AFTER-WORDS
The story which has just been told may be looked on as the result of ten centuries of Eastern and Western imagination. The career of the historical Alexander is perhaps one of the most important things, in its way, that have happened on our earth, and could not fail to give rise to a plenteous crop of legend and of marvels. Even in his lifetime the Greek orators allowed their language to run riot in the telling of his deeds, which required no exaggeration to stand out before the world.
Greek Text of Pseud-Callisthenes.
The form of the story was fixed much as we have it now, certainly before the third century of our era, and probably much earlier, in the work of which a corrupt text has come down to us, under the name of Callisthenes, one of the companions of Alexander. The Greek text of this work was printed by Muller (Paris, 1877) from three MSS. in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris, which represent three different classes of MS. There are about twenty MSS. of the work known.
Probable Alexandrian origin of the Romance.
The origin of this romance is probably Egyptian. In fact, there seems little reason to doubt Favre’s guess, that its composition was due to one of the Ptolemies, who were successors of Alexander on the Egyptian throne, and willing to legitimatise their rule by connecting it with that of the last of the ancient kings. The style of the Greek seems to be Alexandrian, and Nicephorus Calistes (X. 36), speaks of the Life of Alexander written by the Alexandrian. Other considerations tend to support the Egyptian origin of the romance. The character of the magic is distinctly Egyptian (see a very interesting discussion of some points in Budge’s Syriac Version of the Alexander Story, pp. xxxix.et seq.). The way in which magic has been attributed to Anectanabus agrees with Egyptian tradition, which hasalways attributed supernatural powers to him. Reuvens, in his Third Letter (p. 76), gives an account of a papyrus describing some of his magical powers, and Tertullian, in the “De Anima” (lvii.), names him as one of the masters of magic.
Julius Valerius and his Epitome.
The story was translated into Latin by Julius Valerius early in the fourth century, since the translation is one of the sources of the “Itinerarium Alexandri” (340-345A.D.). An epitome of Julius Valerius, made in the ninth century, was published by Zacher (Halle, 1867). Our earliest MS. of Julius Valerius is at Turin, and dates from about 800A.D.He is quoted by Syncellus in the eighth century, and by Malala in the ninth.
The most important translation—the one which is known as the “Historia Alexandri Magni de Proeliis”—is, however, due to the tenth century. Leo the Archpriest seems to have been sent on an embassy to Constantinople to the Emperors Constantine and Romanus (920-944) by John and Marius, Dukes of Campania (941-965), and while there he seems to have collected many books, among which was the Story of Alexander. On his return he was commanded by Duke John to translate the story into Latin.
Alberic de Besançon. And the decasyllabic poem.Lamprecht’s Version.
Alberic de Besançon. And the decasyllabic poem.
Lamprecht’s Version.
Alberic de Besançon. And the decasyllabic poem.----------Lamprecht’s Version.
Alberic de Besançon. And the decasyllabic poem.----------Lamprecht’s Version.
The Alexander Story came into European literature early in the twelfth century. As far as we know it was introduced by Alberic de Besançon. Of his work there exists now only a fragment of about 105 lines, first printed by Heyse, Berlin, 1856, 8vo. We can, however, judge of it by the decasyllabic poem, of which two portions are printed by Meyer. It was founded on Julius Valerius and the authentic histories of Alexander. Alberic rejects with disdain the story of Anectanabus’ parentage of Alexander, judging it adisgrace to any true knight to be base-born. The character of the missing parts of the poem may also be gathered from the German version of Lamprecht the preacher, who wrote towards the end of the twelfth century, and who seems to have made use of Alberic’s poem till it concluded with the episode of Nicholas. The poems printed by Meyer here change their versification, and are henceforth in Alexandrines, the continuator being Simon le Poitevin.
Lambert li Tors and Alexandre de Paris.
The development of the Alexander Story in Europe is due, however, neither to Alberic nor Lamprecht, but to Lambert li Tors and Alexandre de Bernay (or Paris), who in the middle of the century wrote the romance in Alexandrines. The poem was full of the magical wonders which Alberic had rejected; it adopted the Egyptian origin of Alexander and the wondrous stories of Bucephalus, and became instantaneously popular.
The Alexander Cycle.
But medieval listeners were not satisfied with so meagre information as the Romance of Alexander gave. Here was a great king foully murdered, beautiful queens beheaded; is there no justice in the skies? So in quick succession came the “Testament d’Alexandre” of Pierre de Saint Cloor, and in 1190 “La Vengeance Alexandre” of Gui de Cambrai. Another poem on the same subject was written between 1288-1308 by Jean le Nevelois (Nevelaux), and a new cycle of poems was opened by the “Voeux du Paon” of Jacques de Longuyon, 1312, the “Restor du Paon” of Brisebarre de Douay (before 1338). The Alexander cycle finishes by Jean de la Mote’s “Parfait du Paon,” 1340.
Eustace of Kent.
Meanwhile the Alexander Story itself had gone on its way. Eustace of Kent had incorporated it in his (stillinedited) “Roman de Toute Chevalrie” in the middle of the thirteenth century. Four manuscripts of this work still exist, and it seems to be the stock from which many English translations have been made, notably that published by Weber in 1810. About the same time the prose translation of the “De Proeliis” was made, a translation which profoundly influenced the later story-tellers. Soon the Epitome of Julius Valerius, and a letter of Alexander to Aristotle, giving an account of the wonders of India, were translated. Frère Jehan de Vignay wrote a prose romance of Alexander in 1341, unfortunately lost, and the roll is closed in 1445 by “l’Histoire d’Alexandre” of Jean Wauquelin.
English Versions.
Our English versions seem to have been later. Very few of them have been printed, a fact perhaps due to the very insufficient support extended to the Early English Text Society, which has printed the portions to be found of two of them. Our earliest version seems to be that of which some extracts are given in Warton. There was an English version of 48,000 lines or so of the Alexander Story, belonging to the Duke of Roxburghe, but the MS. has disappeared. Weber, in his “Early English Metrical Romances,” gives a rhymed poem of 8031 lines. Two fragments are known of an alliterative translation of Lambert li Tors, which must have been of enormous length; and a nearly complete poem, which follows pretty closely the “De Proeliis,” is printed under the name of “The Wars of Alexander.” The three last are published by the Early English Text Society. Gower, in the “Confessio Amantis,” also makes use of episodes of the romance. Cockayne printed an A.S. version of the letter of Alexander.
We have thus run down the line which brought thetale from Egypt to Chaucer’s doors, so that he could sing that—
“Alisaundre’s storie is so communeThat everie wight that hath discrecionneHath horde somewhat or al of his fortune;”
“Alisaundre’s storie is so communeThat everie wight that hath discrecionneHath horde somewhat or al of his fortune;”
“Alisaundre’s storie is so commune
That everie wight that hath discrecionne
Hath horde somewhat or al of his fortune;”
but we would not have the reader think that here is an exhaustive list, even along the line of descent we have traced, of the forms of the Alexander Story. Amongst other European versions are the German prose version (printed in 1478, Aug. Vind., fo.), made by John Hartlieb Moller, at the command of Albert, Duke of Bavaria. There are further, early Spanish, Italian, Norse, Swedish, Dutch, and Russian versions. An early rhyme, preserving an incident of the story, is printed by Schiller, “Thesaur. Antiq. Teuton,” t. i., in the Rhythm. de S. Annone, xiv., xv.
It hardly comes within our province to refer to other forms of the Alexander Story in Europe, except in the briefest possible way. A work often mistaken for the “De Proeliis” is the compilation of Radulphus of St Albans, who compiled from Quintus Curtius and other authors a Life of Alexander. In 1236 William of Spoleto wrote a Life of Alexander in Latin elegiacs, a work quoted by Warton as of Aretinus Quilichinus.
Independent Legends—Persian, Arabic.
The Pseud-Callisthenes is often spoken of as the work of Simeon Seth, protovestiarius of the palace of Antiochus at Constantinople, and was in the last century considered a translation from the Persian about the year 1070. Other reasons apart the dissimilarity between the Egyptian and the Persian forms of the story would disprove this theory. Just as the Egyptians represented Alexander as the son of the last of their native kings, so the Persians represented him (in the popular legend) as the son of Darius (Codomannusof the Kayanian dynasty), and of a daughter of Philip of Macedon, who was brought up by his grandfather, and afterwards overcame his elder brother. An independent tradition seems to have grown up among the Arabs, making him the son of an old woman, and born in obscurity, his name being originally Mazban (Lord of the Marches), son of Marzabah, descended from Yunan, son of Japhet (Burton, “Arabian Nights”).
Syriac Versions.
An early Arabic version of the Greek must have been made about the eighth century, from which the Syriac version we have at present was made, but unfortunately this has not been found. A Syriac version was made in the eighth century, of which parts exist; but our most complete version is that made in the seventh-ninth century, and published with a version by Budge. Eight chapters of this are missing, and it is noticeable that the source of the translation did not contain the interpolations from Palladius (367-431) which the Greek text now does. An Armenian version is attributed to Moses of Chorene (fifth century), who certainly knew the story.
Armenian, Hebrew, Arabic, Persian, Ethiopic, Coptic.
The story early passed into Hebrew. It is found in Jos. ben Gorion (lib. II. p. 94, ed. Oxon. 1704, 4to), and a pseudonymous translation of the work of Ptolemy, son of Lagos, by Samuel ben Judah ben Sibbon of Granada, appeared in the thirteenth century. (See a French translation of a Hebrew version by J. Levi, “Revue des Etudes Juives,” III. 241.) It is found in the Arabic of Said ibn Batrik (939A.D.), Patriarch of Alexandria (Eutychus., ed. Pocock, Oxon. 1606), and in Gregory Abul Farag (1265). Mohl believed that Firdusi had an Arab author before him when writing of Alexander. Among the Persian writers may be named Firdusi (1024), Nizami (1203), and Mirkond(1497). An Ethiopic version will shortly be published by Budge; and among others existing are versions in Coptic, Malay, and Siamese. Several detached incidents connect themselves with the story. Thus we may mention the “Iter ad Paradisum,” twelfth century (of Talmudic origin), printed at Konigsberg, 1859; the Gog and Magog story, &c.
Anectanabus.
The Egyptian king who figures in our story as Anectanabus is known to history as Necht-neb-f (Nakhtenephen). His mutilated statue and two inscriptions are in the British Museum. He was overthrown by Ochus, and retreated into Ethiopia some four years after the birth of Alexander. We have already referred to the reputation for magic that attached to him early in the Christian era. The form Anectanabus is used as being the form (sometimes shortened to Anec) in which the name appears in Gower and the poet of “The Wars of Alexander.” His history may be read in Wiedemann, “Aegyptische Geschichte,” p. 716, or in Maspero, “Histoire du Peuples de l’Orient,” pp. 566-7.
Plutarch and the Alexander Story.
It is difficult to resist the conclusion that Plutarch had before him such a collection of tales as the “Pseud-Callisthenes,” and was thinking of them when he wrote his first pages of the Life of Alexander. The tradition of his birth from the visit of a dragon is accounted for by the habits of the Macedonian women, who are accustomed to pet large snakes. Justin XI. 2, 3, and XII. 16, and Solinus, cap. XV., also mention the tradition. Other points where Plutarch is contradicting the legend will readily suggest themselves. However, this is saying nothing more than that many of the stories must have grown up about the time of Alexander, or soon after his death. The filiation of Alexanderand Ammon is one of these, the cartouche of Alexander being “Alexander, son of Amen.”
There has been no attempt to give a Greek character to the story. Even when the alteration of a letter would have made a good Greek name, as in the case of Pausanius, it has not been altered, and Sir Samson, Sir Balaan, speak for themselves. But, on the other hand, as the tales make him Christian or Pagan by turns, we have not tried to make him consistent. In the same way, it was found impossible to leave out the visit to Jerusalem, which makes such a central point in the medieval stories.
Medieval Illuminated Copies.
A word as to the illustrations—not those of our book, but those of the veritable medieval illuminators. Among the chief treasures of the British Museum are its illuminated copies of the Alexander Romance, notably 19. D.Iand 20. B.XX. Some others are older, but these are filled with most beautiful paintings of the incidents of the story. I may be allowed to mention one thing here which I have noticed. In each of them, at the beginning, is a sort of frontispiece divided into compartments, and labelled The Castle of Cairo, The Town of Babylon (with Anectanabus shown on the walls or elsewhere), The Garden of Balm, and The Mills of Babylon. Now, these seem to have no connection with the French prose translation in which they are found. Cairo is not mentioned in it, there is no story of a garden of balm, and there is no story of the mills of Babylon, which are large floating water-mills like those at Old London Bridge.
FINISHED THIS THIRTIETH DAY OF MAY 1894 BY ME, ROBERT STEELE, AND PRINTED BY BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO., LONDON, FOR DAVID NUTT IN THE STRAND.