FOOTNOTES:

FOOTNOTES:[14]For the sake of convenience the nasal sounds, in producing which the breath does not also pass out through the mouth,i.e.which are not nasal vowels (see § 8), are included under "stops."[15]Sounds in phonetic transcript are enclosed in square brackets.[16]Also called labial.[17]Also called dental.[18]Also called palatal.[19]Also called velar (from velum, for which see § 8) and more usually, but less accurately, guttural.[20]An oral stop followed by [h] is called an aspirate. Aspirates are common in German, but practically unknown in standard French.[21]Examples in the conventional spelling are printed initalics.[22]i.e.at the end of a word, before a pause.[23]When the aspiration is strongly marked, it forms a characteristic of the speech of the lower middle class in London and some home counties.[24]The point stops are also called teeth or dental stops.[25]On the other hand, in Somersetclean, clodare sometimes pronounced with [tl-].[26]See footnote 8 on page29.[27]See footnote 8 on page29.[28]In standard English; in certain dialects the ending-ingis always pronounced [iŋg].[29]The educated commonly say [buloun]; [bulɔin] is also heard.[30]The hushing and hissing sounds are also called sibilants.[31]See also § 45.[32]Some speakers say [ə´souʃieit] but [ə´sousieiʃən], [i´nʌnʃieit] but [i´nʌnsieiʃən].[33]In a great many cases lisping is due to an over-long tongue; or the tongue may be "tied," in which case the ligature is easily cut.[34]The back of the tongue may also be raised to some extent; how does this explain the substitution of [w] for [r] which is sometimes heard?[35]The rule may also be stated thus:ris only heard when a vowel follows in the same or the next word. "Vowel" must here be taken to include [j].[36]The term "dark" here implies a deep and obscure resonance, with little friction.[37]Contrast the [l] ofwillandwilling(where its position between front vowels leads to forward formation).[38]Some pronounce this word [sælv].[39]Some pronounce this word [fɔlkən].[40]These are modifications of the Scotch form of the word.[41][h] is described as voiceless; but it may also be produced with voice. We have seen that the vocal chords consist of a fleshy and a cartilaginous part: it is possible to let the former vibrate, while the latter is left open, and the breath passing through produces [h]. Try to utter this sound.[42]The "neutral" vowel [ə], for which see § 38, requires less effort.[43]Notice the faulty tendency to raise the tongue too high in uttering the first part of this diphthong; see § 40.[44]However, there is a pronunciation ofare, intermediate between the emphatic [ɑː] and the unstressed [ə], which may be described as short [ɑ]. Theain the unstressed prefixtrans-, and the secondaofadvantageousalso have the sound of [ɑ] sometimes.[45]Especially when it is final.[46]Many cultivated people pronouncegirlas [gɛəl]; but [gəːl] is to be preferred.Clerk,sergeanthave [ɑː], not [əː]; alsoDerby,Berkshire,Hertfordshire.[47]It is heard on the stage and in public speaking generally; in ordinary conversation it suggests the speech of a foreigner, especially if the [ɑ] element of the diphthong is lengthened.[48]The first part is still more open in a common vulgar pronunciation oftea,please.[49]For [ɔː] see the diagram on p.125.[50]Exceptions areborrow, etc.,work,attorney, etc.[51]To pronounce this [ə] distinctly in such words aslaw,sawis a mistake.[52]It is absurd to speak offortandcaught,mornanddawnas "cockney" rimes; they are perfectly good rimes in standard English; and a southern Englishman only shows ignorance by speaking of them as bad. Considering, however, that standard English is by no means universal, the would-be poet is advised to avoid these rimes.[53]For [ö] see the note on p.68.[54]In the case of this diphthong as well as in that inname,pail, etc. (see § 41), untrained singers usually betray themselves by passing too soon to the second part of the diphthong.[55]For [o] see the diagram on p.124.[56][ö] is [o] pronounced with the whole body of the tongue more forward than usual. To the ear it gives an effect like that of Frencheuor Germanö; but for these sounds the lips are rounded.[57]The pronunciations [wində, pilə] forwindow,pilloware, however, avoided by educated speakers.[58][ü] is [u] pronounced with the whole body of the tongue more forward than usual. To the ear it gives an effect like that of Frenchuor Germanü; but for these sounds the lips are rounded.[59]For [u] see the diagram on p.124.[60]See also § 29.

[14]For the sake of convenience the nasal sounds, in producing which the breath does not also pass out through the mouth,i.e.which are not nasal vowels (see § 8), are included under "stops."

[15]Sounds in phonetic transcript are enclosed in square brackets.

[16]Also called labial.

[17]Also called dental.

[18]Also called palatal.

[19]Also called velar (from velum, for which see § 8) and more usually, but less accurately, guttural.

[20]An oral stop followed by [h] is called an aspirate. Aspirates are common in German, but practically unknown in standard French.

[21]Examples in the conventional spelling are printed initalics.

[22]i.e.at the end of a word, before a pause.

[23]When the aspiration is strongly marked, it forms a characteristic of the speech of the lower middle class in London and some home counties.

[24]The point stops are also called teeth or dental stops.

[25]On the other hand, in Somersetclean, clodare sometimes pronounced with [tl-].

[26]See footnote 8 on page29.

[27]See footnote 8 on page29.

[28]In standard English; in certain dialects the ending-ingis always pronounced [iŋg].

[29]The educated commonly say [buloun]; [bulɔin] is also heard.

[30]The hushing and hissing sounds are also called sibilants.

[31]See also § 45.

[32]Some speakers say [ə´souʃieit] but [ə´sousieiʃən], [i´nʌnʃieit] but [i´nʌnsieiʃən].

[33]In a great many cases lisping is due to an over-long tongue; or the tongue may be "tied," in which case the ligature is easily cut.

[34]The back of the tongue may also be raised to some extent; how does this explain the substitution of [w] for [r] which is sometimes heard?

[35]The rule may also be stated thus:ris only heard when a vowel follows in the same or the next word. "Vowel" must here be taken to include [j].

[36]The term "dark" here implies a deep and obscure resonance, with little friction.

[37]Contrast the [l] ofwillandwilling(where its position between front vowels leads to forward formation).

[38]Some pronounce this word [sælv].

[39]Some pronounce this word [fɔlkən].

[40]These are modifications of the Scotch form of the word.

[41][h] is described as voiceless; but it may also be produced with voice. We have seen that the vocal chords consist of a fleshy and a cartilaginous part: it is possible to let the former vibrate, while the latter is left open, and the breath passing through produces [h]. Try to utter this sound.

[42]The "neutral" vowel [ə], for which see § 38, requires less effort.

[43]Notice the faulty tendency to raise the tongue too high in uttering the first part of this diphthong; see § 40.

[44]However, there is a pronunciation ofare, intermediate between the emphatic [ɑː] and the unstressed [ə], which may be described as short [ɑ]. Theain the unstressed prefixtrans-, and the secondaofadvantageousalso have the sound of [ɑ] sometimes.

[45]Especially when it is final.

[46]Many cultivated people pronouncegirlas [gɛəl]; but [gəːl] is to be preferred.Clerk,sergeanthave [ɑː], not [əː]; alsoDerby,Berkshire,Hertfordshire.

[47]It is heard on the stage and in public speaking generally; in ordinary conversation it suggests the speech of a foreigner, especially if the [ɑ] element of the diphthong is lengthened.

[48]The first part is still more open in a common vulgar pronunciation oftea,please.

[49]For [ɔː] see the diagram on p.125.

[50]Exceptions areborrow, etc.,work,attorney, etc.

[51]To pronounce this [ə] distinctly in such words aslaw,sawis a mistake.

[52]It is absurd to speak offortandcaught,mornanddawnas "cockney" rimes; they are perfectly good rimes in standard English; and a southern Englishman only shows ignorance by speaking of them as bad. Considering, however, that standard English is by no means universal, the would-be poet is advised to avoid these rimes.

[53]For [ö] see the note on p.68.

[54]In the case of this diphthong as well as in that inname,pail, etc. (see § 41), untrained singers usually betray themselves by passing too soon to the second part of the diphthong.

[55]For [o] see the diagram on p.124.

[56][ö] is [o] pronounced with the whole body of the tongue more forward than usual. To the ear it gives an effect like that of Frencheuor Germanö; but for these sounds the lips are rounded.

[57]The pronunciations [wində, pilə] forwindow,pilloware, however, avoided by educated speakers.

[58][ü] is [u] pronounced with the whole body of the tongue more forward than usual. To the ear it gives an effect like that of Frenchuor Germanü; but for these sounds the lips are rounded.

[59]For [u] see the diagram on p.124.

[60]See also § 29.

46.Let us take a familiar nursery rime as an example of simple conversational English; it will serve to give us some idea of the problems which have to be considered when we deal with the sounds of connected speech. This is the rime:

47.Pedantically precise speech is as much out of place in the nursery as vulgar speech; therefore we do not say, siŋ eĭ sɔŋ ɔv sikspens.

Notice that the following words havestrong and weak forms, a weak form being regularly used when they are not stressed:—

The use of strong forms for weak ones in ordinary conversation is undoubtedly a fault, and should be avoided; much of the unnatural reading aloud in our schools is due to this cause. Foreigners who have lived long in England often fail in this respect when they have overcome almost all other difficulties. It is also not uncommon in the speech of colonials.

Notice [pens], but [sikspəns].

A word which forms the second part of a compound often changes in pronunciation, a weaker form being substituted. Comparepennyandhalfpenny,boardandcupboard,comeandwelcome,dayandyesterday,waysandalways,fastandbreakfast,mouthandPortsmouth,landandEngland,fordandOxford.

The first letter of the second part is sometimesdropped; thus thewinhousewife(case for needles, etc.) [hʌzif],Greenwich,Harwich,Woolwich,Norwich,Keswick,Warwickis no longer pronounced, nor thehinshepherd,forehead,Clapham,Sydenham, and in many words beginning withex-, e.g.,exhale,[63]exhaust,exhibit,exhilarate,exhort. The dropping ofhinneighbourhoodis vulgar.

Sometimes there is a change in the first part of a compound word. Comparehalfandhalfpenny,threeandthreepence,foreandforehead,breakandbreakfast.

The stress of compounds likesixpenceis discussed below ("blackbirds").

48.Inpocketthe second vowel is not middle [e], but a very laxly articulated variety of [ɪ], with the tongue only a little higher than for close [e]; see § 38. In the speech of elocutionists the middle [e] often appears here. They tell of the [gaːəden ɔv ijden], just as they succeed in pronouncing [devɪl] instead of [devəl], thus avoiding all offence; for [devəl] is said by common people, but [devɪl] only by the polite.

Notice that infour-and-twentytheris pronounced, as it comes between vowels; but it is mute inbefore the King, where it comes before a consonant, as in the wordforth. See § 32.

49.Inandthedis dropped. Here it might be a case of assimilation; that is to say thetwhich immediatelyfollows, and which is closely akin to it, might have changed it to [t], and the two would have fallen together.

Insit down, do you utter both [t] and [d]? If you speak naturally, you probably say [sidaun] or [sitaun]. What is your pronunciation ofhold tight,less zeal?

Incupboardnone but the absurdly precise pronounce the [p].

Assimilation of consonants is common in English, and the more colloquial the speech is, the more assimilation you are likely to find. Assimilation reduces the number of movements which have to be made, and thus represents a saving of trouble; and in colloquial speech we incline to take as little trouble as possible.

The general rule is, that when two sounds come together, those movements of articulation which are common to both are executed once only. Thus indon't,[64]the stopping of the passage for [n] also does duty for [t]; it is the opening of the passage which constitutes the [t]. Instampthe closure for [m] also does duty for [p]. Inwitnessthe closure for [t] remains for [n], which merely requires the opening of the nose-passage and vibration of the vocal chords.

Utter the wordclean, and observe whether you produce the [k] in the same way as inkeen; probably you will find that for the [k] ofcleanyou open theclosure only at the sides, leaving the centre of the tongue in contact, ready for the production of [l]. See whether anything similar happens when you say the wordatlas.

Sometimes a voiced sound makes a neighbouring sound voiced, or a voiceless sound makes a neighbouring sound voiceless. Examples in the nursery rime are [bəːdzz̥] and [beikt]; find similar examples of thesof the plural[65]and theedof the past participle, and determine in each case whether the final sound is voiced or voiceless. Try to find pairs likelaggedandlacked,bidsandbits.

Utter the wordsapt,act, and notice carefully when you make the closure for [t]; probably it is earlier than you would have thought. Do you make the [n] closure inopenbefore or after the [p] opening?

In compound words, and in neighbouring words which belong closely together, assimilation is common. When one word ends in a voiceless sound and the other begins with a voiced sound, orvice versa, it is usually the second which prevails. Observecupboard[kʌbəd],raspberry[rɑːzbəri],blackguard[blægɑːd],bedtime[betaim],hold tight[houltait].

Consider the pronunciation ofobserve,obstacle,gooseberry,absolve,absolute.

In careless speech [hɔːʃu] is heard for [hɔːsʃu], [lædbru grouv] does duty forLadbroke Grove, and [həsijn] forhas seen.Is sheis regularly pronounced [iʒ ʃi], or [iʃi] in quick conversation.

The nasals frequently change to suit the place ofarticulation of thefollowingsound, as incongress[kɔŋres],congregation[kɔŋri´geiʃən],anchor,concave,conclusion,concourse,concrete,syncope,tranquil,unctuous,pincushion[piŋkuʃən],infamous[imfəməs],Holland Park[hɔləmpɑːk]; or of theprecedingsound, as insecond single[sekŋsiŋgəl],captain[kæpm̩],open the door[oupm̩ ðə dɔː],cup and saucer[kʌpm̩sɔːsə]. The examples frompincushiononwards occur only in distinctly careless speech.

The change of [s] to [z] inhouse,houses[haus, hauziz], shows a different kind of assimilation.

50.The dropping ofdinfour-and-twentymight also be due to the desire tosimplify a group of consonants; and this will seem the more likely explanation if we notice that thedofandis generally dropped before a consonant, but kept before a vowel. Compareyou and Ida,bread and butter; if you drop thedin the first instance, or utter it in the second, you are equally wrong. Such simplifying is fairly common in educated speech; most people drop thetinoften, and thepinempty(where it has no etymological justification), andjumped; in colloquial speechdon't knowis [dʌnou]. In quite careless speech you may notice consonants dropped in such words asacts,insects, but this is clearly a licence which cannot be permitted in the class-room. Indeed these groups of consonants should be articulated with great care. Nothing so quickly gives an effect of slovenly speech as the slurring of consonants, where it is not generally adopted.

In ordinary speech numerous instances occur ofthis tendency to simplify groups of consonants,dandtbeing the sounds most frequently dropped.

dis not pronounced inhandkerchief[hæŋkətʃif],handsome[hænsəm],Windsor[winzə],Guildford[gilfəˑd],Ingoldsby[iŋgəlzbi],Wednesday[wenzdi].[66]Thedinfriends,grandfatheris also often dropped; and, in very careless speech, thedof such words asold,cold,child,thousand,kindness,landlord.tis not pronounced inchristen[krisən],glisten[glisən],hasten[heisən],listen[lisən],moisten[mɔisən],apostle[ə´pɔsəl],bustle[bʌsəl],castle[kɑːsəl],epistle[i´pisəl],gristle[grisəl],hustle[hʌsəl],ostler[ɔslə],pestle[pesəl],rustle[rʌsəl],thistle[θisəl],trestle[tresəl],whistle[wisəl],wrestle[resəl], *Westbourne[wesbən], *Westminster[wesminstə],Christmas[krisməs],chestnut[tʃesnət],coastguard[kousgɑːd],often[ɔːfən],soften[sɔːfən],mortgage[mɔːgidʒ], *directly[di´rekli], *exactly[i´gzækli],postpone[pous´poun],waistcoat[weiskət, weskət],bankruptcy[bæŋkrəpsi].In very careless speech thetof such words asslept,swept,weptis dropped; also inacts,facts,insects,sects.Notice the Frenchrosbif,bifteck.this not pronounced inasthma[æsmə],isthmus[isməs] and (carelessly) indepths.pis not pronounced inempty[emti],jumped[dʒʌmt],tempt[temt],attempt[ə´temt],contempt[kən´temt],peremptory[pər´emtəri],symptom[simtəm],[67]sapphire[sæfaiə],Sappho[sæfou].cis not pronounced incorpuscle[kɔː´pʌsəl],muscle[mʌsəl],victuals[vitl̩z],indict[in´dait].[68]

dis not pronounced inhandkerchief[hæŋkətʃif],handsome[hænsəm],Windsor[winzə],Guildford[gilfəˑd],Ingoldsby[iŋgəlzbi],Wednesday[wenzdi].[66]

Thedinfriends,grandfatheris also often dropped; and, in very careless speech, thedof such words asold,cold,child,thousand,kindness,landlord.

tis not pronounced inchristen[krisən],glisten[glisən],hasten[heisən],listen[lisən],moisten[mɔisən],apostle[ə´pɔsəl],bustle[bʌsəl],castle[kɑːsəl],epistle[i´pisəl],gristle[grisəl],hustle[hʌsəl],ostler[ɔslə],pestle[pesəl],rustle[rʌsəl],thistle[θisəl],trestle[tresəl],whistle[wisəl],wrestle[resəl], *Westbourne[wesbən], *Westminster[wesminstə],Christmas[krisməs],chestnut[tʃesnət],coastguard[kousgɑːd],often[ɔːfən],soften[sɔːfən],mortgage[mɔːgidʒ], *directly[di´rekli], *exactly[i´gzækli],postpone[pous´poun],waistcoat[weiskət, weskət],bankruptcy[bæŋkrəpsi].

In very careless speech thetof such words asslept,swept,weptis dropped; also inacts,facts,insects,sects.

Notice the Frenchrosbif,bifteck.

this not pronounced inasthma[æsmə],isthmus[isməs] and (carelessly) indepths.

pis not pronounced inempty[emti],jumped[dʒʌmt],tempt[temt],attempt[ə´temt],contempt[kən´temt],peremptory[pər´emtəri],symptom[simtəm],[67]sapphire[sæfaiə],Sappho[sæfou].

cis not pronounced incorpuscle[kɔː´pʌsəl],muscle[mʌsəl],victuals[vitl̩z],indict[in´dait].[68]

So many educated speakers say [ɑːst] forasked, that this pronunciation must be regarded as no longer incorrect.

What is the usual pronunciation ofnext station?

In careful speech the simplifications marked with an asterisk are avoided, as also such pronunciations as [ail dʒʌssij] forI'll just see, [difikl̩ kwestʃn̩z] fordifficult questions. The omission of [k] in the pronunciation ofarcticandantarcticand of [g] inrecogniseis generally regarded as faulty.

Unfamiliar groups of consonants at the beginning of words are simplified by dropping the first sound; notice the simplification of

Similarly, an unfamiliar group at the end of a word is simplified, usually by dropping the last sound; notice—

(The opposite tendency is found in vulgar speech, where [vɑːmint] is said forvermin, [draund] fordrown.)

Observedrachm[dræm],yacht[jɔt],impugn[im´pjuwn],physiognomy[fizi´ɔnəmi],diaphragm[daiəfræm],paradigm[pærədaim],phlegm[flem],sign[sain],feign,reign,foreign,benign.

51.In [rai] we have a diphthong. It is worth noting that the English diphthongs [ai, au, ɔi, ei, ou], etc., all have thestresson the former element.

Blackbirdsandblack birds: in the spelling we distinguish these by writing the first as one word, the second as two. What difference is there in the sounds? If you listen carefully, you will find that the second vowel in the compound word is just alittle shorter than inbirdsstanding alone, and that inblackbirdsthe opening of the closure for [k] is not heard, while inblack birdsit may be audible. The chief difference, however, lies in thestress of the compound word.Blackbirdsis an example of descending stress [>],black birdsis pronounced with level stress [=], perhaps with ascending stress [<].

Take the following compound words or groups, and classify them according to their stress:—

Sixpence,rainbow,good morning,looking glass,moonshine,bravo!,twenty-four,twenty-four men,High Street,London Road,waterspout,right of way,undo,Mr Jones,Park Lane,season ticket,sunflower,Hongkong,steel pen,Chinese,hallo!bill of fare,earthquake,sea wall,Bond Street,Grosvenor Square,fourteen,Hyde Park.

Try to deduce some rules from these examples. It has been said that level stress contrasts, and uneven stress unites the ideas expressed by the compound words; do you agree with this?

Notice what difficulty our level stress gives to the German; he will uttersteel pen,Hyde Park, etc., with descending stress. Do so yourself, and observe how strange it sounds.

Notice the difference in stress of

Some words of two syllables have the stress on the first or the second syllable according to their place in the sentence. Consider the accent of the italicised words in the following sentences: They satoutside. Anoutsidepassenger. Among theChinese. AChineselantern. His age isfifteen. I havefifteenshillings. Some fell by thewayside. Awaysideinn. Try to find a rule governing these cases.

The stresses in a sentence are considered in § 54.

Whenwould be pronounced as voiceless [ʍ] by some, hardly by a southern English nurse saying the rime (§ 46). Notice how the tongue moves forward as the [n] passes over into the [ð] inwhen the.

Wasis in the weak form because it is quite unstressed; but notice: [wɛːə ju riːəli ðɛːə? jes, ai wɔz].

52.Inopened, observe carefully how the consonants are articulated, and put their action down in writing.

How many syllables are there inopened,bubbles,chasms,mittens?

Probably you have no difficulty in understanding and answering this question, but if asked to describea syllableyou might hesitate, for it is not easy.

Utter [ɑ] and then [t]; which carries farther, which has greater fulness of sound or sonority? If you wished to attract the attention of some one, and were only allowed to utter one of these two sounds, you would prefer [ɑ] without hesitation. Why is [ɑ] more sonorous than [t]? Because, whereas [t] is only a brief noise, in [ɑ] the current of breath is rendered musical by the vibration of the vocal chords, and has a free passage through the wide open mouth. Indeed [ɑ] is the most sonorous of all sounds. It is clear that voiced sounds are more sonorous than voiceless, vowels than consonants, continuants than stops. The liquids and nasals stand between vowels and consonants in point of sonority; they are voiced and with either a fair passage through the mouth or a free passage through the nose. A good deal naturally depends on the force and the pitch of the sounds; a whispered [ɑ] may not carry so far as a forcible [s].

Now if a sound with good carrying power has for its neighbours sounds that do not carry far, it helps them to be heard; notice how such weakly sonorous sounds as [t] or [p] occurring in the words of a song are quite clearly heard at the other end of a largeconcert hall. They are carried along by the full sounding vowels, as the greater volume of air employed causes more pressure, and hence a more forcible and louder release. It is the sounds of greater sonority that carry the syllable, which term is also applied to a vowel standing alone, or beside other vowels of practically equal sonority. In English, the syllable is generally carried by vowels; sometimes also by liquids and nasals, which are then calledsyllabic.[69]

Rules for dividing words into syllables are given in most grammars, and are required for writing and printing; but they do not always represent the actual state of things. When a consonant comes between two vowels, it really belongs to both syllables. Inleavingwe pronounce neitherlea-vingnorleav-ing.

From the phonetic point of view we may think of words and groups of words as consisting of a series of sounds of varying sonority. We may indicate the sonority very roughly by lines; if we connect their top ends, we shall obtain a curve. Thus the wordsonoritymight be represented as follows (no attempt is here made at scientific accuracy).

sonority

The curves will represent a series of waves; and each of these waves is a syllable.

Began: notice the quality of the vowel in the first, unstressed syllable of this word. It is higher than any realesound, and is very laxly articulated. It occurs also inbefore,enough,inquire; find other words in which it occurs. Is it the same sound as the second vowel inlily?

To sing: read the sixth line quite naturally and see whether you say [tə] or [tu]; get friends to read it, and find out what they say.

When you wish to ascertain how a friend pronounces some particular sound, do not tell him what this sound is, or he may pronounce it not naturally, but in what he believes, or has been told, is "the correct pronunciation."

Try to ascertain the pronunciation of these sentences:What are you going to do to-morrow morning?I'm going to answer letters.

Wasn't that:wasis here in the strong form (§ 47); are weak forms found at the beginning of a sentence? Notice the syllabic [n]; also the simplification of the group of consonants by the omission of [t]. What is the weak form ofthat? When is it used?

The remaining words present nothing of special interest.

53.We may now consider thestress of the sentence. For this purpose it is sufficient to consider the most sonorous part of each syllable, generally speaking a vowel. We may distinguish stress and absence ofstress, which we can designate by the signs / and ×; extra strong stress will be //, and secondary stress \. The first line of Sing a Song of Sixpence, will then run:—

// × / × // \

Here "sing" and "six" have the strongest stress; "song" has ordinary stress.

Secondary stress is given to that syllable of a word which is stressed, but has not the chief stress; thus the stresses inenergeticmay be written \ × / ×.

The nursery rhyme then shows the following stresses:—

// × / × // \× // × / × //// × \ × // \// \ × //// × / × // \× // × / × //// × / × // × /× // × / × //

Perhaps you do not read the poem in this way; mark the stresses for yourself, without looking at the book.

Accept no statements without verifying them.

53A.It will have struck you that you have really been scanning the poem. Hitherto you may have done it by means of the signs – and ˘, taken from Latin prosody, where they stand for "long" and "short." Consider the question which of these two systems of scansion is the more accurate and the more convenient.

53B.It may also strike you that in reading the poem we do not make a pause at the end of each word; and of course we do not read it "all in one breath." How many breaths do you require for reading it slowly? for reading it quickly? What guides you in finding places for your pauses? Take any dozen lines of prose and read them aloud; notice where you pause for breath. The words which are read together in one breath are called abreath group. After considering several passages from this point of view, you will realise that good reading depends to some extent on the choice of suitable places for taking breath. Let your friends read to you, and observe how they manage their breath.

54.We have spoken several times of stress, and you have probably followed without difficulty. What is stress? Utter the series of sounds [´atata], then [a´tata], and [ata´ta].[70]You use more force for the stressed than for the unstressed vowels, that is to say, you put more breath into them. Place your hand close in front of your lips as you say the above sounds, and you will notice a distinct increase of breath as the stressed syllable is uttered.

We use this stress for purposes of emphasis; generally speaking, we expend more breath on those syllables of a word, or words of a sentence, which are more important for the meaning. We may say that English sentence stress is guided by logical considerations. Is this equally true of French? of German? Has anything struck you about thestress in French, or in English as spoken by a Frenchman?

55.Stress, due to force of breath, is not the only means of accentuation at our disposal. We can also produce various effects by changing thepitchof the voice. When the pitch of a voice hardly varies at all, we consider it monotonous. Certain clergymen have acquired the habit of reading the Church service in monotone; consider whether this has any advantage or disadvantage. When there is very great and regular or monotonous variation of pitch in a voice, we call it a "sing-song."

In standard speech there is moderate variation of pitch; it becomes considerable only in dramatic and oratorical declamation, when a skilled use of pitch variations may produce a deeply moving or highly stirring effect, somewhat resembling that produced by song.

Observe the pitch changes in ordinary speech. The most obvious case is the rise of pitch in questions, in contrast with the tendency to lower the pitch in a statement. Even though we have the same order of words as in a statement, this change of pitch alone suffices to show that a question is being asked. Say:You are going outandYou are going out?Try to sayAre you going out?with the same falling pitch as inYou are going out, and observe the strange effect. Determine the changes of pitch in such questions as:Is your brother tall or short?Is your uncle's house in the town or in the country?Notice that joy or any great excitement leads to the use of a higher pitch than usual.

Sometimes the pitch may rise or fall, or rise and fall, or fall and rise during the utterance of a single vowel. SayNoin a doubtful, a questioning, a decided, and a threatening tone, and observe the pitch. If you wish to represent it roughly, you may use \ for fall in pitch, / for a rise, /\ for a rise and fall, \/ for a fall and rise.

56.We have devoted our attention mainly to standard English as it is spoken in ordinary life, because it is important to train the ear so that it perceives the sounds and ceases to be misled by the conventional spelling. Only when we can hear what sounds our pupils actually utter, only when we have a fair idea of the way in which they produce these sounds, are we in a position to correct what is faulty in the mother tongue, or to impart the sounds of a foreign language with any prospect of success. Hints have been given as to some of the faulty tendencies likely to be found; the teacher whose ear has been trained in the manner here suggested will be able to add to their number without difficulty, and probably with growing interest. In this respect every county presents its own problems, and many still require to be recorded; every teacher can help by contributing his own observations.

No observer can fail to be struck by the different degrees of care with which most individuals speak English under different circumstances. In their talk among themselves, children, especially young boys, are often extremely careless; at home we find various degrees of care, much depending on theexample set by the parents and the influence of governesses and nurses. In talking to educated strangers, we are usually careful in our pronunciation. If we occupy a position which makes it necessary to speak to large numbers, we must be particularly careful, and that in several respects: the voice must be pleasant, carry far, and have good staying power.

57.A pleasant voice is to a certain degree a natural gift; it depends on the quality of the vocal chords, the shape of the roof of the mouth, and so on. Many voices are spoilt by bad habits, such as excessive nasalising, or very high pitch. The teacher of elocution often gives valuable criticism and help here. Listen attentively to any criticisms which your friends make about your voice.

The voice of a public speaker (which includes the class teacher and college lecturer no less than the clergyman, actor, or politician) must carry far. His words must penetrate to every hearer, even in a large hall. If there is any straining to catch his words, those words will not produce their best effect.The chief requirement is not loudness, but distinctness.He must articulate more carefully than in ordinary conversation: unstressed vowels will have greater importance and be less reduced, consonants will never be slurred over. The stressed vowels are the most important of all because they are the most sonorous sounds and help the others (see § 52); he will let the vocal chords vibrate longer for them, to reinforce their value, and he will produce them insuch a way that they give their characteristic sound most clearly. For this purpose he will find it best to articulate more tensely (this applies also to the consonants) than in ordinary speech; and a distinct rounding of the lips for the back vowels will enable him to add to their value. He will prefer to keep the tongue point well forward in the mouth for [l]. This and other hints he may obtain from the teacher of elocution.

However pleasant a voice may be, and however far it may carry, it will yet be of little use if it tires soon; it must have staying power. This again is to some extent a natural gift; the throat may be constitutionally weak. Training, however, can do very much to improve the powers of endurance. Above all, good breathing is essential; hints have been given in § 4 how this may be assured, and the teacher cannot be recommended too warmly to give from 15 to 25 minutes every morning to breathing exercises; he will be amply repaid for the time spent in that way by the greater ease with which he gets through his teaching, and by the inevitable improvement in his general health. It has also been pointed out above that bad ventilation and dust are calculated to interfere with his voice. Another suggestion may be helpful: to keep the tongue as forward in the mouth as possible. The average tongue position in many southern English teachers is too far back in the mouth, and this is found to lead to serious fatigue; it may indeed be regarded as one of the main causes of "teachers' sore throat."

It is in giving advice on the management of thevoice for public speaking that trustworthy teachers of elocution are most helpful. When they make dogmatic statements as to how a sound or word is or should be pronounced, their guidance is not equally satisfactory, and the student is earnestly recommended always to test their statements himself. The same request is addressed to him with regard to the present book; if it arouses interest, there is no harm if it also arouses opposition.

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