily found a copy of the original Constantinople edition in the British Museum, of which Dukes was not aware when he wrote his “Literarische Mittheilungen.” The view that Saadias takes is that “Solomon relates in it the history of the Jews, beginning with their Exodus from Egypt, and extending it beyond the coming of the Messiah.” Thus far he agrees with the Targum, but his commentary on the text is entirely at variance with that paraphrase.According to Saadias, Ch. i. 2–iii. 5, describes the bondage of Israel in Egypt, their liberation, the giving of the Law, the battles with Sihon, Og, and the King of Aroar, the wrath of God at the time of the spies, &c. Ch. iii. 6–iv. 7, describes the erection of the Tabernacle, the various journeys in the wilderness, the high position of Moses and Aaron, &c. Hitherto Israel has been called by the appellationmy loved one, for they had not as yet entered Canaan; henceforth they are calledbride(כלה), because God takes them into the promised land; just as a bridegroom calls his loved onebride, when he takes her home. Ch. iv. 8–v. 1, describes Israel’s entrance into Canaan, the building of the first Temple, the separation of[36]Judah and Israel, the Shechinah departing from Israel and abiding with Judah, and the people coming up to Jerusalem to the three great festivals. Ch. v. 2–vi. 3, describes the rebellion of Israel and Ahaz, God sending prophets to warn them to repent, the destruction of the Temple, the Babylonian captivity, Israel’s liberation, the building of the second Temple, and the covenant of God with his repenting people. Ch. vi. 4–ix. describes the twofold condition of the people that returned from Babylon, some of whom were godly, while others took strange women, forgot the holy language, and were therefore calledשחרdawn, being neither real light nor real darkness, neither pious nor wicked. Ch. vi. 10–vii. 9, refers to the present dispersion, in which the Jews, though being many days without a king, without a priest, &c., say we still live in the fear of God, and are His. Ch. vii. 12–viii. 4, refers to the sufferings of the Messiah ben Joseph, the manifestation of the Messiah ben David, the obedience of Israel to God in those days, and to the Lord’s rejoicing over them as a bridegroom over his bride. Ch. viii. 5, to the end, describes Israel restored, the third Temple built, and all the people walking according to the will of the Lord.The principal persons in this Song are understood in the following manner: “the beloved” isthe Lord; “the loved one,”the Congregation of Israel; “the companions of the beloved,” (Ch. i. 7,) areMoses,Aaron, andMiriam; “the daughters of Jerusalem,”the Congregation of Israel; “the little sister,”the two tribes and a half; “the speaker,”the Lord; “the inhabitant of the gardens,” isthe sages; “the companions,” in the same verse, arethe Israeliteswishing to listen to the teaching of their sages.The following is a specimen of R. Saadias’s commentary, the Hebrew of which is given in the note.421–3.The Song of Songs, &c.—Know, my brother, that you will find a great diversity of opinions as regards the interpretation of this Song of[37]Songs; and it must be confessed that there is reason for it, since the Song of Songs is like a lock, the key of which hath been lost. Some maintain that it refers to the kingdom of Israel; others say that it refers to the days of the Messiah; and others again affirm that it refers to the time of the dispersion and the Messiah, and assert that bybeloved(דוד) the Messiah is meant, and bybride(כלה) is meant the law (תורה). But this is a sin, an error, and a great heresy. The truth is, that bybeloved(דוד) is meantthe Lord, for it is written, “I will sing to my beloved a song of love respecting his vineyard” (Isa. v. 1), which the prophet Isaiah explains (verse 7), “The vineyard of the Lord of Hosts is the house of Israel.” Solomon relates in this book the history of the Jews commencing with their Exodus from Egypt until after the coming of the Messiah, and compares the position of Israel to God to that of a bride to a bridegroom, because she (Israel) is dear to him, and he to her. When he first takes her from her father’s house he calls hermy friend(רעיתי), when he brings her to his house he calls hermy bride(כלה), when she finds favour in his eyes he calls hermy sister(אחותי), and praises her from head to foot; then he is angry with her, and she returns and praises him from head to foot; then he praises her a second time. And, because it is unlawful for a bridegroom and bride to come together without a marriage-contract and witnesses, therefore Solomon begins with the words, “Let him give me kisses of his mouth;” that is, the commandments and the statutes, comprising both the written and the oral law which the Lord gave to Israel through the pious Moses, Aaron, and Miriam, so that Israel’s fame went forth into the world in consequence of their wisdom, as it is written, “And thy renown went forth among the heathen for thy beauty,” &c. (Ezek. xvi. 14), so much so that many of the nations desired to be gathered under the wings of the shechinah and become Jews; and these are the mixed multitudes, Jethro and others, and therefore it is said, “Thy perfumes are good in odour,” that is, the Lord tried them from the departure out of Egypt till their entrance into Canaan whether they would walk in his ways, as it is written, “Thou didst follow me in the wilderness,” &c. Jer. ii. 2.4.Draw me, &c.—Having related in this verse how Israel walked in the fear of the Lord, and received the ten commandments in the 6th of[38]Sivan, and then made the calf on the 17th of Tamuz, Solomon in astonishment says in their name,5.I am swarthy, &c.—That is, I am swarthy, but comely; I am swarthy because of making the calf, but comely because of receiving the ten commandments; and Israel says that his sin has been forgiven through the three thousand men, the wicked among Israel, who served idols, who were killed before the sun to atone for the great sin, as it is written, “For thou hadst done it in secret, but I will do it before all Israel, and before the sun”(2 Sam. xii. 11, 12); and the nations made mekeeperof the service of other gods, for I served strange gods, as it is written, “And they changed their glory into the likeness of a calf that eateth grass” (Psal. cv. 25.)The reader will have observed that this early commentator does already compare the Song of Songsto a lock, the key of which has been lost, and refers to several modes in which it has been interpreted.1000–1040. The allegorical interpretation was nevertheless introduced into the Jewish liturgical services in the middle ages, when they were seeking, from traditions, dogmas, biblical events, &c., to construct sacred hymns and poems to be said or sung at their feasts and fasts.43Being regarded as representing the departure of Israel from Egypt (יציאת מצרים), and their subsequent history in confirmation of Jehovah’s covenant with them, the Song of Songs is used in a poetical paraphrase on the first and second morning services of the Passover feast, which was designed to celebrate the Exodus from Egypt as the commencement of the conjugal relation between God and his people. For the same reason, the book itself is read in the synagogue on the Sabbath of the middle days of the Passover (חול המועד של פסח). The poetical paraphrase above alluded to is in an alphabetical form, has the author’s name in it, and each stanza closes with a quotation from the book in regular order, which renders the paraphrastic meaning artificial and obscure. Some idea of it may be gathered from the following version which we have made of R. Solomon[39]ben Judah Hababli’s paraphrase, comprising the first five verses of the Song of Songs.
No book has furnished a wider field for the speculation and visionary projects of those who substitute their own imagination and enthusiastic feelings for the teaching of Scripture, than the Song of Solomon; the varieties and absurdities of which are a solemn warning against departing from the rules of sound philology and critical interpretation.An enumeration of all the different interpretations of this Song would be too lengthy, and is not required. It will be sufficient to glance at the leading expositions. We begin with the Jewish.[21]323–246,B.C.18It has been supposed that the Septuagint, which may be regarded as the oldest Jewish exegetical tradition, contains some intimation that the translators of the Old Testament into Greek and their Jewish brethren of those days must have interpreted the Song of Solomon in an allegorical manner. The only passage adduced in corroboration of this opinion is, Ch. iv. 8, where the Septuagint rendersמֵראֹשׁ אֲמָנָהfrom the top of Amana, byἀπὸἀρχῆςπίστεως,from the top of faith. That this appeal is nugatory is obvious from the rendering ofתִּרְצָהTirzahbyεὐδοκία,delight, vi. 4, and ofבַּתנָדִיבnoble daughterbyθύγατερ Ναδάβ,daughter of Nadab, vii. 1; whence it is evident that the Septuagint frequently mistookproper namesfor appellatives and adjectives, andvice versâ. It appears inconceivable that a profound scholar like Keil, who is well acquainted with the frequent errors of the Septuagint, should quote this as a special and sufficient proof that “the Alexandrian version took this Song in an allegorical sense,”19especially as he knew that some have drawn from it the very opposite conclusion, who have argued that if the authors of the Septuagint had understood this book in any other than its obvious sense, they would have betrayed it in the translation.20180,B.C.Jesus Sirach, xlvii. 14–17, is next adduced as furnishing some clue to the Jewish interpretation of this book. Ecclesiasticus, according to some, is a name given to itκατ’ ἐξοχὴν, because of its being the most remarkable and useful of the ecclesiastical or apocryphal books; others say it was so called from its resemblance to Solomon’sEcclesiastes, and others, again, with more probability, that this name was given to it by the Latins, to denoteits use in the church. Its Greek name, however,Σοφία Ἰησοῦ υἱοῦ Σειράχ,wisdom of Jesus[22]son of Sirach, is more appropriate. It specifies at once the author, who mentions his own name in Ch. l. 27. The age given to the book here, is that which is thought most probable.21This apocryphal writer says in his apostrophe to Solomon,—“How wise wast thou in thy youth, and, as a flood, filled with understanding! Thy mind covered the earth, and thou filledst it with enigmatic sayings. Thy name went forth to the distant isles, and thou wast beloved for thy peace. Countries admired thee for songs, and proverbs, and enigmas, and solutions.” The 17th verse is supposed to include the whole writings of Solomon contained in the Old Testament; and it is affirmed thatπαραβολαὶ αἰνιγμάτωνin verse 15, cannot be understood to mean the Proverbs (παροιμία) since these are separately mentioned in verse 17, hence it follows that they refer to the allegorical interpretation of this Song.22Even Hengstenberg, who, though a defender of the allegorical interpretation, remarks,23“Sirach xlvii. 17, has wrongly been referred to in support of the allegorical interpretation. For the wordsἐν ᾠδαῖς καὶ παροίμιαις καὶ παραβολαῖς καὶ ἐν ἑρμηνείαις ἀπεθαύμασάν σε χῶραιdepend upon the historical narration in the Books of the Kings, and do not refer to the writings comprised in the Canon. This is evident from the mention of theἑρμηνείαι, wherebythe solutionsof the enigmas in contradistinction to the enigmas themselves, can alone be meant. Comp. 1 Kings x. 1–3. Whereas in the Canon no suchἑρμηνείαιare to be found. Verse 15, in which Keil finds a special reference to the allegorical interpretation, likewise alludes to 1 Kings x., especially to verse 24.”120,B.C.The Book of Wisdom has also been supposed to contain a clue to the interpretation of this Song. The author and the age of the Book are points of great contest.[23]All that can be concluded with any degree of probability is, that the author was an Alexandrian Jew, who lived after the transplanting of the Greek philosophy into Egypt, and that he seems to refer to the oppression of the later Ptolemies.24In ch. viii. 2, Solomon is represented as speaking to Wisdom; “Her I loved and sought from my youth, I sought to bring her home for my bride, and I became a lover of her beauty.” Because Solomon is here made to speak of Wisdom as his bride, it has been maintained to be an explanation of the Song of Songs, as though the brides were necessarily the same.25Let any impartial reader peruse the description of Wisdom in the chapter quoted, and that of the bride in the Song of Songs, and he will be convinced that there is no intentional resemblance whatever.37–95,A.D.Josephus is also said to have understood this Song in an allegorical sense, although it is not in a single instance quoted by him. His arrangement of the Books of the Old Testament is the only ground of this argument. It is said, as he26mentions twenty-two books which are justly accredited as Divine, (τὰ δικαίως θεῖα πεπιστευμένα) and describes five as belonging to Moses, thirteen to the Prophets, and the remaining four as containing hymns to God, and rules of life for men (αἱ δὲ λοιπαὶ τέσσαρες ὕμνους εἰς τὸν Θεὸν καὶ τοῖς ἀνθρώποις ὑποθήκας τοῦ βίου περιέχουσιν)viz., the Psalms, Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes, no place is left for this Song except among the Prophets; and if Josephus placed it there, it follows that he must have understood it allegorically.27But were we to admit that Josephus placed this Song among the prophetical writings, we should deny the conclusion attempted to be drawn from it. For according to the same mode of argumentation, we might infer that Josephus understood[24]Ruth and Esther allegorically, for he also places these books among the prophetical writings. The fact is, that this historian, as he tells us himself, reckons the historical books among the prophetical ones. But we demur to the assertion that Josephus put this Song among the prophetical writings; it is far more likely that he placed it among the four books which he describes as consisting of hymns to God and precepts for the life of men.28We come now to the Talmud, in which passages from this Song are quoted and interpreted. This elaborate work, consists of what is called theMishna, constituting the text, and theGemara, which is a commentary upon it, derived from two sources,viz.—Jerusalem and Babylon. The Jews, from time immemorial, had anunwrittenlawתּוֹרָה שֶׁבַּעַל פֶּהδόγματα ἄγραφα, in addition to thewrittenone,תּוֹרָה שֶׁבַּכְּתָב,ἔγγραφος, contained in the Pentateuch. Hillel of Babylon (born 75B.C.), who, next to Ezra, was celebrated by posterity as the restorer of the law,29first arranged and divided this oral law into six parts:—1, concerning sowing; 2, women; 3, festivals; 4, the rights of property; 5, holy things; 6, pure and impure things. This, which comprises everything that appertains to the Jewish law, was calledמִשְׁנָהMishna,δευτέρωσις, or the second recension of the law. In order to reconcile the Sadducees, who denied every law not founded on Holy Writ, Hillel laid down seven hermeneutic rules, whereby the Scriptures might be interpreted in such a manner that the oral law could be deduced from it.30When fears were afterwards entertained lest the oral tradition should be lost, Rabbi Judah Hakkadosh (i.e.holy), in the year 220A.D., collected everything that had been said upon the subject, preserving the division of Hillel, and probably making some additions of his[25]own. This he did in a manner so masterly and satisfactory, that it superseded every other previous attempt, and constitutes the presentMishna.TheMishnabecame the chief object of study. The rules of Hillel were increased and much acted on; expositions were given upon the reasons that led to the decisions in the Mishna; the expounders were calledאֲמוֹרָאִיםAmoraim,public lecturers, and the expositionגְמָרָאGemara.After the death of Judah, many of his learned disciples, objecting to the appointment of his second son Gamaliel, to his father’s office, emigrated to Babylon, and having erected schools there, pursued the study of the Mishna. The academy they established in Sura rivalled the one in Tiberias. The Gemara of Tiberias, collated about 358 (A.D.) by an unknown individual, is calledTalmud Jerushalmi; and the Gemara of Sura, the compilation of which was begun by R. Ashe (352–427), continued by his disciple and friend, Rabina, and finished about 525, is calledTalmud Babli. The latter surpasses the former in comprehensiveness, perspicuity, and depth, is about four times as large, and fills 2947 folio pages. Both united are calledThe Talmudתַּלְמוּדbook of instruction; and alsoגְמָרָאGemara. It contains the civil and ceremonial law, debates on various branches of art and science, moral sayings, anecdotes, expositions on different passages of Scripture, &c.31100–500,A.D.—In Yadaim, (Sect. iii. 5.) we find that R. Akiba, one of the greatest Rabbins who lived in the first century, and president of the Academy of Bai-Barc, said, “The whole world was not worthy of the day in which this sublime Song was given to Israel; for all the Scriptures are holy, but this sublime Song is most holy.” There can, therefore, be no doubt that the mysteries which this distinguished Rabbi found in the Song of Songs, he regarded as greater than those he discovered in any other portion of the Sacred Scriptures.[26]Subsequent Rabbins quote and explain different passages. Thus, Ch. i. 2 is discussed in Abodah Sarah (Sect. 2, p. 35). It is asked, “How are the words, ‘Thy love is better than wine’ understood?” Answer:When Rabbi Dimi came to Babylon, he said, “This verse is thus understood: the Congregation of Israel said to God, ‘Lord of the Universe, the words of thy friends (namely, the sages) are more excellent than even the wine of the Law.’”Here we see that the beloved is taken to beGod, and the loved onethe Congregation of Israel.Ch. i. 3, is quoted and expounded, a little further on, in the same tract of the Talmud, in the following manner. “R. Nachman ben R. Chasdah once said, in his discourse, the words ‘Delicious is the odour of thy perfumes,’ denote a learned man; for such an one is like a box of perfumes; if it is covered up, no one can smell the perfumes, but when it is opened the odour becomes widely diffused. It is so with a learned man without disciples, no one knows of his learning; but if he gets a circle of disciples his name and his learning become widely diffused. And not only this, but he himself will increase learning by teaching, so that things which he formerly did not understand will now become plain to him; for it is written in the same verseעלמות אהבוךDAMSELS LOVE THEE;readעלומותHIDDEN THINGSwill love thee, i.e.,will become plain to thee; and not only this, but even the angel of death will love him; read thenעל־מותHE WHO IS OVER DEATHwill love thee; and still more, he will inherit both worlds, this world and the world to come; read alsoעולמותWORLDSlove thee.”Ch. i. 13, 14, and v. 13, are quoted and explained in Sabbath, p. 88, b., “Rabbi Joshuah ben Levi saith, What is meant byצרור המור דודי לי בין שדי יליןis the congregation of Israel, who is saying before the Holy One thus: O Lord, though my beloved (i.e. God) oppresses me, and is embittered against me, yet he still lodges with me.Byאשכול הכופר דודי לי בכרמי עין גדיis meant, He who is the owner of all things, will forgive me the[27]sin of the calf, with which I covered myself.A question is raised,How doesבכרמיsignify my covering?Then Rabbi Mar-Sutra ben Rabbi Nachman quotesכסא של כובס שכורמי עליו את הכלאםfrom another part of the Talmud (Kelim 35), whereכרםmeansto cover. R. Joshuah ben Levi proceeds,What is meant byלחייו כערוגת הבושםis, At every commandment which proceedeth from the mouth of the Holy One on Mount Sinai, the world was filled with aromatics.A question is asked,If the world was filled at the first commandment, where was the odour diffused at the second commandment?Answer,The Holy One sent his wind from his stores, and carried them away successively, as it is written,שפתותיו שושניםdo not readשושניםbutששוניםrepeating in succession.Rabbi Joshuah ben Levi concludes,At every commandment uttered by the mouth of the Holy One, the soul of Israel was drawn out of them, as it is written, ‘My soul went out when he spake.’A question is again asked,If their soul was drawn out at the first commandment, how could they receive the second?Answer.He (i.e. God) caused the dew to come down, by which he will raise the dead, and revived them, as it is written, ‘Thou, O God, didst send a plentiful rain, whereby thou didst confirm thine inheritance, when it was weary.’” Ps. lxviii. 9.32Here, again, we see that the bridegroom is taken to be the Holy One, the Owner of all things, and the bride the congregation of Israel. The reader, looking into the text of the Talmud quoted in the note, will observe that most of this interpretation has been obtained, either by the separation of words, the transposition and change of letters, or by substituting[28]in the commentary words, similar in sound to those in the Scriptures. Thus,צרורa bundle, a bag, is explained byמיצרoppress;מורmyrrhbyמימרembitter;אשכולa clusterbyאיש שהכל לוHe whose are all things;כופרcypress flowersbyכפרpardon;עין גדיEn-gedibyעון עגלthe sin of the calf.This mode of interpretation is not confined to the Song of Songs, but is applied to all parts of the Bible, and is an illustration of the way in which the hermeneutic rules laid down by Rabbi Hillel, and augmented by R. Ishmael, and others, were carried out.550,A.D.—The Targum or Chaldee paraphrase is the first entire commentary upon the Song of Songs which has been handed down to us. The author is unknown. Kitto erroneously affirms, that it was “made several centuries before the time of Christ, and probably before the traditionary interpretation of the author himself (i.e.the author of this Song) would entirely be lost.”33The inferior style in which it is written, the copious use it makes of legends of a very late date, and especially the mention it makes of theGemara(Ch. i. 2), which was not completed till nearly the middle ofthe sixth century, prove most distinctly that this paraphrase was made in the sixth century. Hävernick,34however, is equally wrong in affirming that the Mahomedans are mentioned in Ch. i. 7. Thatthe sons of Ishmaelhere alluded to are not the Mahomedans, is evident from Ch. vi. 7. of the same paraphrase, where we are told that theseבְּנוֹי דְיִשְׁמָעֵאלheaded by Alexander the Great, came to wage war against Jerusalem at the time of the Maccabees.The Targum takes the Song of Songs as an allegory, describing prophetically the history of the Jewish nation, beginning with their Exodus from Egypt, and detailing their doings and sufferings, down to the coming of the Messiah, and the building of the third Temple.[29]Thus, according to this allegory, Ch. i. 3, describes Jehovah’s fame, which went abroad in consequence of the wonders he wrought when bringing the Israelites out of Egypt; verse 12 describes the departure of Moses to receive the two tables of stone, and how the Israelites, in the mean time, made the golden calf; verse 14 describes the pardon of that sin, and the erection of the Tabernacle; Ch. iii. 6–11, describes the passage of the Israelites, under the leadership of Joshua, over the Jordan, their attacking and conquering the Canaanites, and the building of Solomon’s Temple; Ch. v. 2, describes the Babylonian captivity; Ch. vi. 2, the deliverance of Israel through Cyrus; and the building of the second Temple; Ch. vi. 7, &c., describes the battles of the Maccabees; Ch. vii. 11, 12, the present dispersion of the Jews, and their future anxiety to learn the time of their restoration; Ch. viii. 5, &c., describes the resurrection of the dead, the final ingathering of Israel, the building of the third Temple, &c., &c.“The beloved,” according to the Targum, isthe Lord; “the loved one” isthe Congregation of Israel; “the companions of the beloved” (Ch. i. 7) arethe Edomites and the Ishmaelites; “the daughters of Jerusalem” are, in Ch. i. 5,the Gentile nations; in ii. 7, iii. 5, viii. 4,the Congregation of Israel; and in v. 8,the prophets; “the brothers of the loved one” arethe false prophets; “the little sister,” in viii. 8, isthe people of Israel; the speakers in the same verse arethe angels; the speaker in viii. 13, isthe Lord; “the companions,” in the same verse arethe Sanhedrim.The following specimen of the Targum, on the first chapter of this Song, will give the reader an idea of the way in which the paraphrase develops the allegorical construction of this book.1.The Song of Songs, &c.—The songs and praises which Solomon the prophet, King of Israel, sang, by the spirit of prophecy, before God, the Lord of the whole world. Ten songs weresungin this world, but this song is the most celebrated of them all. Thefirstsong Adam sang when his sins were forgiven him, and when the sabbath-day came, and protected him, he opened his mouth and said, “A song for the sabbath-day,”&c. (Ps. xcii.) Thesecondsong Moses and the children of Israel sang when the[30]Lord of the world divided the Red Sea for them, they all opened their mouths and sang as one man, the song, as it is written, “Then sang Moses and the children of Israel.” (Exod. xv. 1.) Thethirdsong the children of Israel sang when the well of water was given to them, as it is written, “Then sang Israel.” (Numb. xxi. 17.) Thefourthsong Moses the prophet sang, when his time came to depart from this world, in which he reproved the people of the house of Israel, as it is written: “Give ear, O heavens, and I will speak.” (Deut. xxxii. 1.) Thefifthsong Joshua the son of Nun sang, when he waged war in Gibeon, and the sun and moon stood still for him thirty-six hours, and when they left off singing their song, he himself opened his mouth and sang this song, as it is written: “Then sang Joshua before the Lord.” (Josh. x. 12.) Thesixthsong Barak and Deborah sang in the day when the Lord delivered Sisera and his army into the hands of the children of Israel, as it is written: “Then sang Deborah, &c.” (Judg. v. 11.) Theseventhsong Hannah sang when a son was given her by the Lord, as it is written: “And Hannah prayed prophetically, and said.” (1 Sam. ii. 1, and the Targumin loco.) Theeighthsong David the King of Israel sang for all the wonders which the Lord did for him. He opened his mouth and sang a hymn, as it is written: “And David sang in prophecy before the Lord.” (2 Sam. xxii. 1, and the Targumin loco.) Theninthsong Solomon the King of Israel sang by the Holy Spirit before God, the Lord of the whole world. And thetenthsong the children of the captivity shall sing when they shall be delivered from their captivity, as it is written and declared by Isaiah the prophet: “This song shall be unto you for joy, as in the night in which the feast of the passover is celebrated; and gladness of heart as when the people go to appear before the Lord three times in the year, with all kinds of music, and with the sound of the timbrel, to go up to the mountain of the Lord, and to worship before the Lord, the Mighty One of Israel.” (Is. xxx. 29, and the Targumin loco.)2.Let him kiss me, &c.—Solomon the prophet said, “Blessed be the name of the Lord who has given us the law through Moses the great scribe, written upon two tables of stone; and the six parts of the Mishna and the Talmud traditionally, and who spoke with us face to face, as a man that kissed his friend, because of his great love wherewith he loved us above the seventy nations.”353.Thy perfumes, &c.—At the report of thy wonders and mighty deeds which thou hast done for thy people the house of Israel, all the nations trembled who heard of thy famous strength, and thy great miracles; and in all the earth was heard thy holy name, which is more excellent than the anointing oil that was poured upon the heads of kings and priests; therefore the righteous love to walk after thy good way, because they shall inherit both this world and the world to come.4.Draw me, &c.—When the people of the house of Israel went out of Egypt the shechinah of the Lord of the world went before them in a pillar of cloud by day, and in a pillar of fire by night, and the righteous of that[31]generation said, Lord of the whole world, draw us after thee, and we will run in thy good way! Bring us to the foot of Mount Sinai, and give us thy law out of thy treasury in heaven, and we will rejoice and be gladin the twenty-two letters36with which it is written, and we will remember them, and love thy divine nature, and withdraw ourselves from the idols of the nations; and all the righteous, who do that which is right before thee, shall fear thee and love thy commandments.5.I am swarthy, &c.—When the house of Israel made the calf, their faces became black, like the sons of Cush, who dwelt in the tents of Kedar; but when they returned by repentance, and were forgiven, the shining splendour of their faces was increased to that of angels, because they made the curtains for the tabernacle, and the shechinah of the Lord dwelt among them; and Moses, their teacher, went up to heaven and made peace between them and their King.6.Do not look down upon me, &c.—The congregation of Israel said before all the nations, Do not despise me because I am blacker than you, for I have done your deeds, and worshipped the sun and moon; for false prophets have been the cause that the fierce anger of the Lord has come upon me, and they taught me to worship your idols, and to walk in your laws; but the Lord of the world, who is my God, I did not serve, and did not walk in his precepts, and did not keep his commandments and laws.7.Tell me, &c.—When the time came for Moses the prophet to depart from this world, he said to the Lord, It is revealed to me that this people will sin, and be carried into captivity; show me now how they shall be governed and dwell among the nations, whose decrees are oppressive as the heat and the scorching sun in the summer solstice, and wherefore is it that they shall wander among the flocks of the sons of Esau and Ishmael, who make their idols equal to thee, as though they were thy companions.8.If thou knowest not, &c.—The Holy One, blessed be his name, said to Moses, the prophet, “I suffer myself to be entreated to abolish their captivity; the congregation of Israel, which is like a fair damsel, and which my soul loves, she shall walk in the ways of the righteous, and shall order her prayers according to the order of her governors and leaders, and instruct her children, who are like to the kids of the goats, to go to the synagogue and the schools; and by the merits of this they shall be governed in the captivity, until the time that I send King Messiah, and he shall lead them quietly to their habitations; yea, he shall bring them to the house of the sanctuary, which David and Solomon, the shepherds of Israel, shall build for them.”9.I compare thee, &c.—When Israel went out of Egypt, Pharaoh and his hosts pursued after them with chariots and horsemen, and their way was shut up on the four sides of them; on the right hand and on the left were wildernesses full of fiery serpents, and behind them was wicked Pharaoh with his army, and before them was the Red Sea, what did the holy blessed God do? He was manifested in the power of his might upon the Red Sea, and dried the sea up, but the mud he did not dry up. The wicked and the mixed multitude, and the strangers who were among them,[32]said, The waters of the sea he was able to dry up, but the mud he was not able to dry up. In that very hour the fierce anger of the Lord came upon them, and he sought to drown them in the waters of the sea, as Pharaoh, and his army, and his chariots, and his horsemen, and his horses were drowned, had it not been for Moses the Prophet, who spread his hands in prayer before the Lord, and turned away the anger of the Lord from them. Then he and the righteous of that generation opened their mouths, and sang a song, and passed through the Red Sea on dry land, through the merits of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the beloved of the Lord.10.Beautiful are thy cheeks, &c.—When they went out into the wilderness the Lord said to Moses, “How comely is this people, that the words of the law should be given unto them, and they shall be as a bridle in their jaws, that they may not depart out of the good way, as a horse turneth not aside that has a bridle in his jaws; and how fair is their neck to bear the yoke of my commandments; and it shall be upon them as a yoke upon the neck of a bullock which plougheth in the field, and feeds both itself and its owner.”11.Circlets of gold, &c.—Then was it said to Moses, “Go up into heaven, and I will give thee the two tables of stone, hewn out of the sapphire of the throne of my glory, shining as the best gold, disposed in rows, written with my finger, on which are engraven the ten commandments, purer than silver that is purified seven times seven, which is the number of the things explained in them in forty-nine various ways, and I shall give them by thy hands to the people of the house of Israel.”12.While the King, &c.—Whilst Moses, their teacher, was in heaven to receive the two tables of stone, and the law and the commandments, the wicked of that generation and the mixed multitude that was among them rose up and made a golden calf, and caused their works to stink, and an evil report of them went out in the world; for before this time a fragrant odour of them was diffused in the world, but afterwards they stank like nard, the smell of which is very bad, and the plague of leprosy came down upon their flesh.13.A bag of myrrh, &c.—At that time the Lord said to Moses, “Go down, for the people have corrupted themselves, desist from speaking to me, and I will destroy them.” Then Moses returned and asked mercy of the Lord, and the Lord remembered for them the binding of Isaac, whom his father bound, on Mount Moriah, upon the altar; and the Lord turned from his fierce anger, and caused his shechinah to dwell among them as before.14.A bunch of cypress flowers, &c.—So then went Moses down with the two tables of stone in his hands; and, because of the sins of Israel, his hands grew heavy, and the tables fell and were broken. Then went Moses and ground the calf to powder, and scattered the dust of it upon the brook, and made the children of Israel to drink it, and slew all that deserved to die, and went up a second time into heaven, and prayed before the Lord, and made atonement for the children of Israel; then was the commandment to make a tabernacle and an ark. Immediately Moses hastened and made the tabernacle, and all its furniture, and the ark; and he put in the ark the two other tables, and appointed the sons of Aaron, the priests, to offer the offerings upon the altar, and to pour the wine upon the offerings;[33]but from whence had they wine to pour? For in the wilderness they had no proper place for sowing; neither had they fig-trees, nor vines, nor pomegranates; but they went to the vineyards of En-gedi, and took clusters of grapes from thence, and pressed wine out of them, and poured it upon the altar, the fourth part of a hin to one lamb.15.Behold thou art beautiful, &c.—When the children of Israel performed the will of their King, he himself praised them in the family of the holy angels, and said, “How fair are thy works, my daughter, my beloved, O congregation of Israel, in the time that thou doest my will, and studiest in the words of my law; and how well ordered are thy works and thy affairs, as young doves that are fit to be offered upon the altar!”16.Behold thou art comely, &c.—The congregation of Israel answered before the Lord of the world, and thus said, “How fair is the shechinah of thy holiness, when thou dwellest among us, and receivest prayers with acceptance; and when thou dwellest in our beloved bed, and our children are multiplied in the world, and we increase and multiply like a tree that is planted by a stream of water, whose leaf is fair, and whose fruit is plenteous!”17.The beams of, &c.—Solomon, the prophet, said, “How beautiful is the house of the sanctuary of the Lord, which is built by my hands, of wood of Gulmish; but far more beautiful will be the house of the sanctuary which shall be built in the days of the King Messiah, the beams of which will be of the cedars of the garden of Eden, and whose rafters will be of cypress, pine, and box.”The precedent of the Talmud in taking the beloved asthe Lord, and the loved one asthe Congregation of Israel, and in explaining the text in such a manner as to make it square with her doings, has quite prepared us for the Chaldee exposition, the author of which most probably was himself one of the later Talmudists. How could the paraphrast do otherwise? “Are not the words ofthe sagesmore excellent than even the wine of the Law?”37“Is not he who transgresses the words of the scribes more guilty than he who transgresses the words of the Law?”38Having, therefore, been once settled by the sages that this Song describes the doings and sufferings of Israel, it only remained for the expositors to apply their exegetical canons, viz.: of transposing, changing, or omitting letters; explaining words by others of a similar sound; making each letter of a word begin another word; reducing an expression to its numerical value, and explaining the text accordingly, &c. &c., in order to palm upon this book, in a consecutive[34]order, the remarkable events in connection with the history of the Jews.Thus, the love of God to Israel, which was greater than to allthe seventy other nationsmentioned in Ch. i. 2, was obtained by reducing the wordייןto its numerical value,seventy;the two worlds, in verse 3, which the pious are to inherit, were obtained by changingעלמותmaidens, intoעולמותworlds, according to the example of the Talmud;39the twenty-two letterswith which the Law is written, in verse 4, were obtained by reducing the wordבךto its numerical value;the Tabernacle, in verse 5, was obtained from the wordירעות, andthe effected peaceby changing the proper nameשלמהintoשלוםpeace; the worship ofthe sun and moon, in verse 6, was obtained from the wordשמשsun;the ploughing bullock, in verse 10, was obtained by changingתוריםringlet, andחרוזיםnecklace, intoתור חרז;the two tables shining as the best gold, verse 11, were obtained by renderingתורי זהבgolden Laws, andthe seven times seven, orthe forty different interpretations of the Law, by reducing the wordזהבto its numerical value,זbeingseven, andהandבseven, and then multiplying seven by seven;the binding of Isaac, in verse 13, was obtained by renderingצרור המורbyערור המוריהthe binding of Moriah;the sin of the calf, andthe atonement of that, in verse 14, were obtained by changingעין גדיEn-gedi, intoעון עגלthe sin of the calf, and by substitutingכפרpardon, forכופרcypress-flower, according to the example of the Talmud.40This is the development of Hagadic exegesis, and this the paraphrase appealed to in support of the allegorical interpretation, and in the track of which future allegorists more or less follow.892–942. From the Chaldee paraphrase to R. Saadias Gaon, a period of about 350 years, thick darkness covers the annals of Jewish literature. With him, however, a new epoch begins to dawn. Saadias was born at Pithom, in Egypt, about the year 892, and died in the year 942. He was “Gaon,” or spiritual head of[35]the Jews in Babylon, and is well known by his translation of the Bible into Arabic, the Pentateuch of which is inserted in Walton’s Polyglott.41Among the many philosophical and exegetical works this eminent man bequeathed to posterity, is a commentary on the Song of Songs, which was originally written in Arabic, and was translated into Hebrew by some unknown individual. This work is exceedingly rare, and I have happily found a copy of the original Constantinople edition in the British Museum, of which Dukes was not aware when he wrote his “Literarische Mittheilungen.” The view that Saadias takes is that “Solomon relates in it the history of the Jews, beginning with their Exodus from Egypt, and extending it beyond the coming of the Messiah.” Thus far he agrees with the Targum, but his commentary on the text is entirely at variance with that paraphrase.According to Saadias, Ch. i. 2–iii. 5, describes the bondage of Israel in Egypt, their liberation, the giving of the Law, the battles with Sihon, Og, and the King of Aroar, the wrath of God at the time of the spies, &c. Ch. iii. 6–iv. 7, describes the erection of the Tabernacle, the various journeys in the wilderness, the high position of Moses and Aaron, &c. Hitherto Israel has been called by the appellationmy loved one, for they had not as yet entered Canaan; henceforth they are calledbride(כלה), because God takes them into the promised land; just as a bridegroom calls his loved onebride, when he takes her home. Ch. iv. 8–v. 1, describes Israel’s entrance into Canaan, the building of the first Temple, the separation of[36]Judah and Israel, the Shechinah departing from Israel and abiding with Judah, and the people coming up to Jerusalem to the three great festivals. Ch. v. 2–vi. 3, describes the rebellion of Israel and Ahaz, God sending prophets to warn them to repent, the destruction of the Temple, the Babylonian captivity, Israel’s liberation, the building of the second Temple, and the covenant of God with his repenting people. Ch. vi. 4–ix. describes the twofold condition of the people that returned from Babylon, some of whom were godly, while others took strange women, forgot the holy language, and were therefore calledשחרdawn, being neither real light nor real darkness, neither pious nor wicked. Ch. vi. 10–vii. 9, refers to the present dispersion, in which the Jews, though being many days without a king, without a priest, &c., say we still live in the fear of God, and are His. Ch. vii. 12–viii. 4, refers to the sufferings of the Messiah ben Joseph, the manifestation of the Messiah ben David, the obedience of Israel to God in those days, and to the Lord’s rejoicing over them as a bridegroom over his bride. Ch. viii. 5, to the end, describes Israel restored, the third Temple built, and all the people walking according to the will of the Lord.The principal persons in this Song are understood in the following manner: “the beloved” isthe Lord; “the loved one,”the Congregation of Israel; “the companions of the beloved,” (Ch. i. 7,) areMoses,Aaron, andMiriam; “the daughters of Jerusalem,”the Congregation of Israel; “the little sister,”the two tribes and a half; “the speaker,”the Lord; “the inhabitant of the gardens,” isthe sages; “the companions,” in the same verse, arethe Israeliteswishing to listen to the teaching of their sages.The following is a specimen of R. Saadias’s commentary, the Hebrew of which is given in the note.421–3.The Song of Songs, &c.—Know, my brother, that you will find a great diversity of opinions as regards the interpretation of this Song of[37]Songs; and it must be confessed that there is reason for it, since the Song of Songs is like a lock, the key of which hath been lost. Some maintain that it refers to the kingdom of Israel; others say that it refers to the days of the Messiah; and others again affirm that it refers to the time of the dispersion and the Messiah, and assert that bybeloved(דוד) the Messiah is meant, and bybride(כלה) is meant the law (תורה). But this is a sin, an error, and a great heresy. The truth is, that bybeloved(דוד) is meantthe Lord, for it is written, “I will sing to my beloved a song of love respecting his vineyard” (Isa. v. 1), which the prophet Isaiah explains (verse 7), “The vineyard of the Lord of Hosts is the house of Israel.” Solomon relates in this book the history of the Jews commencing with their Exodus from Egypt until after the coming of the Messiah, and compares the position of Israel to God to that of a bride to a bridegroom, because she (Israel) is dear to him, and he to her. When he first takes her from her father’s house he calls hermy friend(רעיתי), when he brings her to his house he calls hermy bride(כלה), when she finds favour in his eyes he calls hermy sister(אחותי), and praises her from head to foot; then he is angry with her, and she returns and praises him from head to foot; then he praises her a second time. And, because it is unlawful for a bridegroom and bride to come together without a marriage-contract and witnesses, therefore Solomon begins with the words, “Let him give me kisses of his mouth;” that is, the commandments and the statutes, comprising both the written and the oral law which the Lord gave to Israel through the pious Moses, Aaron, and Miriam, so that Israel’s fame went forth into the world in consequence of their wisdom, as it is written, “And thy renown went forth among the heathen for thy beauty,” &c. (Ezek. xvi. 14), so much so that many of the nations desired to be gathered under the wings of the shechinah and become Jews; and these are the mixed multitudes, Jethro and others, and therefore it is said, “Thy perfumes are good in odour,” that is, the Lord tried them from the departure out of Egypt till their entrance into Canaan whether they would walk in his ways, as it is written, “Thou didst follow me in the wilderness,” &c. Jer. ii. 2.4.Draw me, &c.—Having related in this verse how Israel walked in the fear of the Lord, and received the ten commandments in the 6th of[38]Sivan, and then made the calf on the 17th of Tamuz, Solomon in astonishment says in their name,5.I am swarthy, &c.—That is, I am swarthy, but comely; I am swarthy because of making the calf, but comely because of receiving the ten commandments; and Israel says that his sin has been forgiven through the three thousand men, the wicked among Israel, who served idols, who were killed before the sun to atone for the great sin, as it is written, “For thou hadst done it in secret, but I will do it before all Israel, and before the sun”(2 Sam. xii. 11, 12); and the nations made mekeeperof the service of other gods, for I served strange gods, as it is written, “And they changed their glory into the likeness of a calf that eateth grass” (Psal. cv. 25.)The reader will have observed that this early commentator does already compare the Song of Songsto a lock, the key of which has been lost, and refers to several modes in which it has been interpreted.1000–1040. The allegorical interpretation was nevertheless introduced into the Jewish liturgical services in the middle ages, when they were seeking, from traditions, dogmas, biblical events, &c., to construct sacred hymns and poems to be said or sung at their feasts and fasts.43Being regarded as representing the departure of Israel from Egypt (יציאת מצרים), and their subsequent history in confirmation of Jehovah’s covenant with them, the Song of Songs is used in a poetical paraphrase on the first and second morning services of the Passover feast, which was designed to celebrate the Exodus from Egypt as the commencement of the conjugal relation between God and his people. For the same reason, the book itself is read in the synagogue on the Sabbath of the middle days of the Passover (חול המועד של פסח). The poetical paraphrase above alluded to is in an alphabetical form, has the author’s name in it, and each stanza closes with a quotation from the book in regular order, which renders the paraphrastic meaning artificial and obscure. Some idea of it may be gathered from the following version which we have made of R. Solomon[39]ben Judah Hababli’s paraphrase, comprising the first five verses of the Song of Songs.
No book has furnished a wider field for the speculation and visionary projects of those who substitute their own imagination and enthusiastic feelings for the teaching of Scripture, than the Song of Solomon; the varieties and absurdities of which are a solemn warning against departing from the rules of sound philology and critical interpretation.An enumeration of all the different interpretations of this Song would be too lengthy, and is not required. It will be sufficient to glance at the leading expositions. We begin with the Jewish.[21]323–246,B.C.18It has been supposed that the Septuagint, which may be regarded as the oldest Jewish exegetical tradition, contains some intimation that the translators of the Old Testament into Greek and their Jewish brethren of those days must have interpreted the Song of Solomon in an allegorical manner. The only passage adduced in corroboration of this opinion is, Ch. iv. 8, where the Septuagint rendersמֵראֹשׁ אֲמָנָהfrom the top of Amana, byἀπὸἀρχῆςπίστεως,from the top of faith. That this appeal is nugatory is obvious from the rendering ofתִּרְצָהTirzahbyεὐδοκία,delight, vi. 4, and ofבַּתנָדִיבnoble daughterbyθύγατερ Ναδάβ,daughter of Nadab, vii. 1; whence it is evident that the Septuagint frequently mistookproper namesfor appellatives and adjectives, andvice versâ. It appears inconceivable that a profound scholar like Keil, who is well acquainted with the frequent errors of the Septuagint, should quote this as a special and sufficient proof that “the Alexandrian version took this Song in an allegorical sense,”19especially as he knew that some have drawn from it the very opposite conclusion, who have argued that if the authors of the Septuagint had understood this book in any other than its obvious sense, they would have betrayed it in the translation.20180,B.C.Jesus Sirach, xlvii. 14–17, is next adduced as furnishing some clue to the Jewish interpretation of this book. Ecclesiasticus, according to some, is a name given to itκατ’ ἐξοχὴν, because of its being the most remarkable and useful of the ecclesiastical or apocryphal books; others say it was so called from its resemblance to Solomon’sEcclesiastes, and others, again, with more probability, that this name was given to it by the Latins, to denoteits use in the church. Its Greek name, however,Σοφία Ἰησοῦ υἱοῦ Σειράχ,wisdom of Jesus[22]son of Sirach, is more appropriate. It specifies at once the author, who mentions his own name in Ch. l. 27. The age given to the book here, is that which is thought most probable.21This apocryphal writer says in his apostrophe to Solomon,—“How wise wast thou in thy youth, and, as a flood, filled with understanding! Thy mind covered the earth, and thou filledst it with enigmatic sayings. Thy name went forth to the distant isles, and thou wast beloved for thy peace. Countries admired thee for songs, and proverbs, and enigmas, and solutions.” The 17th verse is supposed to include the whole writings of Solomon contained in the Old Testament; and it is affirmed thatπαραβολαὶ αἰνιγμάτωνin verse 15, cannot be understood to mean the Proverbs (παροιμία) since these are separately mentioned in verse 17, hence it follows that they refer to the allegorical interpretation of this Song.22Even Hengstenberg, who, though a defender of the allegorical interpretation, remarks,23“Sirach xlvii. 17, has wrongly been referred to in support of the allegorical interpretation. For the wordsἐν ᾠδαῖς καὶ παροίμιαις καὶ παραβολαῖς καὶ ἐν ἑρμηνείαις ἀπεθαύμασάν σε χῶραιdepend upon the historical narration in the Books of the Kings, and do not refer to the writings comprised in the Canon. This is evident from the mention of theἑρμηνείαι, wherebythe solutionsof the enigmas in contradistinction to the enigmas themselves, can alone be meant. Comp. 1 Kings x. 1–3. Whereas in the Canon no suchἑρμηνείαιare to be found. Verse 15, in which Keil finds a special reference to the allegorical interpretation, likewise alludes to 1 Kings x., especially to verse 24.”120,B.C.The Book of Wisdom has also been supposed to contain a clue to the interpretation of this Song. The author and the age of the Book are points of great contest.[23]All that can be concluded with any degree of probability is, that the author was an Alexandrian Jew, who lived after the transplanting of the Greek philosophy into Egypt, and that he seems to refer to the oppression of the later Ptolemies.24In ch. viii. 2, Solomon is represented as speaking to Wisdom; “Her I loved and sought from my youth, I sought to bring her home for my bride, and I became a lover of her beauty.” Because Solomon is here made to speak of Wisdom as his bride, it has been maintained to be an explanation of the Song of Songs, as though the brides were necessarily the same.25Let any impartial reader peruse the description of Wisdom in the chapter quoted, and that of the bride in the Song of Songs, and he will be convinced that there is no intentional resemblance whatever.37–95,A.D.Josephus is also said to have understood this Song in an allegorical sense, although it is not in a single instance quoted by him. His arrangement of the Books of the Old Testament is the only ground of this argument. It is said, as he26mentions twenty-two books which are justly accredited as Divine, (τὰ δικαίως θεῖα πεπιστευμένα) and describes five as belonging to Moses, thirteen to the Prophets, and the remaining four as containing hymns to God, and rules of life for men (αἱ δὲ λοιπαὶ τέσσαρες ὕμνους εἰς τὸν Θεὸν καὶ τοῖς ἀνθρώποις ὑποθήκας τοῦ βίου περιέχουσιν)viz., the Psalms, Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes, no place is left for this Song except among the Prophets; and if Josephus placed it there, it follows that he must have understood it allegorically.27But were we to admit that Josephus placed this Song among the prophetical writings, we should deny the conclusion attempted to be drawn from it. For according to the same mode of argumentation, we might infer that Josephus understood[24]Ruth and Esther allegorically, for he also places these books among the prophetical writings. The fact is, that this historian, as he tells us himself, reckons the historical books among the prophetical ones. But we demur to the assertion that Josephus put this Song among the prophetical writings; it is far more likely that he placed it among the four books which he describes as consisting of hymns to God and precepts for the life of men.28We come now to the Talmud, in which passages from this Song are quoted and interpreted. This elaborate work, consists of what is called theMishna, constituting the text, and theGemara, which is a commentary upon it, derived from two sources,viz.—Jerusalem and Babylon. The Jews, from time immemorial, had anunwrittenlawתּוֹרָה שֶׁבַּעַל פֶּהδόγματα ἄγραφα, in addition to thewrittenone,תּוֹרָה שֶׁבַּכְּתָב,ἔγγραφος, contained in the Pentateuch. Hillel of Babylon (born 75B.C.), who, next to Ezra, was celebrated by posterity as the restorer of the law,29first arranged and divided this oral law into six parts:—1, concerning sowing; 2, women; 3, festivals; 4, the rights of property; 5, holy things; 6, pure and impure things. This, which comprises everything that appertains to the Jewish law, was calledמִשְׁנָהMishna,δευτέρωσις, or the second recension of the law. In order to reconcile the Sadducees, who denied every law not founded on Holy Writ, Hillel laid down seven hermeneutic rules, whereby the Scriptures might be interpreted in such a manner that the oral law could be deduced from it.30When fears were afterwards entertained lest the oral tradition should be lost, Rabbi Judah Hakkadosh (i.e.holy), in the year 220A.D., collected everything that had been said upon the subject, preserving the division of Hillel, and probably making some additions of his[25]own. This he did in a manner so masterly and satisfactory, that it superseded every other previous attempt, and constitutes the presentMishna.TheMishnabecame the chief object of study. The rules of Hillel were increased and much acted on; expositions were given upon the reasons that led to the decisions in the Mishna; the expounders were calledאֲמוֹרָאִיםAmoraim,public lecturers, and the expositionגְמָרָאGemara.After the death of Judah, many of his learned disciples, objecting to the appointment of his second son Gamaliel, to his father’s office, emigrated to Babylon, and having erected schools there, pursued the study of the Mishna. The academy they established in Sura rivalled the one in Tiberias. The Gemara of Tiberias, collated about 358 (A.D.) by an unknown individual, is calledTalmud Jerushalmi; and the Gemara of Sura, the compilation of which was begun by R. Ashe (352–427), continued by his disciple and friend, Rabina, and finished about 525, is calledTalmud Babli. The latter surpasses the former in comprehensiveness, perspicuity, and depth, is about four times as large, and fills 2947 folio pages. Both united are calledThe Talmudתַּלְמוּדbook of instruction; and alsoגְמָרָאGemara. It contains the civil and ceremonial law, debates on various branches of art and science, moral sayings, anecdotes, expositions on different passages of Scripture, &c.31100–500,A.D.—In Yadaim, (Sect. iii. 5.) we find that R. Akiba, one of the greatest Rabbins who lived in the first century, and president of the Academy of Bai-Barc, said, “The whole world was not worthy of the day in which this sublime Song was given to Israel; for all the Scriptures are holy, but this sublime Song is most holy.” There can, therefore, be no doubt that the mysteries which this distinguished Rabbi found in the Song of Songs, he regarded as greater than those he discovered in any other portion of the Sacred Scriptures.[26]Subsequent Rabbins quote and explain different passages. Thus, Ch. i. 2 is discussed in Abodah Sarah (Sect. 2, p. 35). It is asked, “How are the words, ‘Thy love is better than wine’ understood?” Answer:When Rabbi Dimi came to Babylon, he said, “This verse is thus understood: the Congregation of Israel said to God, ‘Lord of the Universe, the words of thy friends (namely, the sages) are more excellent than even the wine of the Law.’”Here we see that the beloved is taken to beGod, and the loved onethe Congregation of Israel.Ch. i. 3, is quoted and expounded, a little further on, in the same tract of the Talmud, in the following manner. “R. Nachman ben R. Chasdah once said, in his discourse, the words ‘Delicious is the odour of thy perfumes,’ denote a learned man; for such an one is like a box of perfumes; if it is covered up, no one can smell the perfumes, but when it is opened the odour becomes widely diffused. It is so with a learned man without disciples, no one knows of his learning; but if he gets a circle of disciples his name and his learning become widely diffused. And not only this, but he himself will increase learning by teaching, so that things which he formerly did not understand will now become plain to him; for it is written in the same verseעלמות אהבוךDAMSELS LOVE THEE;readעלומותHIDDEN THINGSwill love thee, i.e.,will become plain to thee; and not only this, but even the angel of death will love him; read thenעל־מותHE WHO IS OVER DEATHwill love thee; and still more, he will inherit both worlds, this world and the world to come; read alsoעולמותWORLDSlove thee.”Ch. i. 13, 14, and v. 13, are quoted and explained in Sabbath, p. 88, b., “Rabbi Joshuah ben Levi saith, What is meant byצרור המור דודי לי בין שדי יליןis the congregation of Israel, who is saying before the Holy One thus: O Lord, though my beloved (i.e. God) oppresses me, and is embittered against me, yet he still lodges with me.Byאשכול הכופר דודי לי בכרמי עין גדיis meant, He who is the owner of all things, will forgive me the[27]sin of the calf, with which I covered myself.A question is raised,How doesבכרמיsignify my covering?Then Rabbi Mar-Sutra ben Rabbi Nachman quotesכסא של כובס שכורמי עליו את הכלאםfrom another part of the Talmud (Kelim 35), whereכרםmeansto cover. R. Joshuah ben Levi proceeds,What is meant byלחייו כערוגת הבושםis, At every commandment which proceedeth from the mouth of the Holy One on Mount Sinai, the world was filled with aromatics.A question is asked,If the world was filled at the first commandment, where was the odour diffused at the second commandment?Answer,The Holy One sent his wind from his stores, and carried them away successively, as it is written,שפתותיו שושניםdo not readשושניםbutששוניםrepeating in succession.Rabbi Joshuah ben Levi concludes,At every commandment uttered by the mouth of the Holy One, the soul of Israel was drawn out of them, as it is written, ‘My soul went out when he spake.’A question is again asked,If their soul was drawn out at the first commandment, how could they receive the second?Answer.He (i.e. God) caused the dew to come down, by which he will raise the dead, and revived them, as it is written, ‘Thou, O God, didst send a plentiful rain, whereby thou didst confirm thine inheritance, when it was weary.’” Ps. lxviii. 9.32Here, again, we see that the bridegroom is taken to be the Holy One, the Owner of all things, and the bride the congregation of Israel. The reader, looking into the text of the Talmud quoted in the note, will observe that most of this interpretation has been obtained, either by the separation of words, the transposition and change of letters, or by substituting[28]in the commentary words, similar in sound to those in the Scriptures. Thus,צרורa bundle, a bag, is explained byמיצרoppress;מורmyrrhbyמימרembitter;אשכולa clusterbyאיש שהכל לוHe whose are all things;כופרcypress flowersbyכפרpardon;עין גדיEn-gedibyעון עגלthe sin of the calf.This mode of interpretation is not confined to the Song of Songs, but is applied to all parts of the Bible, and is an illustration of the way in which the hermeneutic rules laid down by Rabbi Hillel, and augmented by R. Ishmael, and others, were carried out.550,A.D.—The Targum or Chaldee paraphrase is the first entire commentary upon the Song of Songs which has been handed down to us. The author is unknown. Kitto erroneously affirms, that it was “made several centuries before the time of Christ, and probably before the traditionary interpretation of the author himself (i.e.the author of this Song) would entirely be lost.”33The inferior style in which it is written, the copious use it makes of legends of a very late date, and especially the mention it makes of theGemara(Ch. i. 2), which was not completed till nearly the middle ofthe sixth century, prove most distinctly that this paraphrase was made in the sixth century. Hävernick,34however, is equally wrong in affirming that the Mahomedans are mentioned in Ch. i. 7. Thatthe sons of Ishmaelhere alluded to are not the Mahomedans, is evident from Ch. vi. 7. of the same paraphrase, where we are told that theseבְּנוֹי דְיִשְׁמָעֵאלheaded by Alexander the Great, came to wage war against Jerusalem at the time of the Maccabees.The Targum takes the Song of Songs as an allegory, describing prophetically the history of the Jewish nation, beginning with their Exodus from Egypt, and detailing their doings and sufferings, down to the coming of the Messiah, and the building of the third Temple.[29]Thus, according to this allegory, Ch. i. 3, describes Jehovah’s fame, which went abroad in consequence of the wonders he wrought when bringing the Israelites out of Egypt; verse 12 describes the departure of Moses to receive the two tables of stone, and how the Israelites, in the mean time, made the golden calf; verse 14 describes the pardon of that sin, and the erection of the Tabernacle; Ch. iii. 6–11, describes the passage of the Israelites, under the leadership of Joshua, over the Jordan, their attacking and conquering the Canaanites, and the building of Solomon’s Temple; Ch. v. 2, describes the Babylonian captivity; Ch. vi. 2, the deliverance of Israel through Cyrus; and the building of the second Temple; Ch. vi. 7, &c., describes the battles of the Maccabees; Ch. vii. 11, 12, the present dispersion of the Jews, and their future anxiety to learn the time of their restoration; Ch. viii. 5, &c., describes the resurrection of the dead, the final ingathering of Israel, the building of the third Temple, &c., &c.“The beloved,” according to the Targum, isthe Lord; “the loved one” isthe Congregation of Israel; “the companions of the beloved” (Ch. i. 7) arethe Edomites and the Ishmaelites; “the daughters of Jerusalem” are, in Ch. i. 5,the Gentile nations; in ii. 7, iii. 5, viii. 4,the Congregation of Israel; and in v. 8,the prophets; “the brothers of the loved one” arethe false prophets; “the little sister,” in viii. 8, isthe people of Israel; the speakers in the same verse arethe angels; the speaker in viii. 13, isthe Lord; “the companions,” in the same verse arethe Sanhedrim.The following specimen of the Targum, on the first chapter of this Song, will give the reader an idea of the way in which the paraphrase develops the allegorical construction of this book.1.The Song of Songs, &c.—The songs and praises which Solomon the prophet, King of Israel, sang, by the spirit of prophecy, before God, the Lord of the whole world. Ten songs weresungin this world, but this song is the most celebrated of them all. Thefirstsong Adam sang when his sins were forgiven him, and when the sabbath-day came, and protected him, he opened his mouth and said, “A song for the sabbath-day,”&c. (Ps. xcii.) Thesecondsong Moses and the children of Israel sang when the[30]Lord of the world divided the Red Sea for them, they all opened their mouths and sang as one man, the song, as it is written, “Then sang Moses and the children of Israel.” (Exod. xv. 1.) Thethirdsong the children of Israel sang when the well of water was given to them, as it is written, “Then sang Israel.” (Numb. xxi. 17.) Thefourthsong Moses the prophet sang, when his time came to depart from this world, in which he reproved the people of the house of Israel, as it is written: “Give ear, O heavens, and I will speak.” (Deut. xxxii. 1.) Thefifthsong Joshua the son of Nun sang, when he waged war in Gibeon, and the sun and moon stood still for him thirty-six hours, and when they left off singing their song, he himself opened his mouth and sang this song, as it is written: “Then sang Joshua before the Lord.” (Josh. x. 12.) Thesixthsong Barak and Deborah sang in the day when the Lord delivered Sisera and his army into the hands of the children of Israel, as it is written: “Then sang Deborah, &c.” (Judg. v. 11.) Theseventhsong Hannah sang when a son was given her by the Lord, as it is written: “And Hannah prayed prophetically, and said.” (1 Sam. ii. 1, and the Targumin loco.) Theeighthsong David the King of Israel sang for all the wonders which the Lord did for him. He opened his mouth and sang a hymn, as it is written: “And David sang in prophecy before the Lord.” (2 Sam. xxii. 1, and the Targumin loco.) Theninthsong Solomon the King of Israel sang by the Holy Spirit before God, the Lord of the whole world. And thetenthsong the children of the captivity shall sing when they shall be delivered from their captivity, as it is written and declared by Isaiah the prophet: “This song shall be unto you for joy, as in the night in which the feast of the passover is celebrated; and gladness of heart as when the people go to appear before the Lord three times in the year, with all kinds of music, and with the sound of the timbrel, to go up to the mountain of the Lord, and to worship before the Lord, the Mighty One of Israel.” (Is. xxx. 29, and the Targumin loco.)2.Let him kiss me, &c.—Solomon the prophet said, “Blessed be the name of the Lord who has given us the law through Moses the great scribe, written upon two tables of stone; and the six parts of the Mishna and the Talmud traditionally, and who spoke with us face to face, as a man that kissed his friend, because of his great love wherewith he loved us above the seventy nations.”353.Thy perfumes, &c.—At the report of thy wonders and mighty deeds which thou hast done for thy people the house of Israel, all the nations trembled who heard of thy famous strength, and thy great miracles; and in all the earth was heard thy holy name, which is more excellent than the anointing oil that was poured upon the heads of kings and priests; therefore the righteous love to walk after thy good way, because they shall inherit both this world and the world to come.4.Draw me, &c.—When the people of the house of Israel went out of Egypt the shechinah of the Lord of the world went before them in a pillar of cloud by day, and in a pillar of fire by night, and the righteous of that[31]generation said, Lord of the whole world, draw us after thee, and we will run in thy good way! Bring us to the foot of Mount Sinai, and give us thy law out of thy treasury in heaven, and we will rejoice and be gladin the twenty-two letters36with which it is written, and we will remember them, and love thy divine nature, and withdraw ourselves from the idols of the nations; and all the righteous, who do that which is right before thee, shall fear thee and love thy commandments.5.I am swarthy, &c.—When the house of Israel made the calf, their faces became black, like the sons of Cush, who dwelt in the tents of Kedar; but when they returned by repentance, and were forgiven, the shining splendour of their faces was increased to that of angels, because they made the curtains for the tabernacle, and the shechinah of the Lord dwelt among them; and Moses, their teacher, went up to heaven and made peace between them and their King.6.Do not look down upon me, &c.—The congregation of Israel said before all the nations, Do not despise me because I am blacker than you, for I have done your deeds, and worshipped the sun and moon; for false prophets have been the cause that the fierce anger of the Lord has come upon me, and they taught me to worship your idols, and to walk in your laws; but the Lord of the world, who is my God, I did not serve, and did not walk in his precepts, and did not keep his commandments and laws.7.Tell me, &c.—When the time came for Moses the prophet to depart from this world, he said to the Lord, It is revealed to me that this people will sin, and be carried into captivity; show me now how they shall be governed and dwell among the nations, whose decrees are oppressive as the heat and the scorching sun in the summer solstice, and wherefore is it that they shall wander among the flocks of the sons of Esau and Ishmael, who make their idols equal to thee, as though they were thy companions.8.If thou knowest not, &c.—The Holy One, blessed be his name, said to Moses, the prophet, “I suffer myself to be entreated to abolish their captivity; the congregation of Israel, which is like a fair damsel, and which my soul loves, she shall walk in the ways of the righteous, and shall order her prayers according to the order of her governors and leaders, and instruct her children, who are like to the kids of the goats, to go to the synagogue and the schools; and by the merits of this they shall be governed in the captivity, until the time that I send King Messiah, and he shall lead them quietly to their habitations; yea, he shall bring them to the house of the sanctuary, which David and Solomon, the shepherds of Israel, shall build for them.”9.I compare thee, &c.—When Israel went out of Egypt, Pharaoh and his hosts pursued after them with chariots and horsemen, and their way was shut up on the four sides of them; on the right hand and on the left were wildernesses full of fiery serpents, and behind them was wicked Pharaoh with his army, and before them was the Red Sea, what did the holy blessed God do? He was manifested in the power of his might upon the Red Sea, and dried the sea up, but the mud he did not dry up. The wicked and the mixed multitude, and the strangers who were among them,[32]said, The waters of the sea he was able to dry up, but the mud he was not able to dry up. In that very hour the fierce anger of the Lord came upon them, and he sought to drown them in the waters of the sea, as Pharaoh, and his army, and his chariots, and his horsemen, and his horses were drowned, had it not been for Moses the Prophet, who spread his hands in prayer before the Lord, and turned away the anger of the Lord from them. Then he and the righteous of that generation opened their mouths, and sang a song, and passed through the Red Sea on dry land, through the merits of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the beloved of the Lord.10.Beautiful are thy cheeks, &c.—When they went out into the wilderness the Lord said to Moses, “How comely is this people, that the words of the law should be given unto them, and they shall be as a bridle in their jaws, that they may not depart out of the good way, as a horse turneth not aside that has a bridle in his jaws; and how fair is their neck to bear the yoke of my commandments; and it shall be upon them as a yoke upon the neck of a bullock which plougheth in the field, and feeds both itself and its owner.”11.Circlets of gold, &c.—Then was it said to Moses, “Go up into heaven, and I will give thee the two tables of stone, hewn out of the sapphire of the throne of my glory, shining as the best gold, disposed in rows, written with my finger, on which are engraven the ten commandments, purer than silver that is purified seven times seven, which is the number of the things explained in them in forty-nine various ways, and I shall give them by thy hands to the people of the house of Israel.”12.While the King, &c.—Whilst Moses, their teacher, was in heaven to receive the two tables of stone, and the law and the commandments, the wicked of that generation and the mixed multitude that was among them rose up and made a golden calf, and caused their works to stink, and an evil report of them went out in the world; for before this time a fragrant odour of them was diffused in the world, but afterwards they stank like nard, the smell of which is very bad, and the plague of leprosy came down upon their flesh.13.A bag of myrrh, &c.—At that time the Lord said to Moses, “Go down, for the people have corrupted themselves, desist from speaking to me, and I will destroy them.” Then Moses returned and asked mercy of the Lord, and the Lord remembered for them the binding of Isaac, whom his father bound, on Mount Moriah, upon the altar; and the Lord turned from his fierce anger, and caused his shechinah to dwell among them as before.14.A bunch of cypress flowers, &c.—So then went Moses down with the two tables of stone in his hands; and, because of the sins of Israel, his hands grew heavy, and the tables fell and were broken. Then went Moses and ground the calf to powder, and scattered the dust of it upon the brook, and made the children of Israel to drink it, and slew all that deserved to die, and went up a second time into heaven, and prayed before the Lord, and made atonement for the children of Israel; then was the commandment to make a tabernacle and an ark. Immediately Moses hastened and made the tabernacle, and all its furniture, and the ark; and he put in the ark the two other tables, and appointed the sons of Aaron, the priests, to offer the offerings upon the altar, and to pour the wine upon the offerings;[33]but from whence had they wine to pour? For in the wilderness they had no proper place for sowing; neither had they fig-trees, nor vines, nor pomegranates; but they went to the vineyards of En-gedi, and took clusters of grapes from thence, and pressed wine out of them, and poured it upon the altar, the fourth part of a hin to one lamb.15.Behold thou art beautiful, &c.—When the children of Israel performed the will of their King, he himself praised them in the family of the holy angels, and said, “How fair are thy works, my daughter, my beloved, O congregation of Israel, in the time that thou doest my will, and studiest in the words of my law; and how well ordered are thy works and thy affairs, as young doves that are fit to be offered upon the altar!”16.Behold thou art comely, &c.—The congregation of Israel answered before the Lord of the world, and thus said, “How fair is the shechinah of thy holiness, when thou dwellest among us, and receivest prayers with acceptance; and when thou dwellest in our beloved bed, and our children are multiplied in the world, and we increase and multiply like a tree that is planted by a stream of water, whose leaf is fair, and whose fruit is plenteous!”17.The beams of, &c.—Solomon, the prophet, said, “How beautiful is the house of the sanctuary of the Lord, which is built by my hands, of wood of Gulmish; but far more beautiful will be the house of the sanctuary which shall be built in the days of the King Messiah, the beams of which will be of the cedars of the garden of Eden, and whose rafters will be of cypress, pine, and box.”The precedent of the Talmud in taking the beloved asthe Lord, and the loved one asthe Congregation of Israel, and in explaining the text in such a manner as to make it square with her doings, has quite prepared us for the Chaldee exposition, the author of which most probably was himself one of the later Talmudists. How could the paraphrast do otherwise? “Are not the words ofthe sagesmore excellent than even the wine of the Law?”37“Is not he who transgresses the words of the scribes more guilty than he who transgresses the words of the Law?”38Having, therefore, been once settled by the sages that this Song describes the doings and sufferings of Israel, it only remained for the expositors to apply their exegetical canons, viz.: of transposing, changing, or omitting letters; explaining words by others of a similar sound; making each letter of a word begin another word; reducing an expression to its numerical value, and explaining the text accordingly, &c. &c., in order to palm upon this book, in a consecutive[34]order, the remarkable events in connection with the history of the Jews.Thus, the love of God to Israel, which was greater than to allthe seventy other nationsmentioned in Ch. i. 2, was obtained by reducing the wordייןto its numerical value,seventy;the two worlds, in verse 3, which the pious are to inherit, were obtained by changingעלמותmaidens, intoעולמותworlds, according to the example of the Talmud;39the twenty-two letterswith which the Law is written, in verse 4, were obtained by reducing the wordבךto its numerical value;the Tabernacle, in verse 5, was obtained from the wordירעות, andthe effected peaceby changing the proper nameשלמהintoשלוםpeace; the worship ofthe sun and moon, in verse 6, was obtained from the wordשמשsun;the ploughing bullock, in verse 10, was obtained by changingתוריםringlet, andחרוזיםnecklace, intoתור חרז;the two tables shining as the best gold, verse 11, were obtained by renderingתורי זהבgolden Laws, andthe seven times seven, orthe forty different interpretations of the Law, by reducing the wordזהבto its numerical value,זbeingseven, andהandבseven, and then multiplying seven by seven;the binding of Isaac, in verse 13, was obtained by renderingצרור המורbyערור המוריהthe binding of Moriah;the sin of the calf, andthe atonement of that, in verse 14, were obtained by changingעין גדיEn-gedi, intoעון עגלthe sin of the calf, and by substitutingכפרpardon, forכופרcypress-flower, according to the example of the Talmud.40This is the development of Hagadic exegesis, and this the paraphrase appealed to in support of the allegorical interpretation, and in the track of which future allegorists more or less follow.892–942. From the Chaldee paraphrase to R. Saadias Gaon, a period of about 350 years, thick darkness covers the annals of Jewish literature. With him, however, a new epoch begins to dawn. Saadias was born at Pithom, in Egypt, about the year 892, and died in the year 942. He was “Gaon,” or spiritual head of[35]the Jews in Babylon, and is well known by his translation of the Bible into Arabic, the Pentateuch of which is inserted in Walton’s Polyglott.41Among the many philosophical and exegetical works this eminent man bequeathed to posterity, is a commentary on the Song of Songs, which was originally written in Arabic, and was translated into Hebrew by some unknown individual. This work is exceedingly rare, and I have happily found a copy of the original Constantinople edition in the British Museum, of which Dukes was not aware when he wrote his “Literarische Mittheilungen.” The view that Saadias takes is that “Solomon relates in it the history of the Jews, beginning with their Exodus from Egypt, and extending it beyond the coming of the Messiah.” Thus far he agrees with the Targum, but his commentary on the text is entirely at variance with that paraphrase.According to Saadias, Ch. i. 2–iii. 5, describes the bondage of Israel in Egypt, their liberation, the giving of the Law, the battles with Sihon, Og, and the King of Aroar, the wrath of God at the time of the spies, &c. Ch. iii. 6–iv. 7, describes the erection of the Tabernacle, the various journeys in the wilderness, the high position of Moses and Aaron, &c. Hitherto Israel has been called by the appellationmy loved one, for they had not as yet entered Canaan; henceforth they are calledbride(כלה), because God takes them into the promised land; just as a bridegroom calls his loved onebride, when he takes her home. Ch. iv. 8–v. 1, describes Israel’s entrance into Canaan, the building of the first Temple, the separation of[36]Judah and Israel, the Shechinah departing from Israel and abiding with Judah, and the people coming up to Jerusalem to the three great festivals. Ch. v. 2–vi. 3, describes the rebellion of Israel and Ahaz, God sending prophets to warn them to repent, the destruction of the Temple, the Babylonian captivity, Israel’s liberation, the building of the second Temple, and the covenant of God with his repenting people. Ch. vi. 4–ix. describes the twofold condition of the people that returned from Babylon, some of whom were godly, while others took strange women, forgot the holy language, and were therefore calledשחרdawn, being neither real light nor real darkness, neither pious nor wicked. Ch. vi. 10–vii. 9, refers to the present dispersion, in which the Jews, though being many days without a king, without a priest, &c., say we still live in the fear of God, and are His. Ch. vii. 12–viii. 4, refers to the sufferings of the Messiah ben Joseph, the manifestation of the Messiah ben David, the obedience of Israel to God in those days, and to the Lord’s rejoicing over them as a bridegroom over his bride. Ch. viii. 5, to the end, describes Israel restored, the third Temple built, and all the people walking according to the will of the Lord.The principal persons in this Song are understood in the following manner: “the beloved” isthe Lord; “the loved one,”the Congregation of Israel; “the companions of the beloved,” (Ch. i. 7,) areMoses,Aaron, andMiriam; “the daughters of Jerusalem,”the Congregation of Israel; “the little sister,”the two tribes and a half; “the speaker,”the Lord; “the inhabitant of the gardens,” isthe sages; “the companions,” in the same verse, arethe Israeliteswishing to listen to the teaching of their sages.The following is a specimen of R. Saadias’s commentary, the Hebrew of which is given in the note.421–3.The Song of Songs, &c.—Know, my brother, that you will find a great diversity of opinions as regards the interpretation of this Song of[37]Songs; and it must be confessed that there is reason for it, since the Song of Songs is like a lock, the key of which hath been lost. Some maintain that it refers to the kingdom of Israel; others say that it refers to the days of the Messiah; and others again affirm that it refers to the time of the dispersion and the Messiah, and assert that bybeloved(דוד) the Messiah is meant, and bybride(כלה) is meant the law (תורה). But this is a sin, an error, and a great heresy. The truth is, that bybeloved(דוד) is meantthe Lord, for it is written, “I will sing to my beloved a song of love respecting his vineyard” (Isa. v. 1), which the prophet Isaiah explains (verse 7), “The vineyard of the Lord of Hosts is the house of Israel.” Solomon relates in this book the history of the Jews commencing with their Exodus from Egypt until after the coming of the Messiah, and compares the position of Israel to God to that of a bride to a bridegroom, because she (Israel) is dear to him, and he to her. When he first takes her from her father’s house he calls hermy friend(רעיתי), when he brings her to his house he calls hermy bride(כלה), when she finds favour in his eyes he calls hermy sister(אחותי), and praises her from head to foot; then he is angry with her, and she returns and praises him from head to foot; then he praises her a second time. And, because it is unlawful for a bridegroom and bride to come together without a marriage-contract and witnesses, therefore Solomon begins with the words, “Let him give me kisses of his mouth;” that is, the commandments and the statutes, comprising both the written and the oral law which the Lord gave to Israel through the pious Moses, Aaron, and Miriam, so that Israel’s fame went forth into the world in consequence of their wisdom, as it is written, “And thy renown went forth among the heathen for thy beauty,” &c. (Ezek. xvi. 14), so much so that many of the nations desired to be gathered under the wings of the shechinah and become Jews; and these are the mixed multitudes, Jethro and others, and therefore it is said, “Thy perfumes are good in odour,” that is, the Lord tried them from the departure out of Egypt till their entrance into Canaan whether they would walk in his ways, as it is written, “Thou didst follow me in the wilderness,” &c. Jer. ii. 2.4.Draw me, &c.—Having related in this verse how Israel walked in the fear of the Lord, and received the ten commandments in the 6th of[38]Sivan, and then made the calf on the 17th of Tamuz, Solomon in astonishment says in their name,5.I am swarthy, &c.—That is, I am swarthy, but comely; I am swarthy because of making the calf, but comely because of receiving the ten commandments; and Israel says that his sin has been forgiven through the three thousand men, the wicked among Israel, who served idols, who were killed before the sun to atone for the great sin, as it is written, “For thou hadst done it in secret, but I will do it before all Israel, and before the sun”(2 Sam. xii. 11, 12); and the nations made mekeeperof the service of other gods, for I served strange gods, as it is written, “And they changed their glory into the likeness of a calf that eateth grass” (Psal. cv. 25.)The reader will have observed that this early commentator does already compare the Song of Songsto a lock, the key of which has been lost, and refers to several modes in which it has been interpreted.1000–1040. The allegorical interpretation was nevertheless introduced into the Jewish liturgical services in the middle ages, when they were seeking, from traditions, dogmas, biblical events, &c., to construct sacred hymns and poems to be said or sung at their feasts and fasts.43Being regarded as representing the departure of Israel from Egypt (יציאת מצרים), and their subsequent history in confirmation of Jehovah’s covenant with them, the Song of Songs is used in a poetical paraphrase on the first and second morning services of the Passover feast, which was designed to celebrate the Exodus from Egypt as the commencement of the conjugal relation between God and his people. For the same reason, the book itself is read in the synagogue on the Sabbath of the middle days of the Passover (חול המועד של פסח). The poetical paraphrase above alluded to is in an alphabetical form, has the author’s name in it, and each stanza closes with a quotation from the book in regular order, which renders the paraphrastic meaning artificial and obscure. Some idea of it may be gathered from the following version which we have made of R. Solomon[39]ben Judah Hababli’s paraphrase, comprising the first five verses of the Song of Songs.
No book has furnished a wider field for the speculation and visionary projects of those who substitute their own imagination and enthusiastic feelings for the teaching of Scripture, than the Song of Solomon; the varieties and absurdities of which are a solemn warning against departing from the rules of sound philology and critical interpretation.An enumeration of all the different interpretations of this Song would be too lengthy, and is not required. It will be sufficient to glance at the leading expositions. We begin with the Jewish.[21]323–246,B.C.18It has been supposed that the Septuagint, which may be regarded as the oldest Jewish exegetical tradition, contains some intimation that the translators of the Old Testament into Greek and their Jewish brethren of those days must have interpreted the Song of Solomon in an allegorical manner. The only passage adduced in corroboration of this opinion is, Ch. iv. 8, where the Septuagint rendersמֵראֹשׁ אֲמָנָהfrom the top of Amana, byἀπὸἀρχῆςπίστεως,from the top of faith. That this appeal is nugatory is obvious from the rendering ofתִּרְצָהTirzahbyεὐδοκία,delight, vi. 4, and ofבַּתנָדִיבnoble daughterbyθύγατερ Ναδάβ,daughter of Nadab, vii. 1; whence it is evident that the Septuagint frequently mistookproper namesfor appellatives and adjectives, andvice versâ. It appears inconceivable that a profound scholar like Keil, who is well acquainted with the frequent errors of the Septuagint, should quote this as a special and sufficient proof that “the Alexandrian version took this Song in an allegorical sense,”19especially as he knew that some have drawn from it the very opposite conclusion, who have argued that if the authors of the Septuagint had understood this book in any other than its obvious sense, they would have betrayed it in the translation.20180,B.C.Jesus Sirach, xlvii. 14–17, is next adduced as furnishing some clue to the Jewish interpretation of this book. Ecclesiasticus, according to some, is a name given to itκατ’ ἐξοχὴν, because of its being the most remarkable and useful of the ecclesiastical or apocryphal books; others say it was so called from its resemblance to Solomon’sEcclesiastes, and others, again, with more probability, that this name was given to it by the Latins, to denoteits use in the church. Its Greek name, however,Σοφία Ἰησοῦ υἱοῦ Σειράχ,wisdom of Jesus[22]son of Sirach, is more appropriate. It specifies at once the author, who mentions his own name in Ch. l. 27. The age given to the book here, is that which is thought most probable.21This apocryphal writer says in his apostrophe to Solomon,—“How wise wast thou in thy youth, and, as a flood, filled with understanding! Thy mind covered the earth, and thou filledst it with enigmatic sayings. Thy name went forth to the distant isles, and thou wast beloved for thy peace. Countries admired thee for songs, and proverbs, and enigmas, and solutions.” The 17th verse is supposed to include the whole writings of Solomon contained in the Old Testament; and it is affirmed thatπαραβολαὶ αἰνιγμάτωνin verse 15, cannot be understood to mean the Proverbs (παροιμία) since these are separately mentioned in verse 17, hence it follows that they refer to the allegorical interpretation of this Song.22Even Hengstenberg, who, though a defender of the allegorical interpretation, remarks,23“Sirach xlvii. 17, has wrongly been referred to in support of the allegorical interpretation. For the wordsἐν ᾠδαῖς καὶ παροίμιαις καὶ παραβολαῖς καὶ ἐν ἑρμηνείαις ἀπεθαύμασάν σε χῶραιdepend upon the historical narration in the Books of the Kings, and do not refer to the writings comprised in the Canon. This is evident from the mention of theἑρμηνείαι, wherebythe solutionsof the enigmas in contradistinction to the enigmas themselves, can alone be meant. Comp. 1 Kings x. 1–3. Whereas in the Canon no suchἑρμηνείαιare to be found. Verse 15, in which Keil finds a special reference to the allegorical interpretation, likewise alludes to 1 Kings x., especially to verse 24.”120,B.C.The Book of Wisdom has also been supposed to contain a clue to the interpretation of this Song. The author and the age of the Book are points of great contest.[23]All that can be concluded with any degree of probability is, that the author was an Alexandrian Jew, who lived after the transplanting of the Greek philosophy into Egypt, and that he seems to refer to the oppression of the later Ptolemies.24In ch. viii. 2, Solomon is represented as speaking to Wisdom; “Her I loved and sought from my youth, I sought to bring her home for my bride, and I became a lover of her beauty.” Because Solomon is here made to speak of Wisdom as his bride, it has been maintained to be an explanation of the Song of Songs, as though the brides were necessarily the same.25Let any impartial reader peruse the description of Wisdom in the chapter quoted, and that of the bride in the Song of Songs, and he will be convinced that there is no intentional resemblance whatever.37–95,A.D.Josephus is also said to have understood this Song in an allegorical sense, although it is not in a single instance quoted by him. His arrangement of the Books of the Old Testament is the only ground of this argument. It is said, as he26mentions twenty-two books which are justly accredited as Divine, (τὰ δικαίως θεῖα πεπιστευμένα) and describes five as belonging to Moses, thirteen to the Prophets, and the remaining four as containing hymns to God, and rules of life for men (αἱ δὲ λοιπαὶ τέσσαρες ὕμνους εἰς τὸν Θεὸν καὶ τοῖς ἀνθρώποις ὑποθήκας τοῦ βίου περιέχουσιν)viz., the Psalms, Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes, no place is left for this Song except among the Prophets; and if Josephus placed it there, it follows that he must have understood it allegorically.27But were we to admit that Josephus placed this Song among the prophetical writings, we should deny the conclusion attempted to be drawn from it. For according to the same mode of argumentation, we might infer that Josephus understood[24]Ruth and Esther allegorically, for he also places these books among the prophetical writings. The fact is, that this historian, as he tells us himself, reckons the historical books among the prophetical ones. But we demur to the assertion that Josephus put this Song among the prophetical writings; it is far more likely that he placed it among the four books which he describes as consisting of hymns to God and precepts for the life of men.28We come now to the Talmud, in which passages from this Song are quoted and interpreted. This elaborate work, consists of what is called theMishna, constituting the text, and theGemara, which is a commentary upon it, derived from two sources,viz.—Jerusalem and Babylon. The Jews, from time immemorial, had anunwrittenlawתּוֹרָה שֶׁבַּעַל פֶּהδόγματα ἄγραφα, in addition to thewrittenone,תּוֹרָה שֶׁבַּכְּתָב,ἔγγραφος, contained in the Pentateuch. Hillel of Babylon (born 75B.C.), who, next to Ezra, was celebrated by posterity as the restorer of the law,29first arranged and divided this oral law into six parts:—1, concerning sowing; 2, women; 3, festivals; 4, the rights of property; 5, holy things; 6, pure and impure things. This, which comprises everything that appertains to the Jewish law, was calledמִשְׁנָהMishna,δευτέρωσις, or the second recension of the law. In order to reconcile the Sadducees, who denied every law not founded on Holy Writ, Hillel laid down seven hermeneutic rules, whereby the Scriptures might be interpreted in such a manner that the oral law could be deduced from it.30When fears were afterwards entertained lest the oral tradition should be lost, Rabbi Judah Hakkadosh (i.e.holy), in the year 220A.D., collected everything that had been said upon the subject, preserving the division of Hillel, and probably making some additions of his[25]own. This he did in a manner so masterly and satisfactory, that it superseded every other previous attempt, and constitutes the presentMishna.TheMishnabecame the chief object of study. The rules of Hillel were increased and much acted on; expositions were given upon the reasons that led to the decisions in the Mishna; the expounders were calledאֲמוֹרָאִיםAmoraim,public lecturers, and the expositionגְמָרָאGemara.After the death of Judah, many of his learned disciples, objecting to the appointment of his second son Gamaliel, to his father’s office, emigrated to Babylon, and having erected schools there, pursued the study of the Mishna. The academy they established in Sura rivalled the one in Tiberias. The Gemara of Tiberias, collated about 358 (A.D.) by an unknown individual, is calledTalmud Jerushalmi; and the Gemara of Sura, the compilation of which was begun by R. Ashe (352–427), continued by his disciple and friend, Rabina, and finished about 525, is calledTalmud Babli. The latter surpasses the former in comprehensiveness, perspicuity, and depth, is about four times as large, and fills 2947 folio pages. Both united are calledThe Talmudתַּלְמוּדbook of instruction; and alsoגְמָרָאGemara. It contains the civil and ceremonial law, debates on various branches of art and science, moral sayings, anecdotes, expositions on different passages of Scripture, &c.31100–500,A.D.—In Yadaim, (Sect. iii. 5.) we find that R. Akiba, one of the greatest Rabbins who lived in the first century, and president of the Academy of Bai-Barc, said, “The whole world was not worthy of the day in which this sublime Song was given to Israel; for all the Scriptures are holy, but this sublime Song is most holy.” There can, therefore, be no doubt that the mysteries which this distinguished Rabbi found in the Song of Songs, he regarded as greater than those he discovered in any other portion of the Sacred Scriptures.[26]Subsequent Rabbins quote and explain different passages. Thus, Ch. i. 2 is discussed in Abodah Sarah (Sect. 2, p. 35). It is asked, “How are the words, ‘Thy love is better than wine’ understood?” Answer:When Rabbi Dimi came to Babylon, he said, “This verse is thus understood: the Congregation of Israel said to God, ‘Lord of the Universe, the words of thy friends (namely, the sages) are more excellent than even the wine of the Law.’”Here we see that the beloved is taken to beGod, and the loved onethe Congregation of Israel.Ch. i. 3, is quoted and expounded, a little further on, in the same tract of the Talmud, in the following manner. “R. Nachman ben R. Chasdah once said, in his discourse, the words ‘Delicious is the odour of thy perfumes,’ denote a learned man; for such an one is like a box of perfumes; if it is covered up, no one can smell the perfumes, but when it is opened the odour becomes widely diffused. It is so with a learned man without disciples, no one knows of his learning; but if he gets a circle of disciples his name and his learning become widely diffused. And not only this, but he himself will increase learning by teaching, so that things which he formerly did not understand will now become plain to him; for it is written in the same verseעלמות אהבוךDAMSELS LOVE THEE;readעלומותHIDDEN THINGSwill love thee, i.e.,will become plain to thee; and not only this, but even the angel of death will love him; read thenעל־מותHE WHO IS OVER DEATHwill love thee; and still more, he will inherit both worlds, this world and the world to come; read alsoעולמותWORLDSlove thee.”Ch. i. 13, 14, and v. 13, are quoted and explained in Sabbath, p. 88, b., “Rabbi Joshuah ben Levi saith, What is meant byצרור המור דודי לי בין שדי יליןis the congregation of Israel, who is saying before the Holy One thus: O Lord, though my beloved (i.e. God) oppresses me, and is embittered against me, yet he still lodges with me.Byאשכול הכופר דודי לי בכרמי עין גדיis meant, He who is the owner of all things, will forgive me the[27]sin of the calf, with which I covered myself.A question is raised,How doesבכרמיsignify my covering?Then Rabbi Mar-Sutra ben Rabbi Nachman quotesכסא של כובס שכורמי עליו את הכלאםfrom another part of the Talmud (Kelim 35), whereכרםmeansto cover. R. Joshuah ben Levi proceeds,What is meant byלחייו כערוגת הבושםis, At every commandment which proceedeth from the mouth of the Holy One on Mount Sinai, the world was filled with aromatics.A question is asked,If the world was filled at the first commandment, where was the odour diffused at the second commandment?Answer,The Holy One sent his wind from his stores, and carried them away successively, as it is written,שפתותיו שושניםdo not readשושניםbutששוניםrepeating in succession.Rabbi Joshuah ben Levi concludes,At every commandment uttered by the mouth of the Holy One, the soul of Israel was drawn out of them, as it is written, ‘My soul went out when he spake.’A question is again asked,If their soul was drawn out at the first commandment, how could they receive the second?Answer.He (i.e. God) caused the dew to come down, by which he will raise the dead, and revived them, as it is written, ‘Thou, O God, didst send a plentiful rain, whereby thou didst confirm thine inheritance, when it was weary.’” Ps. lxviii. 9.32Here, again, we see that the bridegroom is taken to be the Holy One, the Owner of all things, and the bride the congregation of Israel. The reader, looking into the text of the Talmud quoted in the note, will observe that most of this interpretation has been obtained, either by the separation of words, the transposition and change of letters, or by substituting[28]in the commentary words, similar in sound to those in the Scriptures. Thus,צרורa bundle, a bag, is explained byמיצרoppress;מורmyrrhbyמימרembitter;אשכולa clusterbyאיש שהכל לוHe whose are all things;כופרcypress flowersbyכפרpardon;עין גדיEn-gedibyעון עגלthe sin of the calf.This mode of interpretation is not confined to the Song of Songs, but is applied to all parts of the Bible, and is an illustration of the way in which the hermeneutic rules laid down by Rabbi Hillel, and augmented by R. Ishmael, and others, were carried out.550,A.D.—The Targum or Chaldee paraphrase is the first entire commentary upon the Song of Songs which has been handed down to us. The author is unknown. Kitto erroneously affirms, that it was “made several centuries before the time of Christ, and probably before the traditionary interpretation of the author himself (i.e.the author of this Song) would entirely be lost.”33The inferior style in which it is written, the copious use it makes of legends of a very late date, and especially the mention it makes of theGemara(Ch. i. 2), which was not completed till nearly the middle ofthe sixth century, prove most distinctly that this paraphrase was made in the sixth century. Hävernick,34however, is equally wrong in affirming that the Mahomedans are mentioned in Ch. i. 7. Thatthe sons of Ishmaelhere alluded to are not the Mahomedans, is evident from Ch. vi. 7. of the same paraphrase, where we are told that theseבְּנוֹי דְיִשְׁמָעֵאלheaded by Alexander the Great, came to wage war against Jerusalem at the time of the Maccabees.The Targum takes the Song of Songs as an allegory, describing prophetically the history of the Jewish nation, beginning with their Exodus from Egypt, and detailing their doings and sufferings, down to the coming of the Messiah, and the building of the third Temple.[29]Thus, according to this allegory, Ch. i. 3, describes Jehovah’s fame, which went abroad in consequence of the wonders he wrought when bringing the Israelites out of Egypt; verse 12 describes the departure of Moses to receive the two tables of stone, and how the Israelites, in the mean time, made the golden calf; verse 14 describes the pardon of that sin, and the erection of the Tabernacle; Ch. iii. 6–11, describes the passage of the Israelites, under the leadership of Joshua, over the Jordan, their attacking and conquering the Canaanites, and the building of Solomon’s Temple; Ch. v. 2, describes the Babylonian captivity; Ch. vi. 2, the deliverance of Israel through Cyrus; and the building of the second Temple; Ch. vi. 7, &c., describes the battles of the Maccabees; Ch. vii. 11, 12, the present dispersion of the Jews, and their future anxiety to learn the time of their restoration; Ch. viii. 5, &c., describes the resurrection of the dead, the final ingathering of Israel, the building of the third Temple, &c., &c.“The beloved,” according to the Targum, isthe Lord; “the loved one” isthe Congregation of Israel; “the companions of the beloved” (Ch. i. 7) arethe Edomites and the Ishmaelites; “the daughters of Jerusalem” are, in Ch. i. 5,the Gentile nations; in ii. 7, iii. 5, viii. 4,the Congregation of Israel; and in v. 8,the prophets; “the brothers of the loved one” arethe false prophets; “the little sister,” in viii. 8, isthe people of Israel; the speakers in the same verse arethe angels; the speaker in viii. 13, isthe Lord; “the companions,” in the same verse arethe Sanhedrim.The following specimen of the Targum, on the first chapter of this Song, will give the reader an idea of the way in which the paraphrase develops the allegorical construction of this book.1.The Song of Songs, &c.—The songs and praises which Solomon the prophet, King of Israel, sang, by the spirit of prophecy, before God, the Lord of the whole world. Ten songs weresungin this world, but this song is the most celebrated of them all. Thefirstsong Adam sang when his sins were forgiven him, and when the sabbath-day came, and protected him, he opened his mouth and said, “A song for the sabbath-day,”&c. (Ps. xcii.) Thesecondsong Moses and the children of Israel sang when the[30]Lord of the world divided the Red Sea for them, they all opened their mouths and sang as one man, the song, as it is written, “Then sang Moses and the children of Israel.” (Exod. xv. 1.) Thethirdsong the children of Israel sang when the well of water was given to them, as it is written, “Then sang Israel.” (Numb. xxi. 17.) Thefourthsong Moses the prophet sang, when his time came to depart from this world, in which he reproved the people of the house of Israel, as it is written: “Give ear, O heavens, and I will speak.” (Deut. xxxii. 1.) Thefifthsong Joshua the son of Nun sang, when he waged war in Gibeon, and the sun and moon stood still for him thirty-six hours, and when they left off singing their song, he himself opened his mouth and sang this song, as it is written: “Then sang Joshua before the Lord.” (Josh. x. 12.) Thesixthsong Barak and Deborah sang in the day when the Lord delivered Sisera and his army into the hands of the children of Israel, as it is written: “Then sang Deborah, &c.” (Judg. v. 11.) Theseventhsong Hannah sang when a son was given her by the Lord, as it is written: “And Hannah prayed prophetically, and said.” (1 Sam. ii. 1, and the Targumin loco.) Theeighthsong David the King of Israel sang for all the wonders which the Lord did for him. He opened his mouth and sang a hymn, as it is written: “And David sang in prophecy before the Lord.” (2 Sam. xxii. 1, and the Targumin loco.) Theninthsong Solomon the King of Israel sang by the Holy Spirit before God, the Lord of the whole world. And thetenthsong the children of the captivity shall sing when they shall be delivered from their captivity, as it is written and declared by Isaiah the prophet: “This song shall be unto you for joy, as in the night in which the feast of the passover is celebrated; and gladness of heart as when the people go to appear before the Lord three times in the year, with all kinds of music, and with the sound of the timbrel, to go up to the mountain of the Lord, and to worship before the Lord, the Mighty One of Israel.” (Is. xxx. 29, and the Targumin loco.)2.Let him kiss me, &c.—Solomon the prophet said, “Blessed be the name of the Lord who has given us the law through Moses the great scribe, written upon two tables of stone; and the six parts of the Mishna and the Talmud traditionally, and who spoke with us face to face, as a man that kissed his friend, because of his great love wherewith he loved us above the seventy nations.”353.Thy perfumes, &c.—At the report of thy wonders and mighty deeds which thou hast done for thy people the house of Israel, all the nations trembled who heard of thy famous strength, and thy great miracles; and in all the earth was heard thy holy name, which is more excellent than the anointing oil that was poured upon the heads of kings and priests; therefore the righteous love to walk after thy good way, because they shall inherit both this world and the world to come.4.Draw me, &c.—When the people of the house of Israel went out of Egypt the shechinah of the Lord of the world went before them in a pillar of cloud by day, and in a pillar of fire by night, and the righteous of that[31]generation said, Lord of the whole world, draw us after thee, and we will run in thy good way! Bring us to the foot of Mount Sinai, and give us thy law out of thy treasury in heaven, and we will rejoice and be gladin the twenty-two letters36with which it is written, and we will remember them, and love thy divine nature, and withdraw ourselves from the idols of the nations; and all the righteous, who do that which is right before thee, shall fear thee and love thy commandments.5.I am swarthy, &c.—When the house of Israel made the calf, their faces became black, like the sons of Cush, who dwelt in the tents of Kedar; but when they returned by repentance, and were forgiven, the shining splendour of their faces was increased to that of angels, because they made the curtains for the tabernacle, and the shechinah of the Lord dwelt among them; and Moses, their teacher, went up to heaven and made peace between them and their King.6.Do not look down upon me, &c.—The congregation of Israel said before all the nations, Do not despise me because I am blacker than you, for I have done your deeds, and worshipped the sun and moon; for false prophets have been the cause that the fierce anger of the Lord has come upon me, and they taught me to worship your idols, and to walk in your laws; but the Lord of the world, who is my God, I did not serve, and did not walk in his precepts, and did not keep his commandments and laws.7.Tell me, &c.—When the time came for Moses the prophet to depart from this world, he said to the Lord, It is revealed to me that this people will sin, and be carried into captivity; show me now how they shall be governed and dwell among the nations, whose decrees are oppressive as the heat and the scorching sun in the summer solstice, and wherefore is it that they shall wander among the flocks of the sons of Esau and Ishmael, who make their idols equal to thee, as though they were thy companions.8.If thou knowest not, &c.—The Holy One, blessed be his name, said to Moses, the prophet, “I suffer myself to be entreated to abolish their captivity; the congregation of Israel, which is like a fair damsel, and which my soul loves, she shall walk in the ways of the righteous, and shall order her prayers according to the order of her governors and leaders, and instruct her children, who are like to the kids of the goats, to go to the synagogue and the schools; and by the merits of this they shall be governed in the captivity, until the time that I send King Messiah, and he shall lead them quietly to their habitations; yea, he shall bring them to the house of the sanctuary, which David and Solomon, the shepherds of Israel, shall build for them.”9.I compare thee, &c.—When Israel went out of Egypt, Pharaoh and his hosts pursued after them with chariots and horsemen, and their way was shut up on the four sides of them; on the right hand and on the left were wildernesses full of fiery serpents, and behind them was wicked Pharaoh with his army, and before them was the Red Sea, what did the holy blessed God do? He was manifested in the power of his might upon the Red Sea, and dried the sea up, but the mud he did not dry up. The wicked and the mixed multitude, and the strangers who were among them,[32]said, The waters of the sea he was able to dry up, but the mud he was not able to dry up. In that very hour the fierce anger of the Lord came upon them, and he sought to drown them in the waters of the sea, as Pharaoh, and his army, and his chariots, and his horsemen, and his horses were drowned, had it not been for Moses the Prophet, who spread his hands in prayer before the Lord, and turned away the anger of the Lord from them. Then he and the righteous of that generation opened their mouths, and sang a song, and passed through the Red Sea on dry land, through the merits of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the beloved of the Lord.10.Beautiful are thy cheeks, &c.—When they went out into the wilderness the Lord said to Moses, “How comely is this people, that the words of the law should be given unto them, and they shall be as a bridle in their jaws, that they may not depart out of the good way, as a horse turneth not aside that has a bridle in his jaws; and how fair is their neck to bear the yoke of my commandments; and it shall be upon them as a yoke upon the neck of a bullock which plougheth in the field, and feeds both itself and its owner.”11.Circlets of gold, &c.—Then was it said to Moses, “Go up into heaven, and I will give thee the two tables of stone, hewn out of the sapphire of the throne of my glory, shining as the best gold, disposed in rows, written with my finger, on which are engraven the ten commandments, purer than silver that is purified seven times seven, which is the number of the things explained in them in forty-nine various ways, and I shall give them by thy hands to the people of the house of Israel.”12.While the King, &c.—Whilst Moses, their teacher, was in heaven to receive the two tables of stone, and the law and the commandments, the wicked of that generation and the mixed multitude that was among them rose up and made a golden calf, and caused their works to stink, and an evil report of them went out in the world; for before this time a fragrant odour of them was diffused in the world, but afterwards they stank like nard, the smell of which is very bad, and the plague of leprosy came down upon their flesh.13.A bag of myrrh, &c.—At that time the Lord said to Moses, “Go down, for the people have corrupted themselves, desist from speaking to me, and I will destroy them.” Then Moses returned and asked mercy of the Lord, and the Lord remembered for them the binding of Isaac, whom his father bound, on Mount Moriah, upon the altar; and the Lord turned from his fierce anger, and caused his shechinah to dwell among them as before.14.A bunch of cypress flowers, &c.—So then went Moses down with the two tables of stone in his hands; and, because of the sins of Israel, his hands grew heavy, and the tables fell and were broken. Then went Moses and ground the calf to powder, and scattered the dust of it upon the brook, and made the children of Israel to drink it, and slew all that deserved to die, and went up a second time into heaven, and prayed before the Lord, and made atonement for the children of Israel; then was the commandment to make a tabernacle and an ark. Immediately Moses hastened and made the tabernacle, and all its furniture, and the ark; and he put in the ark the two other tables, and appointed the sons of Aaron, the priests, to offer the offerings upon the altar, and to pour the wine upon the offerings;[33]but from whence had they wine to pour? For in the wilderness they had no proper place for sowing; neither had they fig-trees, nor vines, nor pomegranates; but they went to the vineyards of En-gedi, and took clusters of grapes from thence, and pressed wine out of them, and poured it upon the altar, the fourth part of a hin to one lamb.15.Behold thou art beautiful, &c.—When the children of Israel performed the will of their King, he himself praised them in the family of the holy angels, and said, “How fair are thy works, my daughter, my beloved, O congregation of Israel, in the time that thou doest my will, and studiest in the words of my law; and how well ordered are thy works and thy affairs, as young doves that are fit to be offered upon the altar!”16.Behold thou art comely, &c.—The congregation of Israel answered before the Lord of the world, and thus said, “How fair is the shechinah of thy holiness, when thou dwellest among us, and receivest prayers with acceptance; and when thou dwellest in our beloved bed, and our children are multiplied in the world, and we increase and multiply like a tree that is planted by a stream of water, whose leaf is fair, and whose fruit is plenteous!”17.The beams of, &c.—Solomon, the prophet, said, “How beautiful is the house of the sanctuary of the Lord, which is built by my hands, of wood of Gulmish; but far more beautiful will be the house of the sanctuary which shall be built in the days of the King Messiah, the beams of which will be of the cedars of the garden of Eden, and whose rafters will be of cypress, pine, and box.”The precedent of the Talmud in taking the beloved asthe Lord, and the loved one asthe Congregation of Israel, and in explaining the text in such a manner as to make it square with her doings, has quite prepared us for the Chaldee exposition, the author of which most probably was himself one of the later Talmudists. How could the paraphrast do otherwise? “Are not the words ofthe sagesmore excellent than even the wine of the Law?”37“Is not he who transgresses the words of the scribes more guilty than he who transgresses the words of the Law?”38Having, therefore, been once settled by the sages that this Song describes the doings and sufferings of Israel, it only remained for the expositors to apply their exegetical canons, viz.: of transposing, changing, or omitting letters; explaining words by others of a similar sound; making each letter of a word begin another word; reducing an expression to its numerical value, and explaining the text accordingly, &c. &c., in order to palm upon this book, in a consecutive[34]order, the remarkable events in connection with the history of the Jews.Thus, the love of God to Israel, which was greater than to allthe seventy other nationsmentioned in Ch. i. 2, was obtained by reducing the wordייןto its numerical value,seventy;the two worlds, in verse 3, which the pious are to inherit, were obtained by changingעלמותmaidens, intoעולמותworlds, according to the example of the Talmud;39the twenty-two letterswith which the Law is written, in verse 4, were obtained by reducing the wordבךto its numerical value;the Tabernacle, in verse 5, was obtained from the wordירעות, andthe effected peaceby changing the proper nameשלמהintoשלוםpeace; the worship ofthe sun and moon, in verse 6, was obtained from the wordשמשsun;the ploughing bullock, in verse 10, was obtained by changingתוריםringlet, andחרוזיםnecklace, intoתור חרז;the two tables shining as the best gold, verse 11, were obtained by renderingתורי זהבgolden Laws, andthe seven times seven, orthe forty different interpretations of the Law, by reducing the wordזהבto its numerical value,זbeingseven, andהandבseven, and then multiplying seven by seven;the binding of Isaac, in verse 13, was obtained by renderingצרור המורbyערור המוריהthe binding of Moriah;the sin of the calf, andthe atonement of that, in verse 14, were obtained by changingעין גדיEn-gedi, intoעון עגלthe sin of the calf, and by substitutingכפרpardon, forכופרcypress-flower, according to the example of the Talmud.40This is the development of Hagadic exegesis, and this the paraphrase appealed to in support of the allegorical interpretation, and in the track of which future allegorists more or less follow.892–942. From the Chaldee paraphrase to R. Saadias Gaon, a period of about 350 years, thick darkness covers the annals of Jewish literature. With him, however, a new epoch begins to dawn. Saadias was born at Pithom, in Egypt, about the year 892, and died in the year 942. He was “Gaon,” or spiritual head of[35]the Jews in Babylon, and is well known by his translation of the Bible into Arabic, the Pentateuch of which is inserted in Walton’s Polyglott.41Among the many philosophical and exegetical works this eminent man bequeathed to posterity, is a commentary on the Song of Songs, which was originally written in Arabic, and was translated into Hebrew by some unknown individual. This work is exceedingly rare, and I have happily found a copy of the original Constantinople edition in the British Museum, of which Dukes was not aware when he wrote his “Literarische Mittheilungen.” The view that Saadias takes is that “Solomon relates in it the history of the Jews, beginning with their Exodus from Egypt, and extending it beyond the coming of the Messiah.” Thus far he agrees with the Targum, but his commentary on the text is entirely at variance with that paraphrase.According to Saadias, Ch. i. 2–iii. 5, describes the bondage of Israel in Egypt, their liberation, the giving of the Law, the battles with Sihon, Og, and the King of Aroar, the wrath of God at the time of the spies, &c. Ch. iii. 6–iv. 7, describes the erection of the Tabernacle, the various journeys in the wilderness, the high position of Moses and Aaron, &c. Hitherto Israel has been called by the appellationmy loved one, for they had not as yet entered Canaan; henceforth they are calledbride(כלה), because God takes them into the promised land; just as a bridegroom calls his loved onebride, when he takes her home. Ch. iv. 8–v. 1, describes Israel’s entrance into Canaan, the building of the first Temple, the separation of[36]Judah and Israel, the Shechinah departing from Israel and abiding with Judah, and the people coming up to Jerusalem to the three great festivals. Ch. v. 2–vi. 3, describes the rebellion of Israel and Ahaz, God sending prophets to warn them to repent, the destruction of the Temple, the Babylonian captivity, Israel’s liberation, the building of the second Temple, and the covenant of God with his repenting people. Ch. vi. 4–ix. describes the twofold condition of the people that returned from Babylon, some of whom were godly, while others took strange women, forgot the holy language, and were therefore calledשחרdawn, being neither real light nor real darkness, neither pious nor wicked. Ch. vi. 10–vii. 9, refers to the present dispersion, in which the Jews, though being many days without a king, without a priest, &c., say we still live in the fear of God, and are His. Ch. vii. 12–viii. 4, refers to the sufferings of the Messiah ben Joseph, the manifestation of the Messiah ben David, the obedience of Israel to God in those days, and to the Lord’s rejoicing over them as a bridegroom over his bride. Ch. viii. 5, to the end, describes Israel restored, the third Temple built, and all the people walking according to the will of the Lord.The principal persons in this Song are understood in the following manner: “the beloved” isthe Lord; “the loved one,”the Congregation of Israel; “the companions of the beloved,” (Ch. i. 7,) areMoses,Aaron, andMiriam; “the daughters of Jerusalem,”the Congregation of Israel; “the little sister,”the two tribes and a half; “the speaker,”the Lord; “the inhabitant of the gardens,” isthe sages; “the companions,” in the same verse, arethe Israeliteswishing to listen to the teaching of their sages.The following is a specimen of R. Saadias’s commentary, the Hebrew of which is given in the note.421–3.The Song of Songs, &c.—Know, my brother, that you will find a great diversity of opinions as regards the interpretation of this Song of[37]Songs; and it must be confessed that there is reason for it, since the Song of Songs is like a lock, the key of which hath been lost. Some maintain that it refers to the kingdom of Israel; others say that it refers to the days of the Messiah; and others again affirm that it refers to the time of the dispersion and the Messiah, and assert that bybeloved(דוד) the Messiah is meant, and bybride(כלה) is meant the law (תורה). But this is a sin, an error, and a great heresy. The truth is, that bybeloved(דוד) is meantthe Lord, for it is written, “I will sing to my beloved a song of love respecting his vineyard” (Isa. v. 1), which the prophet Isaiah explains (verse 7), “The vineyard of the Lord of Hosts is the house of Israel.” Solomon relates in this book the history of the Jews commencing with their Exodus from Egypt until after the coming of the Messiah, and compares the position of Israel to God to that of a bride to a bridegroom, because she (Israel) is dear to him, and he to her. When he first takes her from her father’s house he calls hermy friend(רעיתי), when he brings her to his house he calls hermy bride(כלה), when she finds favour in his eyes he calls hermy sister(אחותי), and praises her from head to foot; then he is angry with her, and she returns and praises him from head to foot; then he praises her a second time. And, because it is unlawful for a bridegroom and bride to come together without a marriage-contract and witnesses, therefore Solomon begins with the words, “Let him give me kisses of his mouth;” that is, the commandments and the statutes, comprising both the written and the oral law which the Lord gave to Israel through the pious Moses, Aaron, and Miriam, so that Israel’s fame went forth into the world in consequence of their wisdom, as it is written, “And thy renown went forth among the heathen for thy beauty,” &c. (Ezek. xvi. 14), so much so that many of the nations desired to be gathered under the wings of the shechinah and become Jews; and these are the mixed multitudes, Jethro and others, and therefore it is said, “Thy perfumes are good in odour,” that is, the Lord tried them from the departure out of Egypt till their entrance into Canaan whether they would walk in his ways, as it is written, “Thou didst follow me in the wilderness,” &c. Jer. ii. 2.4.Draw me, &c.—Having related in this verse how Israel walked in the fear of the Lord, and received the ten commandments in the 6th of[38]Sivan, and then made the calf on the 17th of Tamuz, Solomon in astonishment says in their name,5.I am swarthy, &c.—That is, I am swarthy, but comely; I am swarthy because of making the calf, but comely because of receiving the ten commandments; and Israel says that his sin has been forgiven through the three thousand men, the wicked among Israel, who served idols, who were killed before the sun to atone for the great sin, as it is written, “For thou hadst done it in secret, but I will do it before all Israel, and before the sun”(2 Sam. xii. 11, 12); and the nations made mekeeperof the service of other gods, for I served strange gods, as it is written, “And they changed their glory into the likeness of a calf that eateth grass” (Psal. cv. 25.)The reader will have observed that this early commentator does already compare the Song of Songsto a lock, the key of which has been lost, and refers to several modes in which it has been interpreted.1000–1040. The allegorical interpretation was nevertheless introduced into the Jewish liturgical services in the middle ages, when they were seeking, from traditions, dogmas, biblical events, &c., to construct sacred hymns and poems to be said or sung at their feasts and fasts.43Being regarded as representing the departure of Israel from Egypt (יציאת מצרים), and their subsequent history in confirmation of Jehovah’s covenant with them, the Song of Songs is used in a poetical paraphrase on the first and second morning services of the Passover feast, which was designed to celebrate the Exodus from Egypt as the commencement of the conjugal relation between God and his people. For the same reason, the book itself is read in the synagogue on the Sabbath of the middle days of the Passover (חול המועד של פסח). The poetical paraphrase above alluded to is in an alphabetical form, has the author’s name in it, and each stanza closes with a quotation from the book in regular order, which renders the paraphrastic meaning artificial and obscure. Some idea of it may be gathered from the following version which we have made of R. Solomon[39]ben Judah Hababli’s paraphrase, comprising the first five verses of the Song of Songs.
No book has furnished a wider field for the speculation and visionary projects of those who substitute their own imagination and enthusiastic feelings for the teaching of Scripture, than the Song of Solomon; the varieties and absurdities of which are a solemn warning against departing from the rules of sound philology and critical interpretation.
An enumeration of all the different interpretations of this Song would be too lengthy, and is not required. It will be sufficient to glance at the leading expositions. We begin with the Jewish.[21]
323–246,B.C.18It has been supposed that the Septuagint, which may be regarded as the oldest Jewish exegetical tradition, contains some intimation that the translators of the Old Testament into Greek and their Jewish brethren of those days must have interpreted the Song of Solomon in an allegorical manner. The only passage adduced in corroboration of this opinion is, Ch. iv. 8, where the Septuagint rendersמֵראֹשׁ אֲמָנָהfrom the top of Amana, byἀπὸἀρχῆςπίστεως,from the top of faith. That this appeal is nugatory is obvious from the rendering ofתִּרְצָהTirzahbyεὐδοκία,delight, vi. 4, and ofבַּתנָדִיבnoble daughterbyθύγατερ Ναδάβ,daughter of Nadab, vii. 1; whence it is evident that the Septuagint frequently mistookproper namesfor appellatives and adjectives, andvice versâ. It appears inconceivable that a profound scholar like Keil, who is well acquainted with the frequent errors of the Septuagint, should quote this as a special and sufficient proof that “the Alexandrian version took this Song in an allegorical sense,”19especially as he knew that some have drawn from it the very opposite conclusion, who have argued that if the authors of the Septuagint had understood this book in any other than its obvious sense, they would have betrayed it in the translation.20
180,B.C.Jesus Sirach, xlvii. 14–17, is next adduced as furnishing some clue to the Jewish interpretation of this book. Ecclesiasticus, according to some, is a name given to itκατ’ ἐξοχὴν, because of its being the most remarkable and useful of the ecclesiastical or apocryphal books; others say it was so called from its resemblance to Solomon’sEcclesiastes, and others, again, with more probability, that this name was given to it by the Latins, to denoteits use in the church. Its Greek name, however,Σοφία Ἰησοῦ υἱοῦ Σειράχ,wisdom of Jesus[22]son of Sirach, is more appropriate. It specifies at once the author, who mentions his own name in Ch. l. 27. The age given to the book here, is that which is thought most probable.21This apocryphal writer says in his apostrophe to Solomon,—“How wise wast thou in thy youth, and, as a flood, filled with understanding! Thy mind covered the earth, and thou filledst it with enigmatic sayings. Thy name went forth to the distant isles, and thou wast beloved for thy peace. Countries admired thee for songs, and proverbs, and enigmas, and solutions.” The 17th verse is supposed to include the whole writings of Solomon contained in the Old Testament; and it is affirmed thatπαραβολαὶ αἰνιγμάτωνin verse 15, cannot be understood to mean the Proverbs (παροιμία) since these are separately mentioned in verse 17, hence it follows that they refer to the allegorical interpretation of this Song.22
Even Hengstenberg, who, though a defender of the allegorical interpretation, remarks,23“Sirach xlvii. 17, has wrongly been referred to in support of the allegorical interpretation. For the wordsἐν ᾠδαῖς καὶ παροίμιαις καὶ παραβολαῖς καὶ ἐν ἑρμηνείαις ἀπεθαύμασάν σε χῶραιdepend upon the historical narration in the Books of the Kings, and do not refer to the writings comprised in the Canon. This is evident from the mention of theἑρμηνείαι, wherebythe solutionsof the enigmas in contradistinction to the enigmas themselves, can alone be meant. Comp. 1 Kings x. 1–3. Whereas in the Canon no suchἑρμηνείαιare to be found. Verse 15, in which Keil finds a special reference to the allegorical interpretation, likewise alludes to 1 Kings x., especially to verse 24.”
120,B.C.The Book of Wisdom has also been supposed to contain a clue to the interpretation of this Song. The author and the age of the Book are points of great contest.[23]All that can be concluded with any degree of probability is, that the author was an Alexandrian Jew, who lived after the transplanting of the Greek philosophy into Egypt, and that he seems to refer to the oppression of the later Ptolemies.24In ch. viii. 2, Solomon is represented as speaking to Wisdom; “Her I loved and sought from my youth, I sought to bring her home for my bride, and I became a lover of her beauty.” Because Solomon is here made to speak of Wisdom as his bride, it has been maintained to be an explanation of the Song of Songs, as though the brides were necessarily the same.25Let any impartial reader peruse the description of Wisdom in the chapter quoted, and that of the bride in the Song of Songs, and he will be convinced that there is no intentional resemblance whatever.
37–95,A.D.Josephus is also said to have understood this Song in an allegorical sense, although it is not in a single instance quoted by him. His arrangement of the Books of the Old Testament is the only ground of this argument. It is said, as he26mentions twenty-two books which are justly accredited as Divine, (τὰ δικαίως θεῖα πεπιστευμένα) and describes five as belonging to Moses, thirteen to the Prophets, and the remaining four as containing hymns to God, and rules of life for men (αἱ δὲ λοιπαὶ τέσσαρες ὕμνους εἰς τὸν Θεὸν καὶ τοῖς ἀνθρώποις ὑποθήκας τοῦ βίου περιέχουσιν)viz., the Psalms, Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes, no place is left for this Song except among the Prophets; and if Josephus placed it there, it follows that he must have understood it allegorically.27But were we to admit that Josephus placed this Song among the prophetical writings, we should deny the conclusion attempted to be drawn from it. For according to the same mode of argumentation, we might infer that Josephus understood[24]Ruth and Esther allegorically, for he also places these books among the prophetical writings. The fact is, that this historian, as he tells us himself, reckons the historical books among the prophetical ones. But we demur to the assertion that Josephus put this Song among the prophetical writings; it is far more likely that he placed it among the four books which he describes as consisting of hymns to God and precepts for the life of men.28
We come now to the Talmud, in which passages from this Song are quoted and interpreted. This elaborate work, consists of what is called theMishna, constituting the text, and theGemara, which is a commentary upon it, derived from two sources,viz.—Jerusalem and Babylon. The Jews, from time immemorial, had anunwrittenlawתּוֹרָה שֶׁבַּעַל פֶּהδόγματα ἄγραφα, in addition to thewrittenone,תּוֹרָה שֶׁבַּכְּתָב,ἔγγραφος, contained in the Pentateuch. Hillel of Babylon (born 75B.C.), who, next to Ezra, was celebrated by posterity as the restorer of the law,29first arranged and divided this oral law into six parts:—1, concerning sowing; 2, women; 3, festivals; 4, the rights of property; 5, holy things; 6, pure and impure things. This, which comprises everything that appertains to the Jewish law, was calledמִשְׁנָהMishna,δευτέρωσις, or the second recension of the law. In order to reconcile the Sadducees, who denied every law not founded on Holy Writ, Hillel laid down seven hermeneutic rules, whereby the Scriptures might be interpreted in such a manner that the oral law could be deduced from it.30When fears were afterwards entertained lest the oral tradition should be lost, Rabbi Judah Hakkadosh (i.e.holy), in the year 220A.D., collected everything that had been said upon the subject, preserving the division of Hillel, and probably making some additions of his[25]own. This he did in a manner so masterly and satisfactory, that it superseded every other previous attempt, and constitutes the presentMishna.
TheMishnabecame the chief object of study. The rules of Hillel were increased and much acted on; expositions were given upon the reasons that led to the decisions in the Mishna; the expounders were calledאֲמוֹרָאִיםAmoraim,public lecturers, and the expositionגְמָרָאGemara.
After the death of Judah, many of his learned disciples, objecting to the appointment of his second son Gamaliel, to his father’s office, emigrated to Babylon, and having erected schools there, pursued the study of the Mishna. The academy they established in Sura rivalled the one in Tiberias. The Gemara of Tiberias, collated about 358 (A.D.) by an unknown individual, is calledTalmud Jerushalmi; and the Gemara of Sura, the compilation of which was begun by R. Ashe (352–427), continued by his disciple and friend, Rabina, and finished about 525, is calledTalmud Babli. The latter surpasses the former in comprehensiveness, perspicuity, and depth, is about four times as large, and fills 2947 folio pages. Both united are calledThe Talmudתַּלְמוּדbook of instruction; and alsoגְמָרָאGemara. It contains the civil and ceremonial law, debates on various branches of art and science, moral sayings, anecdotes, expositions on different passages of Scripture, &c.31
100–500,A.D.—In Yadaim, (Sect. iii. 5.) we find that R. Akiba, one of the greatest Rabbins who lived in the first century, and president of the Academy of Bai-Barc, said, “The whole world was not worthy of the day in which this sublime Song was given to Israel; for all the Scriptures are holy, but this sublime Song is most holy.” There can, therefore, be no doubt that the mysteries which this distinguished Rabbi found in the Song of Songs, he regarded as greater than those he discovered in any other portion of the Sacred Scriptures.[26]
Subsequent Rabbins quote and explain different passages. Thus, Ch. i. 2 is discussed in Abodah Sarah (Sect. 2, p. 35). It is asked, “How are the words, ‘Thy love is better than wine’ understood?” Answer:When Rabbi Dimi came to Babylon, he said, “This verse is thus understood: the Congregation of Israel said to God, ‘Lord of the Universe, the words of thy friends (namely, the sages) are more excellent than even the wine of the Law.’”
Here we see that the beloved is taken to beGod, and the loved onethe Congregation of Israel.
Ch. i. 3, is quoted and expounded, a little further on, in the same tract of the Talmud, in the following manner. “R. Nachman ben R. Chasdah once said, in his discourse, the words ‘Delicious is the odour of thy perfumes,’ denote a learned man; for such an one is like a box of perfumes; if it is covered up, no one can smell the perfumes, but when it is opened the odour becomes widely diffused. It is so with a learned man without disciples, no one knows of his learning; but if he gets a circle of disciples his name and his learning become widely diffused. And not only this, but he himself will increase learning by teaching, so that things which he formerly did not understand will now become plain to him; for it is written in the same verseעלמות אהבוךDAMSELS LOVE THEE;readעלומותHIDDEN THINGSwill love thee, i.e.,will become plain to thee; and not only this, but even the angel of death will love him; read thenעל־מותHE WHO IS OVER DEATHwill love thee; and still more, he will inherit both worlds, this world and the world to come; read alsoעולמותWORLDSlove thee.”
Ch. i. 13, 14, and v. 13, are quoted and explained in Sabbath, p. 88, b., “Rabbi Joshuah ben Levi saith, What is meant byצרור המור דודי לי בין שדי יליןis the congregation of Israel, who is saying before the Holy One thus: O Lord, though my beloved (i.e. God) oppresses me, and is embittered against me, yet he still lodges with me.Byאשכול הכופר דודי לי בכרמי עין גדיis meant, He who is the owner of all things, will forgive me the[27]sin of the calf, with which I covered myself.A question is raised,How doesבכרמיsignify my covering?Then Rabbi Mar-Sutra ben Rabbi Nachman quotesכסא של כובס שכורמי עליו את הכלאםfrom another part of the Talmud (Kelim 35), whereכרםmeansto cover. R. Joshuah ben Levi proceeds,What is meant byלחייו כערוגת הבושםis, At every commandment which proceedeth from the mouth of the Holy One on Mount Sinai, the world was filled with aromatics.A question is asked,If the world was filled at the first commandment, where was the odour diffused at the second commandment?Answer,The Holy One sent his wind from his stores, and carried them away successively, as it is written,שפתותיו שושניםdo not readשושניםbutששוניםrepeating in succession.Rabbi Joshuah ben Levi concludes,At every commandment uttered by the mouth of the Holy One, the soul of Israel was drawn out of them, as it is written, ‘My soul went out when he spake.’A question is again asked,If their soul was drawn out at the first commandment, how could they receive the second?Answer.He (i.e. God) caused the dew to come down, by which he will raise the dead, and revived them, as it is written, ‘Thou, O God, didst send a plentiful rain, whereby thou didst confirm thine inheritance, when it was weary.’” Ps. lxviii. 9.32
Here, again, we see that the bridegroom is taken to be the Holy One, the Owner of all things, and the bride the congregation of Israel. The reader, looking into the text of the Talmud quoted in the note, will observe that most of this interpretation has been obtained, either by the separation of words, the transposition and change of letters, or by substituting[28]in the commentary words, similar in sound to those in the Scriptures. Thus,צרורa bundle, a bag, is explained byמיצרoppress;מורmyrrhbyמימרembitter;אשכולa clusterbyאיש שהכל לוHe whose are all things;כופרcypress flowersbyכפרpardon;עין גדיEn-gedibyעון עגלthe sin of the calf.
This mode of interpretation is not confined to the Song of Songs, but is applied to all parts of the Bible, and is an illustration of the way in which the hermeneutic rules laid down by Rabbi Hillel, and augmented by R. Ishmael, and others, were carried out.
550,A.D.—The Targum or Chaldee paraphrase is the first entire commentary upon the Song of Songs which has been handed down to us. The author is unknown. Kitto erroneously affirms, that it was “made several centuries before the time of Christ, and probably before the traditionary interpretation of the author himself (i.e.the author of this Song) would entirely be lost.”33The inferior style in which it is written, the copious use it makes of legends of a very late date, and especially the mention it makes of theGemara(Ch. i. 2), which was not completed till nearly the middle ofthe sixth century, prove most distinctly that this paraphrase was made in the sixth century. Hävernick,34however, is equally wrong in affirming that the Mahomedans are mentioned in Ch. i. 7. Thatthe sons of Ishmaelhere alluded to are not the Mahomedans, is evident from Ch. vi. 7. of the same paraphrase, where we are told that theseבְּנוֹי דְיִשְׁמָעֵאלheaded by Alexander the Great, came to wage war against Jerusalem at the time of the Maccabees.
The Targum takes the Song of Songs as an allegory, describing prophetically the history of the Jewish nation, beginning with their Exodus from Egypt, and detailing their doings and sufferings, down to the coming of the Messiah, and the building of the third Temple.[29]
Thus, according to this allegory, Ch. i. 3, describes Jehovah’s fame, which went abroad in consequence of the wonders he wrought when bringing the Israelites out of Egypt; verse 12 describes the departure of Moses to receive the two tables of stone, and how the Israelites, in the mean time, made the golden calf; verse 14 describes the pardon of that sin, and the erection of the Tabernacle; Ch. iii. 6–11, describes the passage of the Israelites, under the leadership of Joshua, over the Jordan, their attacking and conquering the Canaanites, and the building of Solomon’s Temple; Ch. v. 2, describes the Babylonian captivity; Ch. vi. 2, the deliverance of Israel through Cyrus; and the building of the second Temple; Ch. vi. 7, &c., describes the battles of the Maccabees; Ch. vii. 11, 12, the present dispersion of the Jews, and their future anxiety to learn the time of their restoration; Ch. viii. 5, &c., describes the resurrection of the dead, the final ingathering of Israel, the building of the third Temple, &c., &c.
“The beloved,” according to the Targum, isthe Lord; “the loved one” isthe Congregation of Israel; “the companions of the beloved” (Ch. i. 7) arethe Edomites and the Ishmaelites; “the daughters of Jerusalem” are, in Ch. i. 5,the Gentile nations; in ii. 7, iii. 5, viii. 4,the Congregation of Israel; and in v. 8,the prophets; “the brothers of the loved one” arethe false prophets; “the little sister,” in viii. 8, isthe people of Israel; the speakers in the same verse arethe angels; the speaker in viii. 13, isthe Lord; “the companions,” in the same verse arethe Sanhedrim.
The following specimen of the Targum, on the first chapter of this Song, will give the reader an idea of the way in which the paraphrase develops the allegorical construction of this book.
1.The Song of Songs, &c.—The songs and praises which Solomon the prophet, King of Israel, sang, by the spirit of prophecy, before God, the Lord of the whole world. Ten songs weresungin this world, but this song is the most celebrated of them all. Thefirstsong Adam sang when his sins were forgiven him, and when the sabbath-day came, and protected him, he opened his mouth and said, “A song for the sabbath-day,”&c. (Ps. xcii.) Thesecondsong Moses and the children of Israel sang when the[30]Lord of the world divided the Red Sea for them, they all opened their mouths and sang as one man, the song, as it is written, “Then sang Moses and the children of Israel.” (Exod. xv. 1.) Thethirdsong the children of Israel sang when the well of water was given to them, as it is written, “Then sang Israel.” (Numb. xxi. 17.) Thefourthsong Moses the prophet sang, when his time came to depart from this world, in which he reproved the people of the house of Israel, as it is written: “Give ear, O heavens, and I will speak.” (Deut. xxxii. 1.) Thefifthsong Joshua the son of Nun sang, when he waged war in Gibeon, and the sun and moon stood still for him thirty-six hours, and when they left off singing their song, he himself opened his mouth and sang this song, as it is written: “Then sang Joshua before the Lord.” (Josh. x. 12.) Thesixthsong Barak and Deborah sang in the day when the Lord delivered Sisera and his army into the hands of the children of Israel, as it is written: “Then sang Deborah, &c.” (Judg. v. 11.) Theseventhsong Hannah sang when a son was given her by the Lord, as it is written: “And Hannah prayed prophetically, and said.” (1 Sam. ii. 1, and the Targumin loco.) Theeighthsong David the King of Israel sang for all the wonders which the Lord did for him. He opened his mouth and sang a hymn, as it is written: “And David sang in prophecy before the Lord.” (2 Sam. xxii. 1, and the Targumin loco.) Theninthsong Solomon the King of Israel sang by the Holy Spirit before God, the Lord of the whole world. And thetenthsong the children of the captivity shall sing when they shall be delivered from their captivity, as it is written and declared by Isaiah the prophet: “This song shall be unto you for joy, as in the night in which the feast of the passover is celebrated; and gladness of heart as when the people go to appear before the Lord three times in the year, with all kinds of music, and with the sound of the timbrel, to go up to the mountain of the Lord, and to worship before the Lord, the Mighty One of Israel.” (Is. xxx. 29, and the Targumin loco.)2.Let him kiss me, &c.—Solomon the prophet said, “Blessed be the name of the Lord who has given us the law through Moses the great scribe, written upon two tables of stone; and the six parts of the Mishna and the Talmud traditionally, and who spoke with us face to face, as a man that kissed his friend, because of his great love wherewith he loved us above the seventy nations.”353.Thy perfumes, &c.—At the report of thy wonders and mighty deeds which thou hast done for thy people the house of Israel, all the nations trembled who heard of thy famous strength, and thy great miracles; and in all the earth was heard thy holy name, which is more excellent than the anointing oil that was poured upon the heads of kings and priests; therefore the righteous love to walk after thy good way, because they shall inherit both this world and the world to come.4.Draw me, &c.—When the people of the house of Israel went out of Egypt the shechinah of the Lord of the world went before them in a pillar of cloud by day, and in a pillar of fire by night, and the righteous of that[31]generation said, Lord of the whole world, draw us after thee, and we will run in thy good way! Bring us to the foot of Mount Sinai, and give us thy law out of thy treasury in heaven, and we will rejoice and be gladin the twenty-two letters36with which it is written, and we will remember them, and love thy divine nature, and withdraw ourselves from the idols of the nations; and all the righteous, who do that which is right before thee, shall fear thee and love thy commandments.5.I am swarthy, &c.—When the house of Israel made the calf, their faces became black, like the sons of Cush, who dwelt in the tents of Kedar; but when they returned by repentance, and were forgiven, the shining splendour of their faces was increased to that of angels, because they made the curtains for the tabernacle, and the shechinah of the Lord dwelt among them; and Moses, their teacher, went up to heaven and made peace between them and their King.6.Do not look down upon me, &c.—The congregation of Israel said before all the nations, Do not despise me because I am blacker than you, for I have done your deeds, and worshipped the sun and moon; for false prophets have been the cause that the fierce anger of the Lord has come upon me, and they taught me to worship your idols, and to walk in your laws; but the Lord of the world, who is my God, I did not serve, and did not walk in his precepts, and did not keep his commandments and laws.7.Tell me, &c.—When the time came for Moses the prophet to depart from this world, he said to the Lord, It is revealed to me that this people will sin, and be carried into captivity; show me now how they shall be governed and dwell among the nations, whose decrees are oppressive as the heat and the scorching sun in the summer solstice, and wherefore is it that they shall wander among the flocks of the sons of Esau and Ishmael, who make their idols equal to thee, as though they were thy companions.8.If thou knowest not, &c.—The Holy One, blessed be his name, said to Moses, the prophet, “I suffer myself to be entreated to abolish their captivity; the congregation of Israel, which is like a fair damsel, and which my soul loves, she shall walk in the ways of the righteous, and shall order her prayers according to the order of her governors and leaders, and instruct her children, who are like to the kids of the goats, to go to the synagogue and the schools; and by the merits of this they shall be governed in the captivity, until the time that I send King Messiah, and he shall lead them quietly to their habitations; yea, he shall bring them to the house of the sanctuary, which David and Solomon, the shepherds of Israel, shall build for them.”9.I compare thee, &c.—When Israel went out of Egypt, Pharaoh and his hosts pursued after them with chariots and horsemen, and their way was shut up on the four sides of them; on the right hand and on the left were wildernesses full of fiery serpents, and behind them was wicked Pharaoh with his army, and before them was the Red Sea, what did the holy blessed God do? He was manifested in the power of his might upon the Red Sea, and dried the sea up, but the mud he did not dry up. The wicked and the mixed multitude, and the strangers who were among them,[32]said, The waters of the sea he was able to dry up, but the mud he was not able to dry up. In that very hour the fierce anger of the Lord came upon them, and he sought to drown them in the waters of the sea, as Pharaoh, and his army, and his chariots, and his horsemen, and his horses were drowned, had it not been for Moses the Prophet, who spread his hands in prayer before the Lord, and turned away the anger of the Lord from them. Then he and the righteous of that generation opened their mouths, and sang a song, and passed through the Red Sea on dry land, through the merits of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the beloved of the Lord.10.Beautiful are thy cheeks, &c.—When they went out into the wilderness the Lord said to Moses, “How comely is this people, that the words of the law should be given unto them, and they shall be as a bridle in their jaws, that they may not depart out of the good way, as a horse turneth not aside that has a bridle in his jaws; and how fair is their neck to bear the yoke of my commandments; and it shall be upon them as a yoke upon the neck of a bullock which plougheth in the field, and feeds both itself and its owner.”11.Circlets of gold, &c.—Then was it said to Moses, “Go up into heaven, and I will give thee the two tables of stone, hewn out of the sapphire of the throne of my glory, shining as the best gold, disposed in rows, written with my finger, on which are engraven the ten commandments, purer than silver that is purified seven times seven, which is the number of the things explained in them in forty-nine various ways, and I shall give them by thy hands to the people of the house of Israel.”12.While the King, &c.—Whilst Moses, their teacher, was in heaven to receive the two tables of stone, and the law and the commandments, the wicked of that generation and the mixed multitude that was among them rose up and made a golden calf, and caused their works to stink, and an evil report of them went out in the world; for before this time a fragrant odour of them was diffused in the world, but afterwards they stank like nard, the smell of which is very bad, and the plague of leprosy came down upon their flesh.13.A bag of myrrh, &c.—At that time the Lord said to Moses, “Go down, for the people have corrupted themselves, desist from speaking to me, and I will destroy them.” Then Moses returned and asked mercy of the Lord, and the Lord remembered for them the binding of Isaac, whom his father bound, on Mount Moriah, upon the altar; and the Lord turned from his fierce anger, and caused his shechinah to dwell among them as before.14.A bunch of cypress flowers, &c.—So then went Moses down with the two tables of stone in his hands; and, because of the sins of Israel, his hands grew heavy, and the tables fell and were broken. Then went Moses and ground the calf to powder, and scattered the dust of it upon the brook, and made the children of Israel to drink it, and slew all that deserved to die, and went up a second time into heaven, and prayed before the Lord, and made atonement for the children of Israel; then was the commandment to make a tabernacle and an ark. Immediately Moses hastened and made the tabernacle, and all its furniture, and the ark; and he put in the ark the two other tables, and appointed the sons of Aaron, the priests, to offer the offerings upon the altar, and to pour the wine upon the offerings;[33]but from whence had they wine to pour? For in the wilderness they had no proper place for sowing; neither had they fig-trees, nor vines, nor pomegranates; but they went to the vineyards of En-gedi, and took clusters of grapes from thence, and pressed wine out of them, and poured it upon the altar, the fourth part of a hin to one lamb.15.Behold thou art beautiful, &c.—When the children of Israel performed the will of their King, he himself praised them in the family of the holy angels, and said, “How fair are thy works, my daughter, my beloved, O congregation of Israel, in the time that thou doest my will, and studiest in the words of my law; and how well ordered are thy works and thy affairs, as young doves that are fit to be offered upon the altar!”16.Behold thou art comely, &c.—The congregation of Israel answered before the Lord of the world, and thus said, “How fair is the shechinah of thy holiness, when thou dwellest among us, and receivest prayers with acceptance; and when thou dwellest in our beloved bed, and our children are multiplied in the world, and we increase and multiply like a tree that is planted by a stream of water, whose leaf is fair, and whose fruit is plenteous!”17.The beams of, &c.—Solomon, the prophet, said, “How beautiful is the house of the sanctuary of the Lord, which is built by my hands, of wood of Gulmish; but far more beautiful will be the house of the sanctuary which shall be built in the days of the King Messiah, the beams of which will be of the cedars of the garden of Eden, and whose rafters will be of cypress, pine, and box.”
1.The Song of Songs, &c.—The songs and praises which Solomon the prophet, King of Israel, sang, by the spirit of prophecy, before God, the Lord of the whole world. Ten songs weresungin this world, but this song is the most celebrated of them all. Thefirstsong Adam sang when his sins were forgiven him, and when the sabbath-day came, and protected him, he opened his mouth and said, “A song for the sabbath-day,”&c. (Ps. xcii.) Thesecondsong Moses and the children of Israel sang when the[30]Lord of the world divided the Red Sea for them, they all opened their mouths and sang as one man, the song, as it is written, “Then sang Moses and the children of Israel.” (Exod. xv. 1.) Thethirdsong the children of Israel sang when the well of water was given to them, as it is written, “Then sang Israel.” (Numb. xxi. 17.) Thefourthsong Moses the prophet sang, when his time came to depart from this world, in which he reproved the people of the house of Israel, as it is written: “Give ear, O heavens, and I will speak.” (Deut. xxxii. 1.) Thefifthsong Joshua the son of Nun sang, when he waged war in Gibeon, and the sun and moon stood still for him thirty-six hours, and when they left off singing their song, he himself opened his mouth and sang this song, as it is written: “Then sang Joshua before the Lord.” (Josh. x. 12.) Thesixthsong Barak and Deborah sang in the day when the Lord delivered Sisera and his army into the hands of the children of Israel, as it is written: “Then sang Deborah, &c.” (Judg. v. 11.) Theseventhsong Hannah sang when a son was given her by the Lord, as it is written: “And Hannah prayed prophetically, and said.” (1 Sam. ii. 1, and the Targumin loco.) Theeighthsong David the King of Israel sang for all the wonders which the Lord did for him. He opened his mouth and sang a hymn, as it is written: “And David sang in prophecy before the Lord.” (2 Sam. xxii. 1, and the Targumin loco.) Theninthsong Solomon the King of Israel sang by the Holy Spirit before God, the Lord of the whole world. And thetenthsong the children of the captivity shall sing when they shall be delivered from their captivity, as it is written and declared by Isaiah the prophet: “This song shall be unto you for joy, as in the night in which the feast of the passover is celebrated; and gladness of heart as when the people go to appear before the Lord three times in the year, with all kinds of music, and with the sound of the timbrel, to go up to the mountain of the Lord, and to worship before the Lord, the Mighty One of Israel.” (Is. xxx. 29, and the Targumin loco.)
2.Let him kiss me, &c.—Solomon the prophet said, “Blessed be the name of the Lord who has given us the law through Moses the great scribe, written upon two tables of stone; and the six parts of the Mishna and the Talmud traditionally, and who spoke with us face to face, as a man that kissed his friend, because of his great love wherewith he loved us above the seventy nations.”35
3.Thy perfumes, &c.—At the report of thy wonders and mighty deeds which thou hast done for thy people the house of Israel, all the nations trembled who heard of thy famous strength, and thy great miracles; and in all the earth was heard thy holy name, which is more excellent than the anointing oil that was poured upon the heads of kings and priests; therefore the righteous love to walk after thy good way, because they shall inherit both this world and the world to come.
4.Draw me, &c.—When the people of the house of Israel went out of Egypt the shechinah of the Lord of the world went before them in a pillar of cloud by day, and in a pillar of fire by night, and the righteous of that[31]generation said, Lord of the whole world, draw us after thee, and we will run in thy good way! Bring us to the foot of Mount Sinai, and give us thy law out of thy treasury in heaven, and we will rejoice and be gladin the twenty-two letters36with which it is written, and we will remember them, and love thy divine nature, and withdraw ourselves from the idols of the nations; and all the righteous, who do that which is right before thee, shall fear thee and love thy commandments.
5.I am swarthy, &c.—When the house of Israel made the calf, their faces became black, like the sons of Cush, who dwelt in the tents of Kedar; but when they returned by repentance, and were forgiven, the shining splendour of their faces was increased to that of angels, because they made the curtains for the tabernacle, and the shechinah of the Lord dwelt among them; and Moses, their teacher, went up to heaven and made peace between them and their King.
6.Do not look down upon me, &c.—The congregation of Israel said before all the nations, Do not despise me because I am blacker than you, for I have done your deeds, and worshipped the sun and moon; for false prophets have been the cause that the fierce anger of the Lord has come upon me, and they taught me to worship your idols, and to walk in your laws; but the Lord of the world, who is my God, I did not serve, and did not walk in his precepts, and did not keep his commandments and laws.
7.Tell me, &c.—When the time came for Moses the prophet to depart from this world, he said to the Lord, It is revealed to me that this people will sin, and be carried into captivity; show me now how they shall be governed and dwell among the nations, whose decrees are oppressive as the heat and the scorching sun in the summer solstice, and wherefore is it that they shall wander among the flocks of the sons of Esau and Ishmael, who make their idols equal to thee, as though they were thy companions.
8.If thou knowest not, &c.—The Holy One, blessed be his name, said to Moses, the prophet, “I suffer myself to be entreated to abolish their captivity; the congregation of Israel, which is like a fair damsel, and which my soul loves, she shall walk in the ways of the righteous, and shall order her prayers according to the order of her governors and leaders, and instruct her children, who are like to the kids of the goats, to go to the synagogue and the schools; and by the merits of this they shall be governed in the captivity, until the time that I send King Messiah, and he shall lead them quietly to their habitations; yea, he shall bring them to the house of the sanctuary, which David and Solomon, the shepherds of Israel, shall build for them.”
9.I compare thee, &c.—When Israel went out of Egypt, Pharaoh and his hosts pursued after them with chariots and horsemen, and their way was shut up on the four sides of them; on the right hand and on the left were wildernesses full of fiery serpents, and behind them was wicked Pharaoh with his army, and before them was the Red Sea, what did the holy blessed God do? He was manifested in the power of his might upon the Red Sea, and dried the sea up, but the mud he did not dry up. The wicked and the mixed multitude, and the strangers who were among them,[32]said, The waters of the sea he was able to dry up, but the mud he was not able to dry up. In that very hour the fierce anger of the Lord came upon them, and he sought to drown them in the waters of the sea, as Pharaoh, and his army, and his chariots, and his horsemen, and his horses were drowned, had it not been for Moses the Prophet, who spread his hands in prayer before the Lord, and turned away the anger of the Lord from them. Then he and the righteous of that generation opened their mouths, and sang a song, and passed through the Red Sea on dry land, through the merits of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the beloved of the Lord.
10.Beautiful are thy cheeks, &c.—When they went out into the wilderness the Lord said to Moses, “How comely is this people, that the words of the law should be given unto them, and they shall be as a bridle in their jaws, that they may not depart out of the good way, as a horse turneth not aside that has a bridle in his jaws; and how fair is their neck to bear the yoke of my commandments; and it shall be upon them as a yoke upon the neck of a bullock which plougheth in the field, and feeds both itself and its owner.”
11.Circlets of gold, &c.—Then was it said to Moses, “Go up into heaven, and I will give thee the two tables of stone, hewn out of the sapphire of the throne of my glory, shining as the best gold, disposed in rows, written with my finger, on which are engraven the ten commandments, purer than silver that is purified seven times seven, which is the number of the things explained in them in forty-nine various ways, and I shall give them by thy hands to the people of the house of Israel.”
12.While the King, &c.—Whilst Moses, their teacher, was in heaven to receive the two tables of stone, and the law and the commandments, the wicked of that generation and the mixed multitude that was among them rose up and made a golden calf, and caused their works to stink, and an evil report of them went out in the world; for before this time a fragrant odour of them was diffused in the world, but afterwards they stank like nard, the smell of which is very bad, and the plague of leprosy came down upon their flesh.
13.A bag of myrrh, &c.—At that time the Lord said to Moses, “Go down, for the people have corrupted themselves, desist from speaking to me, and I will destroy them.” Then Moses returned and asked mercy of the Lord, and the Lord remembered for them the binding of Isaac, whom his father bound, on Mount Moriah, upon the altar; and the Lord turned from his fierce anger, and caused his shechinah to dwell among them as before.
14.A bunch of cypress flowers, &c.—So then went Moses down with the two tables of stone in his hands; and, because of the sins of Israel, his hands grew heavy, and the tables fell and were broken. Then went Moses and ground the calf to powder, and scattered the dust of it upon the brook, and made the children of Israel to drink it, and slew all that deserved to die, and went up a second time into heaven, and prayed before the Lord, and made atonement for the children of Israel; then was the commandment to make a tabernacle and an ark. Immediately Moses hastened and made the tabernacle, and all its furniture, and the ark; and he put in the ark the two other tables, and appointed the sons of Aaron, the priests, to offer the offerings upon the altar, and to pour the wine upon the offerings;[33]but from whence had they wine to pour? For in the wilderness they had no proper place for sowing; neither had they fig-trees, nor vines, nor pomegranates; but they went to the vineyards of En-gedi, and took clusters of grapes from thence, and pressed wine out of them, and poured it upon the altar, the fourth part of a hin to one lamb.
15.Behold thou art beautiful, &c.—When the children of Israel performed the will of their King, he himself praised them in the family of the holy angels, and said, “How fair are thy works, my daughter, my beloved, O congregation of Israel, in the time that thou doest my will, and studiest in the words of my law; and how well ordered are thy works and thy affairs, as young doves that are fit to be offered upon the altar!”
16.Behold thou art comely, &c.—The congregation of Israel answered before the Lord of the world, and thus said, “How fair is the shechinah of thy holiness, when thou dwellest among us, and receivest prayers with acceptance; and when thou dwellest in our beloved bed, and our children are multiplied in the world, and we increase and multiply like a tree that is planted by a stream of water, whose leaf is fair, and whose fruit is plenteous!”
17.The beams of, &c.—Solomon, the prophet, said, “How beautiful is the house of the sanctuary of the Lord, which is built by my hands, of wood of Gulmish; but far more beautiful will be the house of the sanctuary which shall be built in the days of the King Messiah, the beams of which will be of the cedars of the garden of Eden, and whose rafters will be of cypress, pine, and box.”
The precedent of the Talmud in taking the beloved asthe Lord, and the loved one asthe Congregation of Israel, and in explaining the text in such a manner as to make it square with her doings, has quite prepared us for the Chaldee exposition, the author of which most probably was himself one of the later Talmudists. How could the paraphrast do otherwise? “Are not the words ofthe sagesmore excellent than even the wine of the Law?”37“Is not he who transgresses the words of the scribes more guilty than he who transgresses the words of the Law?”38Having, therefore, been once settled by the sages that this Song describes the doings and sufferings of Israel, it only remained for the expositors to apply their exegetical canons, viz.: of transposing, changing, or omitting letters; explaining words by others of a similar sound; making each letter of a word begin another word; reducing an expression to its numerical value, and explaining the text accordingly, &c. &c., in order to palm upon this book, in a consecutive[34]order, the remarkable events in connection with the history of the Jews.
Thus, the love of God to Israel, which was greater than to allthe seventy other nationsmentioned in Ch. i. 2, was obtained by reducing the wordייןto its numerical value,seventy;the two worlds, in verse 3, which the pious are to inherit, were obtained by changingעלמותmaidens, intoעולמותworlds, according to the example of the Talmud;39the twenty-two letterswith which the Law is written, in verse 4, were obtained by reducing the wordבךto its numerical value;the Tabernacle, in verse 5, was obtained from the wordירעות, andthe effected peaceby changing the proper nameשלמהintoשלוםpeace; the worship ofthe sun and moon, in verse 6, was obtained from the wordשמשsun;the ploughing bullock, in verse 10, was obtained by changingתוריםringlet, andחרוזיםnecklace, intoתור חרז;the two tables shining as the best gold, verse 11, were obtained by renderingתורי זהבgolden Laws, andthe seven times seven, orthe forty different interpretations of the Law, by reducing the wordזהבto its numerical value,זbeingseven, andהandבseven, and then multiplying seven by seven;the binding of Isaac, in verse 13, was obtained by renderingצרור המורbyערור המוריהthe binding of Moriah;the sin of the calf, andthe atonement of that, in verse 14, were obtained by changingעין גדיEn-gedi, intoעון עגלthe sin of the calf, and by substitutingכפרpardon, forכופרcypress-flower, according to the example of the Talmud.40This is the development of Hagadic exegesis, and this the paraphrase appealed to in support of the allegorical interpretation, and in the track of which future allegorists more or less follow.
892–942. From the Chaldee paraphrase to R. Saadias Gaon, a period of about 350 years, thick darkness covers the annals of Jewish literature. With him, however, a new epoch begins to dawn. Saadias was born at Pithom, in Egypt, about the year 892, and died in the year 942. He was “Gaon,” or spiritual head of[35]the Jews in Babylon, and is well known by his translation of the Bible into Arabic, the Pentateuch of which is inserted in Walton’s Polyglott.41Among the many philosophical and exegetical works this eminent man bequeathed to posterity, is a commentary on the Song of Songs, which was originally written in Arabic, and was translated into Hebrew by some unknown individual. This work is exceedingly rare, and I have happily found a copy of the original Constantinople edition in the British Museum, of which Dukes was not aware when he wrote his “Literarische Mittheilungen.” The view that Saadias takes is that “Solomon relates in it the history of the Jews, beginning with their Exodus from Egypt, and extending it beyond the coming of the Messiah.” Thus far he agrees with the Targum, but his commentary on the text is entirely at variance with that paraphrase.
According to Saadias, Ch. i. 2–iii. 5, describes the bondage of Israel in Egypt, their liberation, the giving of the Law, the battles with Sihon, Og, and the King of Aroar, the wrath of God at the time of the spies, &c. Ch. iii. 6–iv. 7, describes the erection of the Tabernacle, the various journeys in the wilderness, the high position of Moses and Aaron, &c. Hitherto Israel has been called by the appellationmy loved one, for they had not as yet entered Canaan; henceforth they are calledbride(כלה), because God takes them into the promised land; just as a bridegroom calls his loved onebride, when he takes her home. Ch. iv. 8–v. 1, describes Israel’s entrance into Canaan, the building of the first Temple, the separation of[36]Judah and Israel, the Shechinah departing from Israel and abiding with Judah, and the people coming up to Jerusalem to the three great festivals. Ch. v. 2–vi. 3, describes the rebellion of Israel and Ahaz, God sending prophets to warn them to repent, the destruction of the Temple, the Babylonian captivity, Israel’s liberation, the building of the second Temple, and the covenant of God with his repenting people. Ch. vi. 4–ix. describes the twofold condition of the people that returned from Babylon, some of whom were godly, while others took strange women, forgot the holy language, and were therefore calledשחרdawn, being neither real light nor real darkness, neither pious nor wicked. Ch. vi. 10–vii. 9, refers to the present dispersion, in which the Jews, though being many days without a king, without a priest, &c., say we still live in the fear of God, and are His. Ch. vii. 12–viii. 4, refers to the sufferings of the Messiah ben Joseph, the manifestation of the Messiah ben David, the obedience of Israel to God in those days, and to the Lord’s rejoicing over them as a bridegroom over his bride. Ch. viii. 5, to the end, describes Israel restored, the third Temple built, and all the people walking according to the will of the Lord.
The principal persons in this Song are understood in the following manner: “the beloved” isthe Lord; “the loved one,”the Congregation of Israel; “the companions of the beloved,” (Ch. i. 7,) areMoses,Aaron, andMiriam; “the daughters of Jerusalem,”the Congregation of Israel; “the little sister,”the two tribes and a half; “the speaker,”the Lord; “the inhabitant of the gardens,” isthe sages; “the companions,” in the same verse, arethe Israeliteswishing to listen to the teaching of their sages.
The following is a specimen of R. Saadias’s commentary, the Hebrew of which is given in the note.42
1–3.The Song of Songs, &c.—Know, my brother, that you will find a great diversity of opinions as regards the interpretation of this Song of[37]Songs; and it must be confessed that there is reason for it, since the Song of Songs is like a lock, the key of which hath been lost. Some maintain that it refers to the kingdom of Israel; others say that it refers to the days of the Messiah; and others again affirm that it refers to the time of the dispersion and the Messiah, and assert that bybeloved(דוד) the Messiah is meant, and bybride(כלה) is meant the law (תורה). But this is a sin, an error, and a great heresy. The truth is, that bybeloved(דוד) is meantthe Lord, for it is written, “I will sing to my beloved a song of love respecting his vineyard” (Isa. v. 1), which the prophet Isaiah explains (verse 7), “The vineyard of the Lord of Hosts is the house of Israel.” Solomon relates in this book the history of the Jews commencing with their Exodus from Egypt until after the coming of the Messiah, and compares the position of Israel to God to that of a bride to a bridegroom, because she (Israel) is dear to him, and he to her. When he first takes her from her father’s house he calls hermy friend(רעיתי), when he brings her to his house he calls hermy bride(כלה), when she finds favour in his eyes he calls hermy sister(אחותי), and praises her from head to foot; then he is angry with her, and she returns and praises him from head to foot; then he praises her a second time. And, because it is unlawful for a bridegroom and bride to come together without a marriage-contract and witnesses, therefore Solomon begins with the words, “Let him give me kisses of his mouth;” that is, the commandments and the statutes, comprising both the written and the oral law which the Lord gave to Israel through the pious Moses, Aaron, and Miriam, so that Israel’s fame went forth into the world in consequence of their wisdom, as it is written, “And thy renown went forth among the heathen for thy beauty,” &c. (Ezek. xvi. 14), so much so that many of the nations desired to be gathered under the wings of the shechinah and become Jews; and these are the mixed multitudes, Jethro and others, and therefore it is said, “Thy perfumes are good in odour,” that is, the Lord tried them from the departure out of Egypt till their entrance into Canaan whether they would walk in his ways, as it is written, “Thou didst follow me in the wilderness,” &c. Jer. ii. 2.4.Draw me, &c.—Having related in this verse how Israel walked in the fear of the Lord, and received the ten commandments in the 6th of[38]Sivan, and then made the calf on the 17th of Tamuz, Solomon in astonishment says in their name,5.I am swarthy, &c.—That is, I am swarthy, but comely; I am swarthy because of making the calf, but comely because of receiving the ten commandments; and Israel says that his sin has been forgiven through the three thousand men, the wicked among Israel, who served idols, who were killed before the sun to atone for the great sin, as it is written, “For thou hadst done it in secret, but I will do it before all Israel, and before the sun”(2 Sam. xii. 11, 12); and the nations made mekeeperof the service of other gods, for I served strange gods, as it is written, “And they changed their glory into the likeness of a calf that eateth grass” (Psal. cv. 25.)
1–3.The Song of Songs, &c.—Know, my brother, that you will find a great diversity of opinions as regards the interpretation of this Song of[37]Songs; and it must be confessed that there is reason for it, since the Song of Songs is like a lock, the key of which hath been lost. Some maintain that it refers to the kingdom of Israel; others say that it refers to the days of the Messiah; and others again affirm that it refers to the time of the dispersion and the Messiah, and assert that bybeloved(דוד) the Messiah is meant, and bybride(כלה) is meant the law (תורה). But this is a sin, an error, and a great heresy. The truth is, that bybeloved(דוד) is meantthe Lord, for it is written, “I will sing to my beloved a song of love respecting his vineyard” (Isa. v. 1), which the prophet Isaiah explains (verse 7), “The vineyard of the Lord of Hosts is the house of Israel.” Solomon relates in this book the history of the Jews commencing with their Exodus from Egypt until after the coming of the Messiah, and compares the position of Israel to God to that of a bride to a bridegroom, because she (Israel) is dear to him, and he to her. When he first takes her from her father’s house he calls hermy friend(רעיתי), when he brings her to his house he calls hermy bride(כלה), when she finds favour in his eyes he calls hermy sister(אחותי), and praises her from head to foot; then he is angry with her, and she returns and praises him from head to foot; then he praises her a second time. And, because it is unlawful for a bridegroom and bride to come together without a marriage-contract and witnesses, therefore Solomon begins with the words, “Let him give me kisses of his mouth;” that is, the commandments and the statutes, comprising both the written and the oral law which the Lord gave to Israel through the pious Moses, Aaron, and Miriam, so that Israel’s fame went forth into the world in consequence of their wisdom, as it is written, “And thy renown went forth among the heathen for thy beauty,” &c. (Ezek. xvi. 14), so much so that many of the nations desired to be gathered under the wings of the shechinah and become Jews; and these are the mixed multitudes, Jethro and others, and therefore it is said, “Thy perfumes are good in odour,” that is, the Lord tried them from the departure out of Egypt till their entrance into Canaan whether they would walk in his ways, as it is written, “Thou didst follow me in the wilderness,” &c. Jer. ii. 2.
4.Draw me, &c.—Having related in this verse how Israel walked in the fear of the Lord, and received the ten commandments in the 6th of[38]Sivan, and then made the calf on the 17th of Tamuz, Solomon in astonishment says in their name,
5.I am swarthy, &c.—That is, I am swarthy, but comely; I am swarthy because of making the calf, but comely because of receiving the ten commandments; and Israel says that his sin has been forgiven through the three thousand men, the wicked among Israel, who served idols, who were killed before the sun to atone for the great sin, as it is written, “For thou hadst done it in secret, but I will do it before all Israel, and before the sun”(2 Sam. xii. 11, 12); and the nations made mekeeperof the service of other gods, for I served strange gods, as it is written, “And they changed their glory into the likeness of a calf that eateth grass” (Psal. cv. 25.)
The reader will have observed that this early commentator does already compare the Song of Songsto a lock, the key of which has been lost, and refers to several modes in which it has been interpreted.
1000–1040. The allegorical interpretation was nevertheless introduced into the Jewish liturgical services in the middle ages, when they were seeking, from traditions, dogmas, biblical events, &c., to construct sacred hymns and poems to be said or sung at their feasts and fasts.43Being regarded as representing the departure of Israel from Egypt (יציאת מצרים), and their subsequent history in confirmation of Jehovah’s covenant with them, the Song of Songs is used in a poetical paraphrase on the first and second morning services of the Passover feast, which was designed to celebrate the Exodus from Egypt as the commencement of the conjugal relation between God and his people. For the same reason, the book itself is read in the synagogue on the Sabbath of the middle days of the Passover (חול המועד של פסח). The poetical paraphrase above alluded to is in an alphabetical form, has the author’s name in it, and each stanza closes with a quotation from the book in regular order, which renders the paraphrastic meaning artificial and obscure. Some idea of it may be gathered from the following version which we have made of R. Solomon[39]ben Judah Hababli’s paraphrase, comprising the first five verses of the Song of Songs.