[A]This is meant as a taunt at the Swedes, who were yet heathen.
[A]This is meant as a taunt at the Swedes, who were yet heathen.
"That," answered his informant, "is Earl Erik, Earl Haakon's son."
THE CHURCH AT MOSTER ISLAND (MOSTERÖ), SUPPOSED TO HAVE BEEN BUILT BY OLAF TRYGGVESSON.THE CHURCH AT MOSTER ISLAND (MOSTERÖ), SUPPOSED TO HAVE BEEN BUILT BY OLAF TRYGGVESSON.
"From them we may expect a hard battle; for, methinks, Earl Erik has considerable reason for attacking us; and he and his men are Norsemen like ourselves,"
While the king was speaking, Queen Thyra, who had accompanied him, came up on deck. Seeing the enormous hostile fleet before her, and the smallness of her husband's force, she burst into tears.
"Now thou must not weep," said King Olaf; "for now thou hast, indeed, gotten what was due to thee in Wendland; and to-day I mean to demand of thy brother Sweyn thy tooth-gift which thou hast so often asked me for."
King Sweyn was the first to attack, but after a short and stubborn fight was compelled to retreat. One of his galleys was disabled after the other, and there was a great carnage. King Olaf himself stood on the poop royal[A]of "The Long Serpent," where all could see him, directing the defence, and himself fighting with spears and arrows. His helmet and his shield, which were gilt, shone in the sun. Over his armor he wore a short tunic of scarlet silk. While the Danes were in full retreat, the Swedes hastened to their rescue, and they now bore for a while the brunt of the battle. For every Swede or Dane that fell there were ten ready to take his place; while the Norsemen, surrounded on all sides by hostile ships, had to endure an incessant shower of spears and arrows, and the shock of repeated onsetsthat had to be repelled by the sword in hand-to-hand conflicts. However tired and thirsty they were, they could give themselves no respite. Every man that fell or was disabled by wounds left a gap that could not be filled. And yet, in spite of the great numerical superiority of their foes, they would have carried the day at Svolder, if Earl Erik had not commenced a destructive attack upon the right wing, while the Swedes and the Danes were engaging the centre. In fact, the latter were again retreating in disorder before the furious bravery of King Olaf's men, when Earl Erik rowed up alongside the outermost ship on the right, with his great galley, "The Iron Ram," and made a vigorous onslaught. Here Norseman met Norseman, and the numbers had to decide. The men on the king's ship fought desperately, but were overpowered, and leaped into the sea, or saved themselves on board the next ship. The first was then cut adrift, and Erik, in accordance with a well-matured plan, engaged the next and the next. At last all of King Olaf's ships except "The Long Serpent" were cut adrift, and their defenders slain. Then a space was cleared in front of "The Iron Ram," and she was rowed forward with tremendous force, striking "The Long Serpent" amidships. The good ship creaked in all her beams; but as there was scarcely any wind no great damage was done. Einar Thambarskelver, who stood before the mast on "The Long Serpent," saw Earl Erik standing near the prow of "The Iron Ram," covered by many shields. He bent his bow and sent an arrow whizzing over his head, and in the next instant another, which flew between the earl's arm and his body. The earl, turning to the archer, Finn Eyvindsson, said: "Shoot that tall man on the forward deck."
[A]Löftingenis the elevated deck in the stern of an old war-galley, and corresponds very nearly to the poop royal of French and Spanish men-of-war of the thirteenth century.
[A]Löftingenis the elevated deck in the stern of an old war-galley, and corresponds very nearly to the poop royal of French and Spanish men-of-war of the thirteenth century.
Finn aimed an arrow at Einar just as he was bending his bow for a third shot at the earl; the arrow hit the bow in the middle, and it broke with a loud crash.
"What was it that broke?" asked Olaf.
"Norway from thy hands, my king," cried Einar.
"So great was not the breach, I hope," the king made answer; "take my bow and shoot with that."
He flung his own bow to the archer, who seized it, bent it double, and flung it back. "Too weak is the king's bow," he said.
Earl Erik was now preparing for the final attack, and he could not doubt its result.
King Olaf's men were in a desperate strait, from which no escape was possible. The king flung forth his spears, two at a time, from his station on the poop, and many men were transfixed by his keen shafts. He watched at the same time the combat on the forward deck, whither the earl was just directing his attack, and it seemed to him that his men made no headway.
"Do you wield your swords with so little strength," he cried, "since they bite so poorly?"
"No," answered a warrior; "but our swords are dull and broken."
The king then hastened to the forward deck, where there was a large chest of arms. He opened it and took out armfuls of bright, sharp swords, which he flung to his men. As he stooped down, the bloodtrickled down over his hands from under his armor. His men then knew that he was wounded, but it was no time then for nursing any one's wounds. The earl's men were storming forward, and the tired Norsemen fell in heaps, and could no longer keep them back. The arrows rained thick and fast about the king, and it was obvious he could not hold out much longer. He was visible to all; for he made no attempt to hide or shelter himself. One of his trusted men, Kolbjörn Stallare, who saw his danger, sprang upon the poop and placed himself at his side. His resemblance to the king had often been remarked upon; moreover, he was of the same height, and was similarly dressed. The storm of missiles was now directed against both, and, as they raised their shields, they were thickly fringed with arrows. The clash of arms, the groans of the dying, and the whizzing of flying missiles, filled the air. The king let his shield drop and looked out over the ship. There were but eight men alive, besides himself and Kolbjörn. He raised the shield above his head and leaped overboard. Kolbjörn followed his example, but was picked up by the earl's men, who mistook him for the king. That the latter was drowned, there can be no reasonable doubt, although there is a legend, which was fondly cherished, that he swam to the galley which Aastrid, Earl Sigvalde's wife, had sent out for his rescue. According to this story, he made a pilgrimage to Rome, and lived long as a hermit in the Holy Land.
King Olaf Tryggvesson was thirty-six years old when he died (1000). Queen Thyra, who, with goodreason, held herself responsible for his death, was inconsolable. When she came up on deck, after the battle, and saw the destruction she had wrought she broke into lamentation. Earl Erik was moved by her sorrow and spoke kindly to her, assuring her that if she would return to Norway she would be accorded the honor which was due to her as the widow of so great a king. She thanked him for his offer, but said that she had no heart to survive her lord. On the ninth day after the battle she died.
After King Olaf's death at Svolder, the allied princes divided his kingdom between them. To Earl Erik were given all the shires along the western coast from Finmark to Lindesness,[A]with the exception of seven, which were allotted to King Olaf the Swede. All the shires from Lindesness, including Agder, to the Swedish boundary, with the exception of Ranrike, came into the possession of Sweyn Forkbeard. Ranrike (which is now a part of Sweden) was given to the Swedish king, who again gave it, as well as his other possessions in Norway, in fief to his brother-in-law, Earl Sweyn, the brother of Earl Erik, on condition of his paying one half of the royal revenues to his feudal overlord, and placing a specified number of troops at his disposal in case of war. On similar conditions Earl Erik received the eastern shires, Raumarike and Vingulmark, in fief from Sweyn Forkbeard.
[A]Lindesness is the southernmost point in Norway.
[A]Lindesness is the southernmost point in Norway.
Though a man of ability and many noble qualities, Earl Erik never succeeded in asserting his sway over Norway as his father, Earl Haakon, had done; andEarl Sweyn could boast even less authority than his brother. In the Oplands semi-independent kings of the race of Harold the Fairhaired were still living; and in Rogaland Olaf Tryggvesson's brother-in-law, Erling Skjalgsson of Sole, refused to recognize the supremacy of either the earls or the kings whom they represented. He surrounded himself with a court which, in magnificence, equalled that of the earls, if it did not surpass it. Ninety warriors constituted his daily household, and when occasion demanded he kept 240 or more. Of thralls he kept thirty for his daily attendance, besides a large number who cultivated his lands. He was a good master, stimulating them to thrift and economy. He demanded of each a certain fixed amount of labor, and gave him a piece of land for cultivation. When the required task was over the thrall's time was his own, and he was at liberty to apply it for his own advantage. The products of his land he sold to his master at the market rates, and was thus enabled to buy his freedom within one, two, or three years. Over his freedmen Erling continued to exercise a supervising care, employing them at wages or on shares in the fisheries, in the reclaiming of land from the forests, or in other branches of industry.
Clinging, as he did, tenaciously to the authority which Olaf Tryggvesson had conferred upon him, Erling could not avoid coming into collision with the authority of the earls. He exacted a land-tax from the peasants of Rogaland, and, as Earl Erik did the same, the poor landowners had to pay a double tax, unless they were prepared to offer resistance.
SHUTTLES OF IRON AND OF WHALEBONE; AND WEIGHTS FOR THE LOOM.SHUTTLES OF IRON AND OF WHALEBONE; AND WEIGHTS FOR THE LOOM.
But both the earl and Erling were too powerful to make such a course advisable. It is, indeed, strange that Erik, with his great connections abroad, should have tolerated the defiance of this small potentate without in some way trying to break his power. It is true, Erling had a large number of mighty kinsmen and supporters in many of the coast-shires; and he would have been able to make a strong resistance. But it is scarcely credible that he could have maintained himself against Earl Erik, if the latter had seriously resolved to punish him. In fact, Earl Erik, although his early life had been passed in the tumult of war, was essentially a conciliatory character. A mighty warrior he was when duty or diplomatic necessity forced him to fight; but he hesitated to draw his sword, except on extreme provocation. It was his misfortune, by his birth and the circumstances which brought him into power, to represent an age and a régime which were destined to pass away. It was the so-called "heroic" age—that is, the age of turbulent individualism, opposed to the modern conception of the state. It is obvious that Erik had no sympathy with the feudalism instituted by the conquests of Harold the Fairhaired; probably he did not comprehend the progressive idea which dignified King Harold's ambition and made him the conscious or unconscious agent of advancing civilization. It is proof enough of this to state, that Erik allowed the dependencies of Norway, the Orkneys, and the Shetland Isles to detach themselves from the motherland, and made no attempt to force them back to their allegiance. There was no inspiring tradition in his family, as in that of Harold the Fairhaired, demanding a great and united kingdom; but, on the contrary, a local separatistic tradition, identifying him with the greatness and fame of a special locality. To have carried out this tradition completely, the Earls Erik and Sweyn ought to have remained pagans as their father was before them. They seem, indeed, to have been conscious of a certain inconsistency in accepting Christianity, for they made not the faintest attempt to assert their faith in their relation to the people, or to check the relapse into paganism, which became very prevalent during their reign.
Quite in keeping with the general reactionary character of the earls' government, was the revival of the viking cruises which, during the reign of Olaf Tryggvesson, had been diminishing in frequency. Earl Erik himself had been a valiant viking in his youth, and probably could see no harm in the careless and predatory life in which the old Germanic paganism found its most characteristic expression. A great impetus must have been given to this mode of life by Sweyn Forkbeard's repeated expeditions to England, in which a large number of Norsemen participated. It makes little difference if the aggressors were nominally Christians; their actions were an outburst of the old, tribal pagan spirit, which respected no right but that of might.
It was natural that the earls, if they expected to make their dominion permanent, should endeavor to extend their connections beyond Tröndelag. The strength of a government in those days dependedlargely upon the support which it received among the chieftains or tribal aristocracy, whose sentiments were usually reflected by the peasants. It was therefore necessary in some way to conciliate the late adherents of Olaf Tryggvesson, whose influence upon public opinion could be utilized to advantage. It may have been some such consideration which restrained Earl Erik from attacking Erling Skjalgsson. It is obvious that the overtures which he made to Einar Thambarskelver had the same end in view. We have seen how the young archer came within an inch of ending the earl's days at Svolder, thereby exciting the admiration of Erik for his skill and bravery. After the battle, the earl, with his usual generosity, spared his life, and sought in many ways to secure his friendship. He married him to his sister, the high-minded Bergljot, and gave him large fiefs, so that no chieftain in Tröndelag could rival him in power.
Toward his brother, Sweyn, Earl Erik behaved with the same magnanimity that he showed toward all who had claims on him. Sweyn was dissatisfied because of the disparity in their positions; he ruling over one third of the country as the vassal of the Swedish king, while Erik held two thirds as an independent sovereign. These complaints were repeated with growing importunity, until Erik resolved to abandon the government. He called together the chieftains and the mightiest peasants of the country, and abdicated (1015) in favor of his son Haakon and his brother Sweyn, between whom he divided his share of the land in equal portions. As Haakonwas not yet of full age, Einar Thambarskelver was appointed his guardian. In the autumn of the year 1015, Earl Erik set sail for England, and assisted Knut the Mighty in the subjugation of that country. He was joined later by his son Haakon, who was expelled from Norway by Olaf Haroldsson, and was compelled to swear that he would never renew his claims to the kingdom. Earl Erik died in England, from the effect of a surgical operation, in 1023 or 1024. Before their expulsion, the Earls Sweyn and Haakon made peace with Erling Skjalgsson, confirming him in the possession of the fiefs which he had received from Olaf Tryggvesson, embracing all the coast-shires from the Sogne-fiord to Lindesness. To cement their friendship, Earl Sweyn gave his daughter, Sigrid,[A]in marriage to Erling's son, Aslak.
[A]Her name is differently given as Sigrid and Gunhild.
[A]Her name is differently given as Sigrid and Gunhild.
It was during the reign of the earls that the North American continent was first visited by the Norsemen. An Icelander named Bjarne Herjulfsson, during a voyage to Greenland (986), was blown out of his course, and discovered, while sailing northward, an unknown land on his left. He concluded that it could not be Greenland, as there were no glaciers, but only low, wooded heights sloping gently toward the ocean. On his arrival in Greenland, Bjarne told of the new country he had seen, but was much ridiculed because he had not gone ashore and explored it. His story made a great impression, however, upon the adventurous Leif, son of Erik the Red. He bought Bjarne's ship, and, with a crew ofthirty-five men, set sail for the unknown shore in the West (1000). The first land he saw was on his right as he sailed southward. It was full of glaciers and had no grass. He called it Helluland, because it seemed, at the foot of the glaciers, to be one flat expanse.[A]This must have been the present Labrador. Continuing his southward course, Leif came to a country which was well wooded, and had long, smooth beaches. He called it Markland (Woodland), and the supposition is that it was Nova Scotia. With a stiff northeaster, he made considerable headway, and came, after another day's voyage, to an island where a river flowed into the sea. As it was ebb-tide he could not land, but so eager were the men to explore the country, that they jumped overboard and waded ashore. The statement that the sun rose in this region, on the shortest day of the year, at half-past seven and set at half-past four, indicates a latitude of 41° 24' 10"; Leif, accordingly, must have landed somewhere in the neighborhood of Cape Cod or Fall River, Mass. He found the country possessed of many advantages. It was so mild in the winter that cattle would require no stable-feeding. The rivers abounded in salmon and the woods in game. A German, named Tyrker, became so enthusiastic over the discovery of grapes, that he relapsed into his native tongue, and was supposed, by the crew to be intoxicated. Leif and his men put up some booths and spent the winter in the new land, which they called Vinland, but set sail the following spring for Greenland.
[A]Helle, in Norwegian, means a great flat stone.
[A]Helle, in Norwegian, means a great flat stone.
It is evident from the description here given that there is either some mistake in regard to the latitude, or the climate of New England must have grown severer during the last nine centuries. Cattle could scarcely be left in the open air in the Cape Cod region nowadays. Nor do grapes of any choice variety grow wild in the chill blasts which now gambol about the Massachusetts coast; and the tart fox grape, it seems, could scarcely rouse enthusiasm even in the breast of a German.
A second expedition to Vinland was undertaken in 1006 by the Icelander Thorfinn Karlsevne and his wife Gudrid. Among their followers, who numbered 160, were Erik the Red's son Thorwald and his daughter Freydis. This was the first expedition which was undertaken with a view to colonizing the country. Cattle were therefore taken along, and preparations made for a permanent settlement. Thorfinn found without difficulty the booths abandoned by Leif, and himself added to their number. A strange people, whom the Norsemen calledSkraellings, came to them in light boats made of skin and offered furs in exchange for cloth, ornaments, and weapons. Karlsevne, however, refused to sell them weapons; and when, during the negotiations, a bull came out of the woods and began to roar, the Skraellings became frightened and hastened away. From that time forth they became hostile to the settlers and attacked them repeatedly, killing several of their number. This perpetual state of insecurity disheartened the survivors, and after a sojourn of three years in Vinland, they returned to Greenland.
We have seen that Christianity did not advance in Norway during the mild and lax government of the earls. Olaf Tryggvesson, with all his zeal and vigor, could not in the short space of five years eradicate paganism from the Norsemen's hearts; and after his death a great number of those whom he had compelled to profess the Christian name relapsed into their former practices. It was not until King Olaf Haroldsson by his life, and still more by his death, took the imagination of the Norsemen captive, that Christianity became securely established in the land.
Olaf was the son of Harold Grönske and a grandson of Björn the Merchant, who was slain by his brother, Erik Blood-axe. It was accordingly a new branch of the race of Harold the Fairhaired who with him ascended the throne. His father, as we have seen, was burned to death by Sigrid the Haughty, whom he had the presumption to woo, regardless of the fact that he had a wife named Aasta, who was then expecting her confinement. Olaf was born in the house of his maternal grandfather and passed his childhood with Sigurd Syr,king in Ringerike, whom his mother married. Sigurd Syr was a grandson of Sigurd the Giant, a son of Harold the Fairhaired and Snefrid, and had accordingly as much right to the throne as Olaf Tryggvesson, who was then reigning. He was, however, a quiet and unpretentious man, who was contented to raise his crops and superintend his large estates, without troubling himself with ambitious projects. During the infancy of his step-son, Sigurd Syr entertained Olaf Tryggvesson at his house and was induced by him to accept Christianity. It is said that King Olaf on this occasion stood sponsor at the baptism of his namesake and kinsman.
When Olaf Haraldsson was ten years old, his step-father begged him, one day, to go and saddle his horse for him. Olaf went to the stable and put the saddle on a large billy-goat, which he led up to the door where Sigurd stood waiting. When questioned as to the meaning of this joke, he replied that the billy-goat was good enough for Sigurd, who resembled other kings about as much as the goat resembled a war-horse.
In his games Olaf was hot-tempered and imperious, proud of his birth, and determined to assert himself above every one. At the age of twelve he went on viking cruises and distinguished himself greatly by his prowess and daring. He ravaged the coasts of Sweden in order to avenge his father's death, and during a cruise to England helped the sons of Ethelred against the Danes (1008). This wild, roaming life, with its constant vicissitudes, matured his character, giving him a wide experience of men and developing his inborn faculty for leadership. The departure of Earl Erik from Norway in 1015 gave him the desired opportunity to assert his claim to the throne, and he lost no time in embarking for the land of his birth. He proceeded in this matter, however, with characteristic caution. Knowing that the sentiment of the people toward him would have to determine his action, he did not wish to commit himself without having ascertained beforehand the chances of success. He therefore left his galleys of war behind him in England and sailed across the North Sea with two merchant-ships. As he disembarked, his foot slipped and he fell upon the beach.
"There, I fell," he cried, dreading, probably, the bad omen.
"No," answered one of his men, "thou didst plant thy foot in Norway's soil."
He sailed southward along the coast, no one knowing him or suspecting his errand. One day, as he was sitting in his tent on the beach, whittling a spear handle, a peasant entered and looked hard at him.
"Who art thou?" he asked.
"I am a merchant," said Olaf.
"Likely enough," rejoined the peasant, "art thou a merchant; but I know the eyes of Olaf Tryggvesson, and I believe that thou wilt soon meet Earl Haakon and win a great victory."
"If it be true, as thou sayest," responded the prince, "thou mayst come to me and thou shalt profit by my victory."
The shrewdness of Olaf's plan to avoid all warlikedisplay was demonstrated by the issue. In Saudung Sound he succeeded in capturing the young Earl Haakon, who, without thought of danger, was sailing along with a single ship and a small retinue. When Olaf saw him he marvelled at his beauty. The earl was but seventeen years old, tall, and well shaped. His hair fell in golden curls upon his shoulders and shone like silk. About his head he wore a fillet of gold.
"It is true what is said about you and your race," said Olaf, "you are indeed very beautiful. But now your luck has forsaken you."
"I see no sign that our luck has forsaken us," answered the youth proudly; "even if such a thing as this may happen. It is ever so, that sometimes the one is victorious and sometimes the other. I myself am young and inexperienced, and I was expecting no breach of the peace, and could therefore make no defence. Another time, perhaps, I shall do better."
"But art thou not aware," retorted Olaf, "that from this time forth there can be no question either of victory or defeat in thy case?"
"That all depends upon you," said the earl, fearlessly.
"What wilt thou do, if I let thee depart unscathed?"
"Let me know what you demand."
"Only this, that thou shalt leave the country and renounce thy dominion over it. And, moreover, thou shalt swear an oath that thou wilt never wage war against me."
The earl having no choice agreed to these terms, and forthwith sailed to his uncle, King Knut, in England.
Before taking up the combat with Earl Sweyn, Olaf found it advisable to sound the popular sentiment and to secure supporters among the powerful peasants and chieftains. To this end he visited his step-father, Sigurd Syr, in Ringerike, and asked his counsel. The story of his reception by his mother, Aasta, which is circumstantially related by Snorre, is full of vivid details, and throws a strong light upon the customs and manners of the age. When the rumor of her son's approach reached Aasta, she arose and prepared to give him a fitting reception. She ordered four maid-servants to drape the walls with hangings of cloth and likewise to cover the benches. Tables were put up and an abundance of food and beer was provided. Messengers were sent in haste to invite guests from far and near; and each was requested to appear in his best clothes; and to those who had no good clothes, fitting apparel was given. King Sigurd was, as usual, in the field superintending his laborers. It was just in the midst of the harvest, and every hour was precious. He wore a blue tunic, of coarse cloth, blue breeches, high shoes, a gray cloak, and a broad-brimmed gray hat. In his hand he carried a staff with a gilt silver head. When his wife's messengers brought him the tidings of his step-son's return, he probably did not relish the interruption. Still less was he pleased with the admonition which they brought him in her name, that he prove himself, on this occasion, as a true descendant of Harold the Fairhaired. He made a little speech in the field, in which he cloaked his ill-humor as well as he might. Then he sat down and exchanged his every-day garments for the splendid attire which Aasta had sent him. While the field-hands stood about staring, he pulled on a silken tunic, breeches to match, and Cordovan boots, with spurs of gold. A sword of beautiful workmanship was buckled about his loins, a gilt helmet put upon his head, and a scarlet cloak hung over his shoulders. Thus arrayed and with a train of thirty attendants he sallied forth to meet his step-son. As he rode down over the fields, he saw Olaf and his train of 120 warriors approaching from the other side. They marched up into the court-yard with waving banner, and there Sigurd greeted the returned viking and welcomed him home. His mother kissed him, invited him to stay with her as long as he wished, and placed all that was hers—land, people, and money—at his disposal.
In the family council that was held, after the feast of welcome was over, Sigurd Syr pledged his aid to Olaf, and promised to employ his influence in his favor. On the other hand, he cautioned him to proceed with prudence, and dissuaded him from measuring strength with Earl Sweyn, until he had a sufficient force of adherents. In the end he did not question his success.
"The multitude," he said, "always love change. Thus it proved to be, when Olaf Tryggvesson arrived. All became fond of him, although, to be sure, he did not long enjoy his kingdom."
To this the proud Aasta replied that she would rather have her son die young, after a brief and glorious career, like Olaf Tryggvesson, than die old, after a long and deedless one, like Sigurd Syr.
Among the small shire-kings, who lived like rich landholders in different parts of the Oplands, there were many who were descendants of Harold the Fairhaired. All these Sigurd Syr summoned to a meeting, made them acquainted with Olaf's design, and begged them to assist in its accomplishment. One of them, named Rörek, refused, declaring that the people and the shire-kings were usually better off the farther away the overlord was. The kings of Denmark and Sweden, in whose names the earls had governed, were very good rulers, because they were too far away to do much mischief. Rörek was, therefore, inclined to let well enough alone, and he advised the rest to do the same. His brother Ring spoke in quite a different spirit.
"I would fain once more see our race at the helm in the land," he said; * * * "if our kinsman, Olaf, becomes overlord over the kingdom, that man will be best off who has the greatest claim upon his friendship."
The other shire-kings were of the same opinion, and all pledged their kinsman their support. The people were immediately summoned to athing, at which Olaf eloquently affirmed his right to the throne and was proclaimed king. In return he promised, according to ancient usage, to rule in accordance with the laws, and to protect the land against external enemies. A great multitude of warriors throngedforward to enroll themselves under his banner, and his following became so great as to cause him inconvenience. For food was not abundant, and the levying of supplies from the country might easily alienate the people. Again, if he meant to surprise Earl Sweyn, who was at that time sojourning at Steinker in Tröndelag, it was important to attract as little attention as possible, and to choose unfrequented routes over mountains and through wildernesses. Nevertheless, he succeeded in penetrating into Orkdale[A]with about 360 men, and to induce an army of 900 peasants, which had been sent against him by Einar Thambarskelver, to swear him allegiance. Earl Sweyn, hearing of this disaster, fled southward to Frosten and escaped only by a stratagem from falling into his pursuer's hands. The Trönders were now summoned to meet Olaf at thethingand compelled to recognize him as their king (1015). But they did this reluctantly, being strongly attached to the race of the earls of Hlade. Many of the most powerful chieftains, among them Einar Thambarskelver, were absent from thething, preferring to make common cause with the earl.
[A]Orkdale is a part of Tröndelag.
[A]Orkdale is a part of Tröndelag.
In spite of the insecurity of his position, King Olaf determined to celebrate Christmas in Nidaros, the town founded by Olaf Tryggvesson, and later known as Drontheim. The earls, caring little for commerce, had allowed this trading-post to go to ruin; and of its former prosperity there was scarcely a vestige left. Olaf, emphasizing here as ever his rôle as the legitimate heir of his great kinsman, began to repairthe dilapidated houses and arranged himself as well as he could with his retinue. He might, however, have saved himself the trouble; for no sooner had he moved his goods up from the ships than Earl Sweyn and Einar Thambarskelver descended upon him in the night with 2,400 men, and would have made an end of his career, if his sentinels had not warned him in the nick of time of the impending danger. He made his escape southward to the Oplands, where he was again well received by his step-father. His one endeavor now was to raise an army large enough to crush his rival. Sigurd Syr's popularity and influence stood him in good stead, and many chieftains who had hitherto held aloof were induced to join him. Among these was Ketil Calf of Ringeness. The remainder of the winter was occupied in ship-building and in securing resources for a decisive campaign. It was at this time that the great galley "Karlshoved" (Churl's Head) was built, the prow of which was adorned with a man's head, which the king himself had carved. In the spring, as soon as the ice broke up, he sailed out of the Folden Fjord with about twenty ships and from 1,500 to 2,000 men.
Earl Sweyn, in the meanwhile, had strained all his powers to meet the emergency. With the aid of Erling Skjalgsson of Sole and Einar Thambarskelver he had got together a fleet of forty-five well-equipped ships, manned with about 3,000 warriors. With this formidable force he met Olaf at Nessje, a head-land on the coast of Vestfold. It was Palm Sunday (March 25, 1016), and, according to the story,Olaf sent a messenger to the earl requesting him to grant a truce until the next day. The earl, however, who had no scruples on account of the holiday, refused the request, and the battle commenced. As was the custom in naval battles, the ships were tied together with ropes, "The Churl's-Head" occupying the centre and the smaller crafts the extreme wings. On board the king's ship were 120 picked men, all clad in ring armor and with French helmets on their heads. Their shields were white, with crosses of red or blue or gilt; crosses of the same colors also adorned their helmets. The king instructed his men to appear at first to act on the defensive, saving their spears until the enemy had thrown away theirs. This stratagem proved effective; for, as the king's battle-array bore down upon that of the earl, he was received with a storm of missiles. His men, however, were only at pains to protect themselves, thereby redoubling the martial zeal of their opponents, who imagined they were afraid. Then, when spears and arrows grew scarce on the earl's side, a vehement onslaught from the king met with no adequate resistance. Olaf took advantage of the momentary surprise to steer up to the earl's ship and engage him at close quarters. The fight there was long and bitter, and men fell in heaps on both sides. At last Earl Sweyn's men began to waver, and one by one the ships were cut loose and prepared to flee. But Olaf's men held them fast with boat-hooks until Sweyn ordered the prows to be cut off; even thus he would not have escaped with his life, if his brother-in-law, Einar Thambarskelver, had not flungan anchor aboard to him, and by means of the rope attached to it hauled him out of the line of battle. For all that, he managed to collect his ships further out in the fjord, and for a while it looked as if a fresh attack was imminent. Sigurd Syr urged Olaf not to let the opportunity escape of utterly destroying Erling Skjalgsson and Einar Thambarskelver.
"For," said he, "I well foresee that thou with thy character and ambition, wilt scarcely ever reach the point, when thou canst trust those magnates who are accustomed to bid defiance to chieftains."
Before Olaf had time to answer, the earl's fleet suddenly scattered, and the opportunity for destroying the chiefs was lost. The king's first act after the battle was to kneel upon the strand and thank God for the victory.
Earl Sweyn, though he had yet a large following and sufficient resources to continue the struggle, sailed eastward to Sweden where he was well received by his brother-in-law, King Olaf the Swede. He seems to have contemplated a fresh campaign against Norway, and was encouraged by the Swedish king to avenge his defeat. Instead of that, however, he undertook during the following summer a warlike expedition into Russia, probably to replenish his treasury, was taken ill and died on the way (1016).
Olaf availed himself of the earl's absence to extort oaths of allegiance from the peasantry along the coast; he hesitated, however, for some reason to attack Erling Skjalgsson and passed by the provinces which he held in fief without landing. He returned to Nidaros, rebuilt the ruined "king's hall," and theChurch of St. Clement. From his sojourn abroad he had learned a lesson in regard to the advantages of commercial intercourse, and he encouraged merchants and artisans to take up their abode in the resuscitated city. He had small confidence in the good-will of the Trönders; and therefore liked to surround himself with men who were free from local ties and traditions. The death of Earl Sweyn, however, as soon as the rumor of it reached Norway, changed the situation. The Trönders, having now no chieftain of their own, began to send the king friendly messages and in various ways to court his favor. Presently he felt himself safe in summoning chiefs and peasantry to meet him at thething, and his formal recognition as king followed in all the shires of Tröndelag. But it will be remembered that four of these shires, besides the adjacent provinces of Nordmöre, Raumsdale, and Söndmöre, had after the battle of Svolder been awarded to the king of Sweden, in whose behalf Earl Sweyn had governed them. A great wrath, therefore, possessed King Olaf the Swede, when he heard that the Trönders had sworn allegiance to "Olaf the Big." This was the nickname which he had conferred upon his opponent on account of his stoutness and burly frame. He could never refer to him except with oaths and opprobrious terms. His threats and insults, however, brought no response, and finally he determined to send a party of tax-gatherers into his former provinces. Having vainly solicited the tax, they sought an audience with King Olaf, who commanded them to go home and invite the King of Sweden to meet him at the boundarybetween the two countries. "Then," he said, "he may, if he chooses, come to an agreement with me, on the condition that each keeps the kingdom to which his birthright entitles him."
Twelve of the tax-gatherers who ventured to disobey his command, were captured and hanged. Such an insult the Swedish king could not allow to pass unavenged, and Olaf made preparations to receive him. He built a rude fortress on a headland projecting into the river Glommen, near the cataract Sarpen. In connection with these fortifications he founded a city called Borg or Sarpsborg, built a "king's hall," and offered protection to traders who came to settle there. The expected invasion from Sweden would naturally be directed through this district, and the site of the new city was therefore chosen chiefly for its strategic value. For a while, however, no decisive action was taken by the king of Sweden, who contented himself with killing Olaf's tax-gatherers in Jemteland in retaliation. The fact was that the feud was purely a personal one between the two kings, while their subjects, having no grudge against each other, desired peace. The king's friend and marshal, Björn Stallare, was induced to speak in the people's cause, and was finally commissioned to go as Olaf's embassador to Sweden, proposing peace on the conditions already named. But this embassy involved great danger, as Olaf the Swede, in his fury, did not even permit the name of his enemy to be mentioned in his presence. Björn therefore sent his friend, the Icelander, Hjalte Skeggesson, in advance to prepare the way for him, while he himself tarriedwith Ragnvald, the earl of Vestergötland, who had married the sister of Olaf Tryggvesson. Ragnvald's foster-father was the mighty peasant, Thorgny Thorgnysson, the law-man.[A]By securing the friendship of the earl, Björn accordingly assured himself of protection, in case the king should attempt violence against him. At the great winterthingin Upsala, where the king was present, he suddenly rose out of the throng of the people and said in a loud voice; so that all could hear him: "King Olaf sends me hither to offer the king of Sweden peace and the boundary which from ancient times has been between Norway and Sweden."
[A]Laga-madris not a lawyer in the modern sense, but rather a kind of judge. The office had a slightly different significance in Sweden from what it acquired in Norway when introduced there by King Sverre.
[A]Laga-madris not a lawyer in the modern sense, but rather a kind of judge. The office had a slightly different significance in Sweden from what it acquired in Norway when introduced there by King Sverre.
When Olaf the Swede heard the name of King Olaf, he first supposed that the speaker referred to himself; but when he began to see the connection, he rose and called out, in great wrath, that the man who was speaking should be silent, as such speech would not be tolerated. Björn then sat down; but instantly Earl Ragnvald arose and said that his people had suffered greatly from the interruption of commercial intercourse with Norway, and were all of opinion that the king should accept the proposal of Olaf the Big; and, as guaranty of peace, give him his daughter, Ingegerd, in marriage. The king, on hearing this, declared, angrily, that he would hear of no peace; he called the earl a traitor who deserved to be driven out of the country, and berated him for having married a woman who sympathizedwith the king's enemies. In the hope that the matter would now be dropped, he resumed his seat. Then up rose Thorgny the Lawman. He was very large of stature, gray-haired, and broad-chested, and his beard fell like a cataract down to his girdle. The moment he was on his feet, the people thronged forward with great noise and rattle of arms. "Quite different are the kings of Sweden now," Thorogny began, "from what they were in earlier times. Thorgny, my grandfather, could remember Erik Eimundsson, and told of him that, while he was in his best years, he went in warfare every summer to different lands, and subjugated Finnland, Karelen, Esthonia, Kurland, and many other eastern lands. Men may yet see the earthworks and other great enterprises he undertook; and yet he was not too proud to listen to people who had necessary things to say to him. Thorgny, my father, was for a long time with King Björn, and knew his manner of behaving. In Björn's time, the kingdom was very powerful and suffered no loss; he was very easy to get along with, to his friends. I can myself remember King Erik the Victorious, and I was with him in many a war. He increased the realm of the Swedes and bravely defended it. He, too, accepted good counsel from us. But this king whom we now have will suffer no man to speak to him, unless he speaks that which he likes. This he insists upon with all his might; but he suffers provinces to be lost for want of briskness and enterprise. He wishes to conquer the realm of Norway—a thing which no Swedish king has hitherto desired,—and this causesmany a man disquietude. Now, it is the wish of us, the peasants, that thou, King Olaf, makest peace with Olaf the Big, the King of Norway, and givest him thy daughter, Ingegerd, in marriage. * * * If thou wilt not consent to this, then we will attack thee and kill thee, and no longer suffer breach of the peace and breach of law from thee. Thus our forefathers did in days of old. They flung five kings down into a swamp at the Morathing, because they were too inflated with pride—just as thou art. Tell us now, in this hour, which of these conditions thou wilt choose."
The peasants signified loudly, by rattle of arms, their approval of this sentiment; and the king, quite overawed, rose and said that he would yield and let the peasants have their way in this matter. The conditions of peace were thus accepted, and the time for the wedding was fixed. Björn and his men returned to Norway and received valuable gifts from King Olaf, for having successfully accomplished a difficult mission. Unhappily, however, the Swedish king, as soon as the danger was removed, began to reconsider his promise; and it gave him, no doubt, satisfaction to hear of his enemy's discomfort when, after vainly waiting for his bride on the boundary, he returned to Sarpsborg (1018). It did not occur to him that his own subjects, who had demanded the cessation of hostilities, might resent his undignified trick; and he was both surprised and alarmed when a revolt broke out, which came very near costing him his crown. Once more he had to make concessions, promise to make peace with theking of Norway, and accept his twelve-year-old son, Anund Jacob, as co-regent. King Olaf, of Norway, had, in the meanwhile, contrary to the will of her father, married Aastrid, a younger sister of Ingegerd. At the peace of Konghelle (1019), where the two kings finally met, this marriage was recognized by the king of Sweden, and friendly relations were established. The province of Jemteland remained in the possession of Olaf of Norway.
This is the first time that Norway, as an integral kingdom, treats with a foreign power. The kings of Sweden and Denmark who claimed descent from Ragnar Lodbrok and through him from the gods, had never until now recognized the descendants of Harold the Fairhaired as rulers of a united realm and their own equals in dignity. Norway was to them merely a collection of small, scattered communities which, having once been united, made haste to fall to pieces again, and had at different times recognized the overlordship of the kings of Sweden and Denmark. The reluctance of the Swedish king to give his daughter in marriage to Olaf Haroldsson is therefore quite comprehensible.
Olaf Haroldsson was, undoubtedly, the first king, since Harold the Fairhaired, who had any clear conception of a national unity. The thought may have been present in the mind of Olaf Trygvesson, but he died too soon to carry it out. Olaf Haroldsson, on the other hand, set to work with deliberate purpose to unite all Norway under the cross of Christ. With 300 armed men he travelled from shire to shire, and severely punished those who secretly or openly sacrificed to the old gods or indulged in any pagan practice. Some were outlawed and their property confiscated, others were maimed, and a few hanged or beheaded. Fugitives spread the report of the king's violence; and alarm and resentment filled the minds of all who were yet devoted to the Asa faith. Five shire-kings in the Oplands, all of whom had given allegiance to Olaf, formed a conspiracy, under the leadership of King Rörek, to murder him. But Ketil Calf of Ringeness got wind of their purpose, and hastened with the tidings to Olaf, who crossed the lake Mjösen in the night, surprised the conspirators, and captured them. Rörek was blinded, Gudröd, the king of Hadeland and Raumarike, had his tongue cut out, and the others were punished with similar severity. The death of Sigurd Syr (1018) called Olaf to Ringerike where he spent some days arranging the affairs of his widowed mother. Aasta had three sons by Sigurd Syr—Guttorm, Halfdan, and Harold. These she brought into the hall to make them acquainted with their half-brother, the king. Olaf, it is told, put Guttorm and Halfdan on his knees, and made such a fierce face at them that they grew frightened and ran away. He then took the youngest boy, Harold, and stared at him with the same stern expression. The boy, instead of running away, made a face as stern as the king's and stared back at him. Olaf, to test him further, pulled his hair; but Harold, nothing daunted, retaliated by pulling the king's beard. The next day Olaf and Aasta stood watching the boys at play. Guttorm and Halfdan had built barns and stables, and madefigures representing cows and sheep; while Harold had started a fleet of chips and shavings on a pond, and delighted in seeing them drift before the wind. The king asked him what they were meant to represent.
"Ships of war," answered the boy.
"I should not wonder, kinsman," said Olaf, "if some day thou wouldst command ships of war."
Guttorm was now called and asked what he desired most of all.
"Land," he replied.
"How much?" asked the king.
"I wish," said the boy, "to sow as much every summer as would cover the headland that sticks out into the water there."
The headland included ten large farms.
"Much grain could grow there," observed the king.
Halfdan declared that what he wished most of all was cows, and so many of them that in drinking they would cover the shores of Guttorm's headland.
"But what do you wish, Harold?" asked Olaf, turning to the youngest boy.
"Men,"[A]answered Harold.