THE term tapestry is often applied to any hangings of mediæval workmanship whether woven on a frame or not. This use of the word is incorrect. Tapestry is a fabric woven with coloured wools on to warp threads in a loom or frame, in which the weft completely conceals the warp. It is woven all in one piece. This distinguishes it from embroidery or other needlework to which stitches are added after the groundwork of the fabric has been detached from the frame. The worker weaves directly from a design or cartoon which is supplied to him.
Tapestry frames are of two kinds. In the first the warp threads are arranged in a perpendicular frame, and the weaver sits before his work. This is known as high-warp (haute lisse) weaving, andis the method in use at the celebrated manufactory at Gobelins in France. In the other method the warp threads are stretched horizontally, and the weaver must bend over his work. This is known as low-warp (basse lisse) weaving, and is the process followed at Beauvais. On the whole the high warp weaving gives a fabric of firmer and finer texture.
The rest of the process is precisely similar. The weft threads of different colours, each attached to a separate bobbin or shuttle, are passed alternately behind and in front of the warp threads, leaving a little dot of colour behind. The second thread will, of course, take up the warp thread the first has passed over, and pass in front of that which the first one has passed behind. The two threads are then pushed together with a comb until they fall into one straight line. The warp is now completely concealed.
Tapestry weaving is an art that stands alone. Like furniture, tapestry was of utilitarian origin, and cannot, therefore, be judged by the standards applied to painting and the purely decorative arts. As originally used in ancient buildings, it was hung some feet from the walls to serve as a draught screen, or was suspended between pillars to shut off one apartment from another. It wasgenerally hung, therefore, in undulating folds, the stiff panels and upholsteries of later workmanship being a spurious growth.
The decorative value of such hangings was, of course, seized on at once by the wealthy, who alone could afford them, and from the earliest times tapestries became things of beauty. But in estimating their artistic value we have to remember their original use. A tapestry curtain woven with a symmetrical central design would appear quite distorted when pushed aside by some one entering a room. Central unity, therefore, the great merit of painting, is in tapestry artistically bad. The designs that are most suitable are duplicated or repeated designs, with a crowded background. These will secure a certain uniformity in the suspended fabric. For this reason, therefore, such panels as Raphael’sActs of the Apostles, though fine specimens of pictorial art, are, as tapestries, artistically faulty, beautiful though they are when considered merely as works of art.
Its first utilitarian purpose being fulfilled, tapestry becomes a decorative art designed only to please and rest the eye. Tragic subjects, therefore, such as theDescent from the Crossand thePassion of Our Lord, are unsuitable, thoughthey constantly tempted the mediævaltapissier. Much finer are those works that depict stirring historical scenes, theTriumphs of Cæsaror theConquest of Tunis, or those which deal with light mythological subjects with their pleasantly crowded backgrounds of fruit, flowers, and cupids. Dull and sombre colourings are also bad. The richest dyes, enriched with metallic threads of gold and silver, should glow against the background of the cold stone pillars. All these æsthetic rules, however, were constantly violated by the mediæval artificers, who could not rid themselves of the idea that art in any form should be didactic, and subserve the purposes of the Church and morality.
Tapestry weaving is certainly one of the most ancient of all the arts. Fragments have been left behind by all the early civilizations to bear witness to their skill. The art was practised by the early Egyptians, the Babylonians, Chinese, and Peruvians, while the Greeks and Romans brought it to a high state of perfection. It is noticeable that from the very beginning the texture of the fabric has scarcely altered, while the modern tapestry looms are but the natural development of the primitive frames used by the ancient Egyptians.
The earliest specimen of weaving that has been discovered was found in one of the Swiss lake dwellings, and can only be a relic of the later Stone Age. Fragments somewhat similar have come to light in stone coffins found in Yorkshire, while at Thornton, near Kolding, in Jutland, whole costumes have been discovered that must have belonged to the Age of Bronze.
The first historic references to the art come to us from early Egypt. Here the weavers were probably women. The Beni Hassan wall-paintings, which date from about 1600B.C., depict weavers squatting at horizontal low-warp frames. There are three fragments of this early tapestry preserved in the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities at Cairo. Their uniformly fine workmanship proves that the weaving of tapestries had been carried to a high degree of excellence in the reign of Thothmes III. The texture of the fabric is very fine, and the pattern is identical on both sides. Some elasticity of pattern has been achieved by the occasional slackening of warp threads. This points to a loom where the threads were weighted, but not fastened to a cylinder.
A Greek vase found at Chiusi shows Penelope weaving at a high-warp frame while she holds her suitors at bay. This belongs to the fifthcenturyB.C., and the loom depicted is very like those used in Scandinavian countries.
Catullus speaks of tapestries that showed the adventures of Theseus and Ariadne. The figures of Britons were constantly being reproduced in Roman tapestries. In Rome there were organized societies of weavers known ascollegii opificum. The fabrics that have been preserved are woven in coloured woollens and linen threads. They show a wealth of floral and leaf adornment, and figures of ducks and fishes. One shows a child riding a white horse; another portrays Hermes with his caduceus. These date from the second or third centuriesA.D.
The growth of Christianity, and the breaking up of Roman civilization, drove the art of tapestry weaving into monasteries and convents, or to the royal courts. It was not until the eleventh century that associations of free craftsmen—as against the early organizations of slaves—began to be formed in different countries. The movement started in England, Flanders, and Brabant, and afterwards spread to France, where this particular form of art was to find so congenial a home.
The Golden Age of mediæval tapestry opened, however, in the thirteenth century when Raphael began his cartoons. This introduction of realism,the widening of the whole artistic range, was rendered more feasible by the discovery of new dyes which added richer and more glowing tints to the fabrics. The borders, which had previously been simple, grew wider and more elaborate in design. From this ever-increasing elaboration of the borders, indeed, it is often possible to fix the date of an otherwise dubious specimen.
In the following century Arras became the centre of the industry. So closely was the tapestry associated with its place of manufacture that in England the name of the town became synonymous for the name of the fabric, and the arras became a recognized decoration of luxurious rooms. From early times there are references in Spanish inventories topan de raz. This supremacy remained unchallenged until the fifteenth century when Brussels and Bruges achieved fame as tapestry centres. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the industry took root at Middleburg, Delft, and Paris, and Mortlake in England became a famous centre in the seventeenth century.
It was not until the late seventeenth century that tapestry weaving really became established in Spain. Before that the Spanish kings and nobles had been content to acquire masterpiecesof foreign workmanship, chiefly from the Low Countries. There are, however, traces of a feeble industry to be found as far back as the late fourteenth century when one man seems to have followed the craft oftapissierin Catalonia. It is possible—but not certain—that twotapissiersof Navarre, who flourished about 1411—Llucia Barthomew and Juan Noyan—may have been Spaniards. Another Barthomew is spoken of a few years later in connexion with two tapestries, namely, those of theResurrectionandSt. Anthony.
A panel of Spanish tapestry, obviously intended for altar decoration, has recently been discovered that dates from the early fifteenth century. The centre is occupied by the figure of John the Baptist bearing the Paschal Lamb, flanked by St. Martin of Tours in the dress of a bishop, and by St. Hugh of Grenoble. Gold and silver threads are employed, and the arms are shown of Martin of Aragon and of his wife, Maria de Luna, who died in 1407. This king appears to have interested himself in tapestries, and we read that the walls of the royal palace at Saragossa were adorned with these costly fabrics at his coronation in 1398. King John of Aragon before him had introduced, we read in a document dated 1388, a company of “brobadors de Brabant.”
From the fifteenth century onward the costliest tapestries were much sought after in Spain, and magnificent displays were made on the occasions of State banquets or royal weddings. Towards the end of the fifteenth century a special official was appointed by the king to take charge of the royal collection, which was already considerable. This official, Pedro Entierrez by name, was himself a weaver. He made strenuous efforts to develop the industry in the Spanish capital, but apparently without much success. At any rate, a letter of his is preserved among the records of the Spanish Academy of History, in which he complains bitterly of the treatment meted out to himself and his fellow-workers. He was accused by his enemies of being ambitious, unskilled, and slow. These aspersions he proceeds very fully to refute. He complains that his supplies of raw material were limited, and that he was not allowed to set up his heavier instruments in Madrid.
It was not, however, until 1624 that the attempt to graft the weaving of tapestry on to Spanish art really succeeded. In this year a small colony of Flemish weavers settled in the little town of Pastran in New Castile, being directly subsidized by the king. Five thousand ducats were paid to them in the first year, and in the following year they received a further seven thousand ducats.
Meantime the unfortunate Pedro Entierrez had found a rival in a certain Antonio Ceron who had set up looms at Santa Isabel. Here he established four workshops, and instructed eight apprentices in the art of weaving tapestry. It is probably one of these ateliers that has been immortalized by Velazquez inLas Hilanderas. This painting shows in the background a tapestry of mythological inspiration, while in the foreground women are seen unwinding skeins of wool.
For some time the poverty of the Spanish Crown held the industry in check. But by 1720 a family of Spanish weavers from Antwerp, consisting of one Jacques Van der Goten and his four sons, came over on the invitation of Philip V and established an atelier in Madrid, where tapestry was produced on low-warp frames. A few years later high-warp looms were introduced from France, and the industry spread to Seville. Some famous pieces were wrought in Spain at this time. Jacques Van der Goten produced theVirgin with the Pearlfrom a cartoon by Raphael, while the famous series representing theConquest of Tunis, and theHistory of Telemachus, were reproduced by a well-known weaver called Andrea Procaccini.Cartoons were also designed by Procaccini for a “History of Don Quixote,” which have been constantly reproduced in tapestry.
The fashion changed, and for a time the demand was all for Dutch tapestries. Van der Goten set his workmen to copy the cartoons of Solimena Teniers and the other Dutch cartoonists. But at the same time original designs were not neglected, and by the end of the eighteenth century the industry had become quite considerable, employing permanently no less than fifteen workmen. The last of the Van der Goten brothers died in 1786, and the direction of the Santa Barbara atelier passed to a nephew.
The culmination of the prosperity of the Spanishtapissierswas marked by the execution of the celebrated Goya tapestries. These cartoons, to the number of forty-five, were designed for the decoration of the apartments of the Prince of Asturias in the Prado. Some of them, however, are to be found on the walls of the Escorial, and many, unhappily, have been lost. Goya brought to his task his own peculiar talents. Hitherto the designers of cartoons had been content to find their inspiration in ancient Bible stories or in the myths of Greece or Rome. They had depicted incidents from the life of Christ and theVirgin Mary; they had painted moralities, virtues, and vices. Goya did none of these things. When he was summoned from Rome to Madrid by Raphael Mengs, then the director of the workrooms of the Spanish capital, he decided to portray in tapestry the actual life of the people around him. In place of the stilted, conventional figures of his predecessors he produced cartoons instinct with life and vivid movement. The enthralling realism of the bull-fight, village fairs and festivals, the romantic loves of Andalusian peasants, the popular excitement of kite-flying—these were the subjects treated by this most realistic of artists.
Goya achieved an immediate success. Time after time his cartoons were reproduced by the Spanish weavers. The King, pleased at the distinction with which the artist invested his Court, spent enormous sums upon tapestries, and encouraged his household to do the same. In the four years from 1776 to 1780 the sum of 817,956realeswas expended at the Court on the purchase of tapestries and cartoons. Other well-known artists contributed cartoons to the Madrid workshops, among whom we find the names of Van Loo, Conrado, Giaquinto, Mengs, Jose de Castillo, Antonio Gonzalez, Mariano Nani, Andres Gines, Antonio Barbaza, and Jose de Salas.
The French invasion caused the closing down of the workshops of Santa Barbara in 1808. Some years later they were reopened by the son of St. Ferdinand’s weaver, and once again beautiful fabrics were woven from the designs of Goya. The death of Ferdinand VII in 1833 gave a severe blow to the industry, but there are still looms in Santa Barbara where exquisite tapestries are executed under the direction of a descendant of Jacques Van der Goten.
IN order to understand how the finest collection of Renaissance tapestries in the world came to be in the royal palace at Madrid, it is necessary to know something of the complicated history of the Netherlands during the later fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, when the Flemish tapestry weaving industry was at the height of its reputation.
During the earlier decades of the fifteenth century the Dukes of Burgundy were employed in the consolidation of their power by the acquisition of province after province in the Low Countries. By 1443 these territories included, in addition to the French duchy of Burgundy, Flanders, Artois, Namur, Holland, Zeeland, Friesland, Brabant, Limbourg, and the duchy of Luxembourg, and Burgundy had to be reckoned with as a great European power. The Court of Philip the Good was, indeed, the most luxurious in Europe, enrichedwith the finest paintings, the rarest books, and the most beautiful tapestries. Charles the Bold added Liége and Gelderland to the territories inherited from his father. On his death in 1477, Burgundy, Franche Comté, and Artois reverted to France. The rest of Charles’s dominions passed to his daughter Mary, who married Maximilian of Austria. On Maximilian’s election as Emperor, he made his son, Philip the Handsome, ruler of the Netherlands. The marriage of Philip with Joanna of Aragon secured to their son Charles the kingdoms of Aragon and Castile. On Charles’s election as Emperor in 1519, in succession to his grandfather Maximilian, he united the sovereignties of Spain and of the Netherlands.
Margaret of Austria had already been appointed by Maximilian as ruler of the Netherlands. In this position the new Emperor left her, showing therein great wisdom, as Margaret proved a popular ruler. On her death he appointed his widowed sister, Mary of Hungary, as her successor. Under the beneficent rule of these two Burgundian ladies, the industry of tapestry weaving flourished and reached its height. The Netherlands enjoyed a long term of peace and prosperity. Both Margaret of Austria and Mary of Hungary were enthusiastic patrons of the art, and manywell-known series of tapestries were woven at their command. These pieces passed, almost without exception, into the hands of Charles V and Philip II on the death of their original owners. During the long and bitter struggle against the Catholic Philip, the industry, as was inevitable, languished and never again recovered its ancient vigour.
It has been asserted that the Spanish kings used their power in the Netherlands to extort from the weavers the finest products of their looms by blackmail, or even torture. There seems to be little foundation, if any, for this charge. With one exception, where the origin of the tapestries is known, they were acquired by inheritance or purchase, or were made, as in the case of theConquest of Tunis, directly to the royal command.
Besides the tapestries dealt with in the following pages the Spanish royal collection contains an even greater number of pieces of less importance and artistic value, disposed upon the walls of the palace. These also are almost entirely of Flemish origin, except those which were the product, at a later date, of the Spanish looms established by the much persecuted Van der Goten. A large number of the tapestries here described were shown at the Paris Exhibition of 1900, when,for the first time, the world became aware of the artistic wealth so long hidden in the Royal Palace of Madrid.
The accumulated treasures of the Spanish Court had remained for many years neglected and uncatalogued, their history and origin uncertain or unknown. It was King Alfonso XII who first conceived the idea of arranging the royal tapestries, studying their history, discovering, where possible, their designers and makers, and classifying them into groups and series, and making photographs of the whole collection. This work was subsequently completed by the late Queen Isabella of Spain.
In 1903 an excellent series of photographic plates representing the finest of the tapestries was published in book form, accompanied by critical and historical notes from one of the finest art critics of Spain—the Count Valencia de Don Juan. It is to this learned and discerning writer that I am most indebted for the explanatory notes which accompany the reproductions included in this volume. The tapestries are, as far as possible, treated in groups connected by similarity of subject except where several pieces form a continuous series.
IT is a notable fact that the earlier Gothic tapestries—those of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and earlier—nearly all deal with religious subjects. From this we are apt to acquire an exaggerated idea of the part played by religion in mediæval life. The true explanation is that in the cockpit of Europe during these fierce and warlike times art in any form found itself unable to exist. Only in the monasteries could it find refuge, and these became the centres, not only of the fine arts, but also of textile arts like tapestry-weaving. The effects of this monopoly were unfortunate. The imagination of the designers of cartoons was stunted. They came to believe that the duty of tapestry was not to delight the eye, but to preach trite little sermons. Hence the endless series of pictures extolling the practice of vices. The chief beauty of the earlier Gothic tapestries lay in the brilliance and richness ofthe dyes. But as the times became less barbarous, and art began to flourish outside the monastery and the cathedral close, the Gothic tapestries gained a new vigour and beauty. The religious inspiration remained, giving, indeed, an atmosphere of chastened restraint that to many people denotes the high-water mark of the art. But the incursions of the outer world could no longer be restrained, and we get the delightful posies of spring flowers, the bluebells, daisies, lilies, and primroses—themillefleurs—all utterly irrelevant and charming, that intrude into fierce battle scenes and into the mystic visions of the Apocalypse.
All the Gothic tapestries in the Spanish royal collection are of Flemish workmanship.
Group 1, includingThe Birth of ChristandThe Mass of St. Gregory the Great
The Birth of Christis probably one of the oldest pieces of the whole collection. It is mentioned for the first time as forming part of the collection left by Juana the Mad, who died at Tordesillas in 1555. Neither the designer nor the weaver can be identified. “The Gothic architecture of the buildings in the background,” says the CountValencia de Don Juan, “the attitude of the persons, the singularity and richness of their costumes, and, above all, the drawing, recalls the tapestries which were made at Arras in the fifteenth century.”
The tapestry represents the birth of Christ in fulfilment of the prophecies of the Prophets Isaiah and Micah, and of Aaron the High Priest of the Israelites. The scroll to the left by the figure of Micah bears the legend (translated into English), “And thou, Bethlehem Ephrata, art small among the cities of Judah, nevertheless out of thee shall come forth He that is to be the Ruler in Israel” (Micah v. 2). That to the right bears the (translated) inscription, “For a child is born to us, and a Son is given to us, and the Government is upon His shoulder; and His name shall be called Wonderful, Counsellor, God ...” etc. (Isaiah ix. 6).
This tapestry is made of silk and wool interwoven with gold threads. It was probably used as an altar piece. Two pieces of red and gold brocade, of much later workmanship, have been added.
The Mass of St. Gregory the Great.Neither the designer of the cartoon nor the town where this tapestry was woven is known. It is of Flemishorigin, and the Gothic arches, each enclosing a scene in the life of Christ, point to Bruges as its place of origin. It is mentioned by Ferdinand V of Aragon in the Act of Discharge of Juan Valazquez (1555) as a gift from the Princess Juana to her mother, Queen Isabel the Catholic.
The tapestry shows the celebration of Mass by St. Gregory the Great in the presence of King David and St. Augustine. The scroll to the left bears the (translated) inscription, “Man shall eat the bread of angels.” That on the right reads, “The sacrament is the outward visible form of the invisible Grace.”
This tapestry is woven in silks and wool enriched by threads of gold and silver.
Group 2.The Story of the Holy Virgin
1st Series.Consists of four pieces which once bore in the corner as a heraldic mark a small lion embroidered in gold on a black ground. Cartoons said to be by Van Eyck. Of Flemish origin, probably belonging to the Bruges atelier.
These tapestries belonged to Philip the Handsome and Juana the Mad. Transferred by Charles V to the monastery of Yuste, and again removed by Philip II to the monastery of the Escorial,they were in constant use for the religious ceremonies attended by the Royal Household owing to their unusual beauty.
The first piece represents God commanding the Archangel Gabriel to announce her destiny to the Virgin Mary.
The second piece represents the Annunciation.
The third piece represents the Birth of Christ.
The fourth piece represents the Coronation of the Holy Virgin.
2nd Series.In spite of the similarity of the borders the two tapestries here treated do not form a continuous series with those previously described. They probably came from workrooms of Brussels. Designer and weaver unknown, but resemblance has been noted between the figures of Adam and Eve and similar figures on a triptych designed by the brothers Van Eyck.
The subjects of these two tapestries are obscure. They appear, however, to refer—
First, to the fulfilment of the prophecies as to the birth of the Son of God;
Secondly, to the presentation of Jesus in the Temple.
All these tapestries are of extraordinary beauty. They are woven of silk and wool enriched with gold and silver threads.
Group 3.The Story of David and Bathsheba(10 Tapestries)
Three of these tapestries are mentioned in theInventaire des Rois Catholiquesunder the heading “Bed,” having evidently formed part of the draperies of a bed belonging to some royal personage. These are of Flemish origin and date from the end of the fifteenth century. They are woven in silk, wool, and gold thread.
To these were later added seven bed canopies of Gothic design. The subjects of the tapestries are as follows:
(1) David surprises Bathsheba in her bath and falls in love with her beauty. For the sake of modesty, however, the artist has represented Bathsheba fully clothed, washing her hands at a small fountain.
(2) The Marriage of David and Bathsheba. David, from being a smooth-faced boy, has become a bearded man.
(3) The prophet Nathan reproaches David with his evil ways.
The remaining seven tapestries apparently represent some sylvan festival in which courtiers make offerings of fruit and flowers to ladies. The playing-cards are worth noticing.
THE fifteenth century saw Gothic tapestries carried to their highest point of perfection. Bruges had become a centre of pictorial art next only to Italy. Memling, the Van Eycks, and Bernard Van Orley were giving life, freedom, and originality to the old stilted Gothic forms in painting, and it was to them that the art of tapestry weaving owed its greatest debt.
But to the Flemish weavers themselves no small part of the artistic merit of the Gothic tapestries is to be ascribed. The master-weaver was an artist, not a craftsman. To him the designer left many details of design; he was at liberty to alter cartoons that could not be satisfactorily translated into tapestry, to choose colourings, even to introduce new figures into the picture. In the fifteenth century thetapissierswere still conscientious, refusing to hurry theirwork to the detriment of its quality. Artist andtapissieralike, now perfect masters of the art, spent their time perfecting the methods that had made the name of Flemish tapestry in the preceding century. The tapestries described in the following pages belong to this period, just before the spirit of the Italian Renaissance completely banished the old native forms of art from the north of Europe. The first cartoons of Raphael were still to come to the Flemish workshops, but already men were talking of the wonders of Italy, and certain signs of transition are strongly marked in the tapestries with which we are dealing. In many the Gothic architecture of the background has given way to Renaissance, and the sky-line has been lowered. Or sometimes while the background remains under the Gothic inspiration, the treatment of the figures, more especially of the robes, shows the Renaissance influence. The chief characteristics that distinguish these tapestries from the earlier Gothic are the greater freedom in the attitudes of the figures, the perfection of detail, and the absence of exaggeration, particularly in the patterns of fabrics and of dress ornaments.
Group 4.The Story of St. John the Baptist
Date and origin uncertain, but evidently belong to the transition period. The figures show the realism and elegance of the Italian painters, while the buildings in the background are Gothic. The tapestries show different episodes in the life of the Saint. The similarity of their exquisitely woven borders suggests that they belong to the same series. They are woven in fine wool, silk, gold, and silver. The subjects are as follows:
(1) Visit of the Holy Virgin to her cousin Elizabeth. Zaccharius recovers his speech.
(2) The child John asks permission to devote himself to God.
(3) St. John, asked by the Pharisee if he is the Christ, replies: “Behold the Lamb of God.”
(4) He baptizes Jesus and many others. End of the reign of the Jews.
Group 5.The Passion of Our Lord(2 Episodes)
These two tapestries, richly woven in gold, silk, and wool, were made by command of Princess Margaret of Austria, the Regent of the Netherlands. These were inherited by her nephewCharles V. They are mentioned in an inventory that Margaret caused to be made in 1525, five years before her death.
The designer of the cartoons is unknown. The background is Gothic, but the figures show Italian influence.
Tapestry No. 1.Christ bearing the Cross on His way to Calvary meets St. Veronica, who receives the sacred imprint on her handkerchief.
Tapestry No. 2.The Descent from the Cross.
Group 6.Moralities(4 Tapestries)
These belong to the end of the fifteenth or the beginning of the sixteenth century, and were inspired by the preaching of the Reformers.
The first three tapestries of the group are the sole remaining pieces from an older series executed during the transition from the older Gothic style to the new style of the Italian Renaissance. Their exact date is unknown. They were bought by the Princess Marie of Portugal as part of her dowry on her marriage with Philip II. They are enriched by gold threads.
The fourth tapestry in this group is the only surviving specimen of another older series.
St. Jerome
Dates from the middle of the sixteenth century. Woven in gold, silk, and wool on high warp. In possession of Philip II of Spain when inventory was made in 1598. The plate represents the penance of St. Jerome.
Group 7.Dais of Emperor Charles V(3 Tapestries)
These tapestries of silk, gold, and wool were made by command of the Regent Margaret of Austria, at Brussels, under the direction of Pierre Pannemaker, the most famoustapissierof the time. The cartoons were probably by the aged painter Quintin Metoys. The tapestries were begun in 1523, and passed to the Emperor on the death of Margaret.
Tapestry No. 1.The bed canopy represents the Eternal Father and the Holy Ghost surrounded by Seraphim.
Tapestry No. 2.The Redemption of mankind from the taint of original sin.
Tapestry No. 3.Formed the lower part of the dais, and depicts St. Luke xxiv. 50, 51.
Group 8.The Passion of Our Lord(4 Tapestries)
These four tapestries were woven by Pierre Pannemaker from the designs of Quintin Metoys at the command of Margaret of Austria. They are good examples of the transition style, and some fine effects of tinting have been obtained by means of hatching (i.e. the use of vertical lines to give thickness to the figures). The influence of Roger Van der Weyden is plain.
These tapestries were inherited by Charles V from Margaret of Austria, and have been much used for State functions.
Tapestry No. 1.Represents the prayer on the Mount of Olives.
Tapestry No. 2.Meeting between Our Lord and the Virgin on the road to Calvary.
Tapestry No. 3.The Crucifixion.
Tapestry No. 4.The Descent from the Cross.
Group 9.Vices and Virtues(9 Tapestries)
These tapestries were probably executed at Brussels in the first half of the sixteenth century. They are woven in silk, gold thread, and wool,cover a surface of 400 square metres, and include a thousand figures.
Though much in the style of Bernard van Orley, the absence of the rich Renaissance architecture in which that painter delighted suggests that either Jean Gossaert or Quintin Metoys was more likely the designer. There is no weaver’s mark on the tapestry. A reproduction must have been made in wool and silk, as one piece representing the Punishment of Vice was exhibited in Bruges by the Prince of Aremberg. The series is mentioned in the inventory of Charles V, dated Brussels, 1544, and was alleged to have been purchased in Seville.
The excellence of the tapestries is mostly due to thetapissiers. The overcrowded canvases, the painfully didactic and tortuous morals, do not rank the designs very high. That labelled “Infamy” gives a key to the complicated moral problem. The beholder is urged in a pompous and wordy harangue to follow reason and the philosophers, so shall no evil befall him. The different pieces represent respectively, Faith, Honour, Renown, Nobility, Fortune, Infancy, Prudence, Vice, and Justice.
Group 10.The Foundation of Rome(6 Tapestries)
A fine example of Flemish tapestry probably executed from cartoons by Bernard van Orley, the pupil of Raphael. The Italian influence is strong, yet the tapestry is hardly pure Renaissance. There is no weaver’s mark, so the series must date prior to 1528. The tapestries are remarkable for their fine landscapes, the magnificence of the buildings, and the elegance of the costumes. The borders are of beautiful design and workmanship.
Tapestry No. 1.Shows Romulus and Remus thrown into the Tiber. They are suckled by a she-wolf and grow up to be clever hunters and cunning thieves.
Tapestry No. 2.Remus, taken captive, is presented to Amielius, who is killed by the brothers. Numitor is placed on the throne.
Tapestry No. 3.The brothers trace out the foundations of Rome with a plough. Romulus becomes king, gives his name to the city, and kills his brother.
Tapestry No. 4.Romulus proclaims a fête to Neptune, to attract young girls from neighbouring districts.
Tapestry No. 5.The rape of the Sabine women. Hersilia is presented to Romulus. The Sabine parents retire disconsolate.
Tapestry No. 6.Romulus gives laws to the people. He establishes the twelve lictors, summons the Senate, and builds a temple.
Group II.The Conquest of Tunis(12 Tapestries)
This series of tapestries, besides being of peculiar historical importance, is one of the very finest examples of the perfected Gothic-Renaissance school, and is worth noticing in much fuller detail than any others of the collection. Designed by Jan Vermay, or Vermeyen, and woven by Wilhelm Pannemaker, it was directly inspired by Charles himself, who determined to leave to posterity this magnificent record of an expedition of the success of which he can have felt no doubt. Vermeyen was commanded to accompany the Emperor, so that on the actual battlefield he might reproduce in pencil the stirring scenes that passed before his eyes.
Detailed instructions were given to the artist as to the manner in which his cartoons were to be designed. He bound himself to submit smallsketches for Charles’ approval, to carry out any alterations and suggestions made by his patron, and finally to reproduce them “in the best and most vivid colours,” in the size that was required for the actual tapestries. The Emperor agreed to pay for them the sum of 1800 florins, a considerable amount according to the standards of the time.
To Wilhelm Pannemaker, the famous Flemish weaver, was entrusted the weaving of the tapestries. Determined that neither poverty of material nor careless workmanship should spoil the precious webs, Charles and his sister Mary of Hungary bound Pannemaker by a stringent contract, wherein the amount and quality of silk, and the number and value of the gold and silver threads were distinctly specified. The gold was to come from Milan, the silk from Granada. The finest wool was also commanded and the richest dyes. In order that the slow process of tapestry weaving might be expedited as much as possible, Pannemaker was to have seven men working at each tapestry. Each piece as it was finished was to be scrutinized by experts, whose corrections Pannemaker bound himself to follow, even if it should necessitate remaking the whole piece. The dyeing of the silk and wool required was specially undertaken in an unusual range of colours. We find a certain Louis Chausset, complaining that he had lost 160 pounds of fine silk that were spoilt while being tinted blue.
After the last alterations had been made the tapestries were declared definitely to be completed on April 21, 1554. They were sent to England to be exhibited at the wedding of Philip and Mary, and afterwards conducted with the utmost care back to Spain. For some time they were shown constantly at all great Court functions till the Emperor, fearful of the result of such constant wear, ordered a smaller set to be prepared. In 1740 Philip V had another reproduction made of the same size as the originals. Yet another copy exists in the Museum at Vienna. This was made by the Austrians who, when they succeeded the Spaniards, discovered the first ten cartoons and purchased them. Another tapestry was woven by Pannemaker that combined the subjects of Nos. 7 and 8 in this series. This was found by the Maréchal de Contades in a castle near Mechlin during the Seven Years’ War between France and Germany.
The Expedition Against Tunis
On the death of Mohammed the Hafsite in 1525, Khain-ad-Din Barbarossa took advantage of a dispute over the succession, to occupy Algiers in the name of the Sultan of Constantinople. The wars in Italy gave him the opportunity of consolidating his territories in the north of Africa, where he succeeded in establishing his dominion firmly, making Algiers his capital. At the end of the second Italian war Barbarossa swooped down on a small island in the possession of the Spaniards, and connected it with the mainland. From this stronghold he planned a series of brilliant coups that made him a serious menace to the kingdom of Naples and Sicily. He attacked and overthrew the native Tunisian dynasty under the pretence of restoring the rightful ruler, made himself master of this city as he had done of Algiers, and pushed his successes far into the interior. The menace was not lost upon Charles V. Availing himself of the plea for help urged by Al-Hasan, the son of Mohammed, the Emperor decided upon the conquest of Tunis and set sail from Barcelona on May 30, 1535.
Never was any expedition more popular. The Spanish people swarmed into Barcelona to bidGod-speed to the departing fleet. At Cagliari Charles was joined by Doria with a company of German and Italian troops, galleys from Sicily and southern Italy, and a number of Knights Hospitallers enrolled to attack the infidel.
Goletta was selected as the first point of attack, so that the way might be cleared to Tunis. After a desperate siege the fortress fell into Charles’s hands, together with the whole corsair fleet of eighty-two galleys. Still the attack on Tunis seemed fraught with too much danger, and much against his will Charles decided to re-embark. At the last moment, however, bolder counsels prevailed. The army was hastily formed into advance-guard and rear-guard and started on its twelve-mile march to Tunis.
Charles’s army certainly laboured under grave disadvantages. Their guns had all to be dragged by hand; there were provisions for only five days. Between olive groves and the lagoons they moved with a front of but one thousand paces. The groves gave cover to the corsair chief as he moved to outflank the Emperor’s troops. But in appalling heat the Spaniards marched steadily forward. Barbarossa made two desperate attacks, but the Spanish troops stood their ground. The second encounter resulted in total defeat for theMoors and Turks, who recoiled before the deadly fire of the Christians. Turning to re-enter the fortress of Tunis, Barbarossa found it held by the Christian slaves who had risen against him. Tunis was captured, and a heavy blow struck at the power and prestige of the Turk.
A projected attack on Algiers had to be abandoned owing to the advancing season. Bona and Biserta, however, were secured, and these together with Goletta were retained by the Spaniards. Tunis itself Charles restored to its one-time ruler, Al-Hassan, who had joined his army in time for the march to the capital.
The result of this expedition was peculiarly fortunate for Charles. His reputation as a daring and successful soldier was established; Naples and Sicily looked on him as their saviour. All Europe admired the skill with which he had disposed of the natural ally of the French and checkmated Francis before that astute sovereign’s plans of attack had matured.
Jan Vermay, or Vermeyen, the Flemish painter, chosen by Charles to accompany him on his expedition to Tunis, was one of the best-known artists of the first half of the sixteenth century. As Court painter under Margaret of Austria he executed portraits of the Emperor and of everyone of importance at the Court, which were sent as gifts to the different sovereigns of Europe. Later he became the special protégé of Mary of Hungary, and afterwards of Charles himself.
The Tapestries
Each tapestry has an explanatory legend in Spanish at the top, and a supplementary legend in Latin underneath. Translations of these have been made for the first time by the Conde Valencia de Don Juan.
Tapestry No. 1.Shows a map of the shore of the Mediterranean, where Charles embarked his army, and the opposite coasts of Africa. The translation of the upper legend reads: “The Conqueror, wishing to overcome the infidel armies of the Turk and the warrior who, obeying the orders of Soliman, raises cruel wars against the realms of Spain, Charles, the fifth of that name, with the blessing of heaven, gathers together the armies and fleets of Spain and Italy to threaten the African troops. He who knows not the meaning of delay, sails with his loyal companions.” On the right the figure of Vermeyen upholds a chart bearing the following curious inscription: “The conquest of Charles, Emperor of theRomans, the fifth of that name, and first of the kings of Spain, in Africa in 1535 had serious causes that the chronicles of the time recount more fully in their histories. These causes being left on one side, to this work is represented as exactly as possible the course of events.” Since for a clear understanding it is necessary to know the country where the events took place and what preparations had been made, the action is treated in this tapestry according to nature (all that concerns the cosmography leaving nothing to be desired). In the distance the coasts of Africa (like those of Europe and its boundaries) are seen with their chief ports, their broad gulfs, their islands, their winds at exactly the same distances at which they really lie (the author having taken much more care over their precise situation than over the accuracy of the painting). As all has been done—as also with the countries—in strict accordance with cosmography, and the painter has observed the canons of his art, considering that the spectator views it from Barcelona, where the embarkation for Tunis began. This last town lies between the spectator and the Midi, leaving the north behind, above the right shoulder. Accuracy being thus established, the peculiarities of the other tapestries can be better understood.
Tapestry No. 2.The upper legend declares that this piece represents “the arrival of the Emperor at Barcelona with his army: the magnificence of his brilliant body-guard, formed of gentlemen of his household and of his Court, who accompanied him to share the dangers of the campaign: included in his company are the Infante Louis, his half-brother, and many other Portuguese gentlemen who formed part of the troops for the expedition.”
The lower scroll bears the following inscription: “The Conqueror leaves the outskirts of Madrid and the dwelling of his ancestors, and halts in the smiling county of Barcelona. He reviews the army and singles out the noblemen and knights. He vows at the moment of embarkation that in crossing the ocean (leaving behind him the waves of the Balearic and Sardinian Seas) that the fleet can come together in the place commanded. He embarks with him the Germans, the Italian army, and the battalions of Spanish veterans, and lands them on the African coast.”
Tapestry No. 3.According to the upper scroll this tapestry treats of “the arrival of the Emperor and his galleys at old Carthage, and the reconnaissance of Goletta (where several cannon shots were fired). On June 16 the Conqueror disembarks with his body-guard and 12,000 infantry, and takes three positions. He attacks the towers of Water and of Salt; the Spanish arquebusiers, under the order of the Marquis del Vasto, draw on the enemy, who lose several men.”
The lower inscription reads: “Here they enter the port of Utica; ancient Carthage receives them in her ruins. The fleet sails along the coast. Thence the Conqueror goes with a small body-guard to explore Goletta and to spy out its fortifications and situation. After having given the order to the troops to disembark they light-heartedly attack the enemy, who retreat. They pitch the camp beside the walls of what was once Carthage the illustrious, and is to-day a village of poor cottages.” A further inscription in the border reads: “This third piece must be looked at from the place where the fleet is cruising along the coasts from Porto Farina to the head of the promontory of Carthage; the north is to the left side above the right shoulder.”
Tapestry No. 4.The upper inscription explains that “during the landing of the rest of the army several skirmishes take place until the Emperor orders the body of the army to descend into the plain to besiege Goletta.” The Marquis del Vasto sends reinforcements with which they try (withoutsuccess) to surprise the enemy. The whole army being reunited, the Turks, a few days after, try to gain an advantage from a violent wind which arose, throwing sand with shovels and other instruments to blind their enemies. But the wind suddenly falling, the Turks surrounded by our arquebusiers were obliged to fall back to Goletta.
The Latin inscription at the foot reads: “Charles strikes the camp, and when the army is already on the march the enemy attack the rear-guard and harass their movements. The army faces round, and the enemy nearly surrounded in a dangerous place, retreat. A violent wind arises, raising whirlwinds of sand; our men are blinded by the dust. The enemy, full of craft, appear again, throwing sand at our soldiers, and thus fighting as much with dust as with arms; but when the wind falls they are repulsed.”
The inscription in the right-hand border instructs us to look from the promontory to the camp and stop at the Water Tower, leaving the lagoon on the right-hand and taking the north, on the same side.
Tapestry No. 5.The upper inscription describes “a sortie of Turks from Goletta, and the killing of several Italian soldiers; a new sortie of the Turks killing the Marquis de Final, an Italiancolonel: the arrival of Muley Hassan, King of Tunis, with 400 cavalry: the serious skirmish in which the Marquis de Mondejas receives a blow from a lance: the help brought by the Emperor: the flight of the enemy, losing part of their artillery.”
The lower inscription reads: “The Turks make a sortie and repulse the Italian advance-guard, whose leader is made prisoner; they take thetranchées, but repulsed by the Spanish, they retire. Finally, counting on the darkness of the night, they attack the Spaniards and force them to abandon theirtranchées; attacked in their turn, they are forced to retire again. The king Hassan arrives, followed by a small body-guard. The Marquis Louis, wounded, retires from the combat. Charles V arrives with help when the soldiers are already in distress; he repulses the enemy and takes their artillery.”
We are instructed to look at this tapestry “as though we were at the towers of Water and of Salt opposite Goletta, having the sea and the north on the left-hand, and the lagoon on the right.”
Tapestry No. 7.Represents the taking of Goletta: “Twenty thousand Turks charge to take the tower of the promontory of Carthage, defendedby 26,000 Spaniards, protected by the Emperor with the Germans and new Spanish troops. On land Goletta fights with 11 cannons; by sea 9 galleys, commanded by the Prince Doria, are supported by the galleon and the carabels of the Portuguese, commanded by the Infante Louis. Goletta is defended by 6000 Turks and 2000 Moors, with more than 400 guns. At the attack, directed from the sea, there are 4000 soldiers of the battalions of Spanish veterans, and in that, directed from the coast of the lagoon, as many Italians and 2000 Germans. At the assault of Goletta, 2000 Turks and Moors are killed, and about 100 of our men, dead or wounded, are put out of action. The fleet commanded by Barbarossa is taken also.”
The Latin text relates that “the garrison defending the Cape finds itself threatened by an attack of the Africans. The Conqueror comes to the rescue and repulses the assailants. Goletta is attacked by land and sea; the enemy fights with arrows. Part of the wall, already undermined, falls where the fight is fiercest. The Spanish troops enter first into the breach; this being taken, they slay or put to flight the defenders, while Charles deals with another section of the enemy.”
This piece is to be regarded “from the lagoon, with Tunis on the left hand, the promontory of Carthage on the right, and the north behind to the right.”
Tapestry No. 8.The original of this tapestry was lost during the eighteenth century, shortly after the reproduction of the Tunis series was undertaken at the command of Philip V. This represented the march against Tunis of the Emperor and his troops, and the victory gained at Los over Barbarossa, where 600 of the enemy were slain.
Tapestry No. 9.The upper inscription of this tapestry reads: “After having scattered the enemy’s army and put to flight the captain, Barbarossa, the Emperor, with his troops, advances on Tunis and occupies the outskirts of the town. The Christians, held captive in the fortress, rise and demand aid from the Marquis de Vasto. The place is taken and the Emperor allows it to be sacked.” The Latin legend adds the following details about the slaves: “Undermining the walls and breaking down the doors, they have, with God’s help, abandoned their prison. Having defeated the garrison they make themselves masters of the citadel and implore help from the avenger, Charles. Haradin flies the town.”
The inscription in the border directs us that “we are looking towards the lagoon, with Tunis in front, Goletta and the north behind.”
Tapestry No. 10.This represents “the sack of Tunis, hostilities against those who offer resistance, and the imprisonment of a great number of the enemy. The Conqueror delivers over the town to the King of Tunis, who remains a vassal of the Emperor.”
The Latin text reads: “The troops sent against the outskirts of the town lay siege to and take them, slaughter the enemy’s army, take the houses and spare the inhabitants; as to the remainder, they use the rights of conquest. More than 20,000 captives recover their liberty and salute, with cries of gratitude, Charles the avenger. The Conqueror re-establishes on the throne of his ancestors the unfortunate Hassan, though he hardly merited this, since he had promised much and performed little.”
Tapestry No. 11.This tapestry shared the fate of No. 8, being lost during the eighteenth century. From the reproduction we find that it represented the return of the army to Rada after the occupation of Tunis, which lasted eight days. “The Emperor orders the Moors to bring back their wives and children, and to bring the clothestaken by the soldiers during the sack. In order to be recognized they are to carry on their heads branches of olive. He also orders them to furnish the Christians with the recovered vessels, so that they may return to their respective countries.”
Tapestry No. 12.According to the upper inscription this deals with “the return of the Emperor from Rada to Goletta: the encamping of the army in the old place: the arrival of the King of Tunis to sign the capitulation forcing him to be a tributary of the Emperor and his successors: Goletta which he wishes to fortify, over which he sets Bernardin de Mendoza as ruler, with 1000 Spaniards: the embarking of the army towards the middle of the month of August: the departure of the Infante Louis with the Portuguese fleet: that of the Marquis de Mondejer: the vessels that accompanied him: departure of Don Alvano de Bazan with the Spanish galleys: that of the Germans and the Italians for their respective countries, and finally that of the Emperor with the galleys of the Prince Doria.”
The Latin inscription is merely a résumé of the Spanish one.
This tapestry is to be looked at with Goletta and the Cape of Carthage in front, Tunis on the left hand, the sea and the north to the right.
Group 12.The Last Supper(1 Tapestry)
Woven from a design almost certainly of Bernard van Orley, the pupil of Raphael, by Pierre Pannemaker at Brussels, in wool, silk, gold, and silver. Purchased by Charles V at 38 florins—a higher price than that generally paid for the same class of work. The tapestry was given by the Emperor to his wife, and is considered one of the finest religious pieces in the royal collection. It is used on Holy Thursdays to decorate the famous Hall of Columns in the Palace, when the ceremony of the Washing of Feet and the dinner to the poor take place.
Group 13.The Descent of the Holy Ghost(1 Tapestry)
This tapestry is woven in silk and wool enriched with gold and silver threads. Neither the designer nor thetapissierare known, but from the type of features represented, Count Valencia de Don Juan conjectures that the artist was of Flemish blood. It is first mentioned in the inventory made on the death of Charles II. The subject of the piece is taken from Acts ii. 1-4
Group 14.The Adoration of the Kings(1 Tapestry)
This is one of the finest of the religious tapestries in the collection and was a particular favourite of the Emperor Charles V, who took it with him on his retirement to Yuste. Both the design and workmanship are Flemish, but the influence of the Italian school is perceptible. The usual materials are employed—silk, wool, gold, and silver threads.
The border is particularly fine with its wealth of flowers, birds, and fruits. At each corner is shown a medallion representing a scene from the life of Christ.
Group 15.The Story of Abraham(7 Tapestries)
These tapestries are attributed by Wauters to Wilhelm Pannemaker. Though modified by Italian ideas the design is in the Flemish style. Woven in silk and wool they were the property of the Princess Juana, the daughter of Charles V. They show the characteristic determination of Gothictapissiersto “tell the story” from beginning to end, from the time that Abraham firstleaves his country to journey into the land of Canaan, to his death.
Group 16.The Apocalypse(8 Tapestries)
The Revelations of St. John were a favourite subject with the mediævaltapissier, yet strange to say there are few complete series remaining. In the Cathedral at Angers is a series of sixty-seven pieces made in 1377 by Nicolas Bataille for Louis I of Anjou. A little later two other series on the same subject were executed at Arras, one being destined for Philip the Good. In time this came into the possession of Charles V, and is mentioned in the Inventory of 1536. No further mention, however, is made of this tapestry in any Spanish documents, and Pinchart conjectures that it was probably lost in the fire that destroyed the Palace of Brussels in 1731.
The series included in this collection was made by Wilhelm Pannemaker, and purchased by Philip II. We find the following paragraph in the discharge of the Treasurer-General in the year 1562:
“To Wilhelm Pannemaker, tapestry maker, who came from Flanders to bring the Tapestry of the Apocalypse made for the service of H.M.,sixty thousandmaravediwhich H.M. pays him all at once for the expenses of his journey (from his own country whither he returns), as witness the command of H.M., the 31st December, 1561. The said tapestry maker has received the money the 31st of the said month.”
The tapestries are fine specimens woven in silk, wool, and gold thread. M. Ouiffrey attributes the cartoons to Albert Dürer, but the Count Valencia de Don Juan prefers to regard them as by an unknown artist working under the influence of Dürer and Jean de Bruges. The designs are very beautiful, more especially the borders, which are little masterpieces of grace and elegance. The plates are explained by short Latin legends in the middle of the upper border.
Tapestry No. 1.“St. John writes a true description of his vision to the Bishop of the Seven Churches of Asia. He moralizes and instructs them.”
Tapestry No. 2.“This great mystery illuminated by Divine Grace and manifested in Christ the Saviour of Mankind. Those who have been made pure by His Blood shall remain strong and shall not be turned from the Holy way by the whirlwind.”
Tapestry No. 3.“The Gospel spreads throughthe world as to the sound of trumpets. The Apostolic dogma and holy doctrine resounds in the Temple, drives back sin, and plants a true love of the faith in every spirit.”
Tapestry No. 4.“The fruits of virtue, precious for their works, encourage the multitude of the elect; that which is watched over by the jealous enemy is destroyed by the help of angels.”
Tapestry No. 5.“Jealousy never attains the peace of virtue; nevertheless the latter shall be oppressed till the end of the world. Certain hope and the faith of the strong never fail, though the ungodly mock those who live in the fear of God.”
Tapestry No. 6.“Anger shall be turned against the reproved, and the anger of God shall oppress sinners. Those who repent not shall suffer death and eternal fire as a punishment for their wickedness.”
Tapestry No. 7.“The day of Antichrist shall come and shall provoke the last war against faith. Babylon shall be conquered and destroyed, and her lost sons shall suffer eternal punishment with her.”
Tapestry No. 8.“On the day of the Last Judgment, the devil shall be shut up in the abyss, and the choir of saints shall sing praises unto God. The victorious Church shall receiveher just reward, and filled with gladness shall enjoy for ever the Kingdom of Heaven.”
Group 17.The Seven Deadly Sins(2 Series)
This favourite mediæval subject is depicted in two series of tapestries in the possession of Philip II of Spain. Both series are woven in silk and wool, picked out with gold and silver threads. Neither, however, remains complete. The name of the designer of the cartoons is not known. It may probably have been Bernard van Orley. The general design is markedly Flemish, but the Renaissance influence is evident in the treatment of some of the figures, and more particularly in the borders. These show delicate imagination, exquisite workmanship, and exuberance of detail, and are adorned with a wealth of flowers and fruits, and tiny elves.
1st Series(6 Tapestries)
This series was probably made either for Margaret of Austria or Mary of Hungary. It was used to decorate the monastery of Guadelupe, at the interview in 1575 between Philip II and Sebastian of Portugal. Each tapestry is explainedby a Latin text on the upper border. The sins represented are Avarice, Luxury, Anger, Greed, Envy, and Laziness.
2nd Series(4 Tapestries)
These tapestries are attributed to Pannemaker. Pinchart states that they were taken from the Count of Egmont’s collection and sent to the Spanish Court by the Duke of Alba, when the first-mentioned nobleman was sentenced to death as a rebel in 1567.
The pieces now remaining represent Pride, Luxury, Greed, and Laziness. The other three tapestries were still in existence in 1660 and were used at the marriage of the Infanta Maria-Theresa and Louis XIV.