In Old Kentish Sermons (Old Eng. Miscell p. 28)has=ha+es= he them.
III. The pronounhe, they (Southernhii,heo; Northumbrianthay). Orm usesþeȝȝ, as well asþeȝȝer(their),þeȝȝm(them).[36]
IV.hine,hin,in= him. This form occurs as late as 1340, and still exists under the formen,un, in the modern dialects of the South of England, but is not employed by Orm; nor do we find any traces ofwhan(whom), another very common example of the-naccusative inflection, either in the Ormulum or the present work.
V. The substitution ofnfor a vowel-ending in nouns. Dr Guest has noticed this peculiarity, but he confines this substitution to thenominativecase of nouns of thendeclension,[37]and to the definite form of the adjective, which has, no doubt, given rise to the O.E.himseluen, etc.,bothen(both), as well as, perhaps, toouren(ours),heren(theirs), etc.
In the present poem, however, thenseems added to the vowel-ending of all cases except the possessive, in order to rhyme with a verb in the infinitive, a passive participle, or an adverb terminating in-en, and is not always limited to nouns of the-ndeclension, but represents in A.S. anaore: 'onboken,'[38]on book, l.4; 'onsoðe-sagen,' on sooth-saw, l.14;meten, (acc.) meat, l.2255, (nom.)2079;sunen, (nom.) son, l.1656; 'ofluuen,' of love,635; 'after ðewunen' (after the custom), l.688;steden, (nom.) place,1114; 'foron-sagen,' for reproach,2045;wliten, (nom.) face,3614, (acc.)2289; 'wiðansweren,' in answer,2673;bileuen, (acc.) remainder,3154;uuerslagen, (acc.) lintel,3155.
Dr Guest considers this curious nunnation to be aNorthern peculiarity, but as we do not meet with it (as far as I know) in any Northumbrian work, his statement is rather doubtful. On the other hand, it is well known that the pluralsbretheren(broðeren[39]in Shoreham),calveren[40](calves),children,[41]doren(doors),[42]eyren(eggs),[43]honden(hands),[44]kine,[45]lambren(lambs),[46]soulen(souls)—very common forms in theSoutherndialects in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries—are examples of the substitution ofnfor, or in addition to, the vowel-ending, and were unknown in the Northern dialect.
The Southern dialect could drop or retain, at pleasure, thenfinal in the past participles, the preterite plurals, and infinitive mood of verbs.
VI. A very small Norse element in the vocabulary.
The only words of undoubtedly Norse element that occur in the present poem, and were unknown to Southern English, are—fro(from),ille(bad),for-sweðen(to burn),flitten(to remove),laðe(barn),lowe(flame),mirk(dark),ransaken(to search),swaðe(flame),til(to),uglike(horrible),werre(worse).[47]
The Ormulum, being more Northern, contains alargernumber of words that must be referred to one of the Scandinavian idioms:[48]—afell(strength),afledd(begotten),beȝȝsc(bitter), *blunnt(blunt, dull),bracc(noise), *braþ(angry), *braþþe(anger), *brodd(shoot),brodden(to sprout),broþþfall(fit), *bun(ready,bound), *clake(accusation), *croc(device), *derf(bold), *dill(sluggish), *eggenn(to urge, egg on), *egginng(urging), *ettle, *flittenn(to remove, flit), *flitting(change, removal), *forrgart(opposed, condemned), *forrgloppned(disturbed with fear, astonishment), *gate(way),gowesst(watchest), *haȝherr(dexterous),haȝherleȝȝc(skill), *haȝherrlike(fitly),hof(moderation),hofelæs(immoderately), *ille(bad), *immess(variously), *kinndlenn(to kindle), *lasst(crime, fault),leȝhe(hire, pay), *leȝȝtenn(O.E.layte, inquire, seek),o-loft(aloft), *loȝhe(fire), *mune(must, will),naþe(grace),nowwt(cattle, O.N.naut; the Southern form isneet,nete, A.S.neát), *ploh(plough), *radd(afraid), *ros(praise), *rosen(to boast), *rosinng(boast),rowwst(voice), *scaldess(poets, O.E.scald, a great talker, boaster, E.scold), *sit(pain), *sket(quickly), *skirpeþþ(rejecteth), *sloþ(track, path),smikerr(beautiful, Eng.smug),sowwþess(sheep),stoffnedd(generated, O.E.stoven, trunk, stem), *summ(as), *till(to), *tór(hard, difficult), *trigg(true),uppbrixle(object of reproach, O.E.brixle, reproach),usell(wretched), *wand(rod), *wandraþ, O.E.wandreth(trouble), *werre(worse).
As most, if not all, of the words in the foregoing list are not found in works written in the Southern dialect,—so far as we at present know them—we may reasonably suppose that they indicate fairly the Danish element in the English literature of the 12th and 13th centuries. In the Northumbrian, and the West, and East-Midland productions of a century later this element prevails to a much larger extent, and Herbert Coleridge's list of such words may be largely increased (Phil. Soc. Trans., 1859, p. 26-30).
I. Nouns.
1.Number.—The plural is generally formed by adding-esto the singular. Some few nouns make the plural in-en, asferen[49](companions),fon(foes),goren(spears),loten(features),sunen(sons),teten(teats),tren(trees),weden(garments),wunen(laws). The plurals ofbrotherandchildarebrethereandchildere.Der(deer),erf,orf(cattle),got(goat),neat(oxen),sep(sheep),scrud(garbs),wrim(reptiles), of the neuter gender, are uninflected in the plural.Winter,ger(year), andnigt(night), are plural as in Anglo-Saxon.
2.Gender.—As a general rule the names of inanimate things are of the neuter gender. The names of towns, however, are considered as masculine.
3.Case.—The genitive singular and plural of masculine and feminine nouns end in-es. Occasionally proper nouns form the genitive in-is. The means or instrument occasionally stands in the genitive without the preposition: 'deadesdriuen,' influenced by death; 'swerdesslagen,' slain of the sword; 'tereswet,' wet with tears. Cf. 'floures bred,' bread made with flour; 'bredesmel,' meal consisting of bread; 'winesdrinc,' drink consisting of wine.
Corresponding to the modern wordkinsmenwe have such forms as 'daiges-ligt' (daylight), 'hines-folk' (servants), 'wifeskin' (women). The genitive is used adverbially, asnewes, anew;liues, alive.
We have a few traces of the genitive in-ein the following examples: 'hellenigt,' l.89(hell's night); 'hellebale,' l.2525(hell's bale); 'sterrename,' l.134(star's name); 'saftesame,' l.349(shame of form); 'werldenigt,' l.1318(world's night).[50]
The genitive offaderandmoderis, as is very seldom the case in Early English writers,fadresandmodres.
Annis often added to the final-e(representing an A.Sax.vowel-ending) in the nom., dat., and acc. of nouns. For examples, see p. xxi.
II. Adjectives.
1. Adjectives have a definite and an indefinite form; the former is used when the adjective is preceded by the definite article, a demonstrative adjective, or possessive pronoun.
2.Number.—The plural is formed by the addition ofeto the singular.
But the-e(pl.) is seldom added to the past participle of irregular verbs.Thisforms the pluralsthes(oblique casesthese),this(thise).Thois the plural ofthat.
Cases.—Onemakes the genitiveones; as, 'onesbles,' of one colour. The gen. pl.-reoccurs inald-re(=alre), of all; as, 'hurealdrebale,' the bale of us all; 'herealdreheuedes,' the heads of them all.
Degrees of comparison.—The comparative ends in-ere(-er), the superlative in-este(est).[51]Very few irregular forms occur in the present poem.
Numerals.—The Northumbrian forms in-ndehave superseded the Southern ones in-the; as,seuende(seventh),egtende(eighth),tende(tenth).[52]
III. Pronouns.
1. The first personal pronounIcis never found softened intoIchas in Laȝamon's Brut, the Ancren Riwle, and other Southern works.Iis found only once or twice throughout the poem.
2. The first and second personal pronouns have adualas well as a plural number; as,wit, we two;unc, us two;gunc, you two;gunker, of you two.
3.Hine(hin,in) (acc.) occasionally occurs, but more frequentlyhim(dat.) does duty for it.
4.Ge,ghe,[53]she, represents the A.Sax.héo(O.E.heo,ho, andhi). The curious formsge(=sye), as well assche, occurs for she, the earliest instance of which isscæin the A.Sax. Chronicle.
5. The neuter pronoun is writtenitand nothit, and is frequently used as a plural. It coalesces with the pronounge,ghe[54](she), and with the preterite of verbs terminating in-deor-te,[55]and with some few irregular verbs; as,sagt(saw there), p. 37, l.1301. The curious formnegt(in l.3964, p. 112) =neg+it= nigh it.
6. The A.Sax.hi(they) is represented byhe=hie.[56]Heis common enough in the Romance of Havelok the Dane.[57]
The pronouns, as has already been shown, coalesce with the plural (acc.)is(them), and give us the compoundshes, he + them;wes, we + them;[58]mes =me+hes= one + them.[59]
Not satisfied with joininghe(they) to the pronounis, the author of this poem occasionally employs the more perplexing combinationhem=he+hem, he, them.
bred kalueſ fleiſ, and flures bred,Roasted calves' flesh, and flour-bread,And buttere,hemðo sondes bed,And butter, he them the messengers offered.—(l.1014.)In ſichem feld ne fondehemnogt,In Shechem field found he them not.—(l.1933.)Ðo ſette ſundrihemto waken,Then set sundry he them to watch.—(l.2551.)ðo ſeide ðuſ quannehemcam dun,Then said thus when he to them came down.—(l.4022.)
bred kalueſ fleiſ, and flures bred,
Roasted calves' flesh, and flour-bread,
And buttere,hemðo sondes bed,
And butter, he them the messengers offered.—(l.1014.)
In ſichem feld ne fondehemnogt,
In Shechem field found he them not.—(l.1933.)
Ðo ſette ſundrihemto waken,
Then set sundry he them to watch.—(l.2551.)
ðo ſeide ðuſ quannehemcam dun,
Then said thus when he to them came down.—(l.4022.)
In l.2673hemseems to stand forhe+hem, they + them.
Andhemſeiden wið anſweren,[60]And they to them said in answer.
Andhemſeiden wið anſweren,[60]
And they to them said in answer.
The Southernme, one (Fr.on), is absent from this poem as well as from the Ormulum; its place is supplied bymanandmen[61]used with a verb in the singular number.ðeis frequently used as a relative pronoun as well asðat, but uninflected;quo(who),quat(what), are interrogative;whethersignifies which of two.
TABLE OF PRONOUNS.
The third personal pronoun is occasionally used reflexively; ashim= himself.Selfis used adjectively in the sense of own, very, and the formselven(from the A.Sax.sylfa) is joined to the personal pronouns; asðeselven,himselven, etc.
The independent possessives aremin,ðin,his(hise),hire(hers),ure(ours),gure(yours),here(theirs).[62]
IV. Verbs.
Infinitive Mood.—The infinitive terminates in-en, which is seldom dropped.
There are no infinitives in-yor-ie, as in Southern English writers, nor do we find them in the Ormulum, or in Robert of Brunne's "Handlyng Synne," and they were, most probably, wholly unknown to the East Midland district.
Thetin the 2nd pers. sing. pres. is occasionally dropped, asbeas(=best), art,betes, beatest,findes, findest, etc.; but not in the preterite of regular verbs.
There are no instances of the 3rd pers. sing. present in-esin this poem.
The finaleof the first and third persons (sing.) of the preterite tense is often dropped before a vowel or anh,[63]and, in a few cases, through the carelessness of the scribe,[64]it is unwritten before a consonant, where we should expect to, and do, find it in the majority of instances.
Some few strong verbs have become weak, asgrapte(grasped, felt),gette(poured),smette(smote).
Imperative Mood.—Verbs forming the past tense indeortetake no inflexion in the 2nd pers. sing. imperative.
Participles.—1. The active or imperfect participle ends in-endeor-ande, the former being the Midland and the latter the Northumbrian form. The Southern affix is-inde, from which we have the modern-ing(O.E.-inge).
Our author rhymesspecandewithlockende, and in the Bestiary we find that the participle in-anderhymes with an infinitive in-en,[65]and this accounts for such forms asstinken=stinkende,brennen=brennende, in the present poem.
2. The passive or perfect participle of regular or weak verbs terminates in-ed; of irregular or strong verbs in-en. Inbigote(begotten),funde(found),geue(given), the absence of thenis probably an error of the scribe.
3. The prefixi-ory-(A.S.ge-) is not of frequentoccurrence either in this poem or in the Bestiary; in the former we havei-wreken(avenged),i-wrogt(wrought),ybiried(buried),y-oten(called); and in the latter we findi-digt(arranged).
There are two conjugations of verbs, regular (weak) and irregular (strong). The regular verbs form their past tense in-ede,-de, or-te; the past participle ends in-ed,-d, or-t. Irregular verbs form their past tense by a change of vowel, and the past participle terminates in-en.
CONJUGATION OF REGULAR VERBS.
I. Class.Infinitive Mood—Loven, love.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
PARTICIPLES.
II. Class.Infinitive Mood—Heren, hear.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
PARTICIPLES.
III. Class.Infinitive Mood—Seken, seek.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
PARTICIPLES.
CONJUGATION OF IRREGULAR VERBS.
A. (no change of vowel in the plural preterite.)
Infinitive Mood—Holden, hold.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
PARTICIPLES.
B. (change of vowel in the preterite plural.)
Infinitive Mood—Helpen, help;singen, sing.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
PARTICIPLES.
TABLE OF VERBS.
A.—Regular.
B.—IRREGULAR VERBS.
DIVISION I.
DIVISION II.
Anomalous Verbs.
Cunen (can), 3pers. sing.can,pl.cunen,pret.cuðe,p.p.cuð.
Daren (dare),pres. pl.duren,pret.durste.
Mogen (may), 3pers. sing.mai,pl.mogen, mowen,pret.migte (2pers. pret.migt).
Mot (may),pret.muste.
Ogen (owe, ought), 3pers. sing.og,pl.ogen,pret.ogte.
Sal (shall), 2pers. sing.salt,pl.sulen,pret.sulde,pret. pl.sulden.
Witen (know), 3pers. sing.wot,pret.wiste.
Wilen (will),pret.wulde; nile = will not; nolde = would not.
The verbben, 'to be,' is conjugated after the following manner:—
INDICATIVE MOOD.