Now first of all, to drive scholastic folly,I'll bring thee to a jovial set, and jolly.Goethe's Faust.
Now first of all, to drive scholastic folly,I'll bring thee to a jovial set, and jolly.
Goethe's Faust.
The different Chores have adopted their names, exactly like the early landsmanschafts, from the different German nations. Yet are these, as we have already hinted, no longer so scrupulous in the reception of the new members as those were, to which none could belong but the actual natives of that country whose appellation the union bore. If any man would still persuade himself that the ancient practice is yet continued, he must construct in his own head a very peculiar geography. As these unions bear the names of the different nations, so the members of each wore publicly their respective colours, which, since the interdict against them, of course, is no longer the case. These colours were not only displayed on the cap, but also on a broad band which was worn over the breast. The prohibition of the Chore colours was a severe blow to the unions, and the students sought in various ways waggishly to surmount it. Instead, therefore, of one student, as before, wearing the three united colours, as it might be green, white, and black,--each Chore having, for the most part, like its nation, three,--now went three students arm in arm, each of them wearing one of the three colours, so that the whole three colours were combined in three friends. This attempt, however, led its authors no further than into the student-prison.
The principal of the regular Chores are--
Besides this, each Chore has its sign, or token; that is, certain letters curiously interwoven, with which it signs its documents, and which is known to all the other Chores. The number of these Chores is not always the same in the universities. Now one dissolves itself on account of the fewness of its members; and now a new one shows itself. When a number of students find themselves together, who regard themselves numerous enough to constitute a Chore, and are desirous to become such, the first thing which they proceed to do is to elect their leaders. These, as the representatives of the new union, appear before the S. C.--that is, the senior convent, or assembly of seniors--which is the highest tribunal of the students for the settlement of all affairs occurring amongst them. This tribunal inquires into the sufficiency of the aspirants, and if the result is satisfactory, gives its consent. The Chore appears as such at the nextAllgemeine. By theAllgemeineis understood the meeting of the whole united Chores, which takes place from time to time in anAllgemeine Kneipe, or general drinking company, in the same manner as each particular Chore holds, every evening, its meeting, where the members drink, sing, and entertain each other. In thisAllgemeine, or general meeting, the members of the different Chores have a fine opportunity to pick quarrels with one another,--in student phrase, totouchireneach other; that is, to give offence, so that the swords may not rust. The newly established Chore now takes the customary course. It strikes up a friendly alliance with one of the already existing Chores, in which its members find the greatest number of their acquaintances, at the same time that it assumes a hostile attitude to another. It falls into dispute with the hostile Chore, and what is called theChore-hatze, a regular Chore-baiting, breaks out; that is, there ensues a general challenging between the members of the two Chores.
The duels thus originated are fought in succession, and the Chore is said topawkitself out; that is, to drum or fight itself forward. Hereby it testifies its mastership with its weapons, and intense is the interest which hangs on the result of thePaw-kereien, or fights, between the leaders of each Chore. The conquerors have their victory celebrated by their companions the same evening in the Kneipe, where they triumph over their antagonists. When a Chore has thus proved itself, it holds itsAntritt-Commers--entrance, or opening commerce, or festivity, of which more hereafter; and to which the new Chore invites the leaders of the other Chores. The qualifications by which a member of a Chore can raise himself in it, are practice in the exercise of arms, bodily and intellectual dexterity in general; a good stomach, that he may be able to carry plenty of beer; and, besides these, a powerful voice is a grand requisite. As observed, the members of the Chore elect their leaders. The first of these is theSenior. He must possess the qualifications we have mentioned in a preeminent degree, and must have already passed through the other offices of the Chore, as here following. He possesses a great and scarcely limited power, and his duty in return is to advance every where the interests of the Chore, to exert himself for its credit in connexion with and in reference to the other Chores, and thus to maintain its respect, so as much as possible to raise its splendour and reputation; in short, he must, on every occasion, defend the honour of the Chore. He who possesses the next place of honour is called theConsenior, orZweiter Chargirte, that is, holder of the second charge; and next to him stands theDritte Chargirte, or third officer. TheConsenioris, as it were, war-minister and general in the same person. All that relates to weapons and their use belongs to his department; he has therefore the care of the Fecht-boden, or fencing-school, and the weapons of the duel. He must be a good swordsman, as he is bound to act as second in every occurring case, when any one fights with the weapons of the Chore, and no other able swordsman is ready to do the duty of his office; he must be careful to have the weapons of the Chore, that is, an armoury of all things which belong to the different species of duel, always in the best condition. TheDritte Chargirterepresents the finance-minister. He has to manage all the money affairs of the Chore, and the Chore treasury is under his superintendence. This is, in fact, a treasury, into which every member of the Chore pays a determinate sum, out of which all expenses of the union are defrayed. The remainder of the members of the Chore are styled Chore-Burschen, andRenoncen; and to these, lastly, add themselves theMit-kneipanten, or boon-companions, who belong not properly to the Chore itself. These are such students as join themselves to the Chore, frequent the meetings at theKneipe, and take part in their other pleasures, without involving themselves with the affairs of the Chore. They maintain a friendly intercourse with the students of the Chore, augment the appearance of the Chore by their numbers, and in return enjoy from the union a certain degree of protection, with whose weapons they also fight. They pay less for the loan of the weapons than the other students and are allowed to use them for a fixed sum for a whole course, that is, for the half-year.
On the very lowest step of the Chore stands theRenoncen, who has neither seat nor voice in theChore-Convent, or official meeting of the Chore. TheRenoncenare for the most part harassed with menial services. They must convey the weapons--which are usually kept in the place of contest, locked up, those of each Chore in its own chest--in case of danger from the authorities, or of any necessity, to a place of safety; when there is singing in theKneipe, they must hand round theCommers-Books, the song-books; and besides this, on occasion of every duel that is to be fought with the weapons of the Chore, they must go at night, after theKneipeis over, to the house of the Pawk-doctor, the surgeon of the students, who is always in attendance at the duels--and announce to him the fact, with the time at which it is to take place. In all the Chores they are bound to appear at theKneipe, on certain days, and failing in this respect, are mulct in a pecuniary fine. In different Chores this attendance of theRenonceis different: in some, it must be daily; in others, three or four times a week; and is not to be omitted without substantial reason.
Between theRenoncenand theChore-Burschen, stands theFuchs-major--the greater Fox--who is always the oldestRenonce, and has the right to go into theChore-Convent, but is not entitled there to speak. If theRenoncewill advance to the rank ofChore-Bursch, it is indispensable that he shall have fought three duels.
TheChore-Burschhas this peculiar duty; he must settle and determine with the strangeKneipe; that is, when a duel is to be fought with the weapons of his Chore, he must seek out him who has challenged, in hisKneipe, and announce to him the spot and hour at which the duel is to take place. One of theChore-Burschenmust always be present at every duel which is fought with the weapons of their Chore. When theDritte-Chargirte, that is, the treasurer, is unable, from any cause, to fulfil the duties of his office, the oldestChore-Burschmust officiate for him; so also in cases of similar emergency, theDritte-Chargirtesteps into the place of the second, and he into that of theSenior. Besides the obligation to appear on the appointedKneipedays, the Chore members must also, at the fixed hours, attend the fencing-school, or pay a pecuniary penalty. The reception of aRenonceinto the Chore, as well as his advancement to the rank ofBursch, is accompanied by certain solemnities, and by the reading of the constitution of the union. This constitution is held profoundly secret, and cannot pass out of the hands of the threeChargirten, who received it at the opening of the Chore, from theSenioren-Convent, or official meeting of theSeniorsof the different Chores--the so-called S. C. Every Chore has its weeklyChore-Convent, wherein theSeniorpresides, and theChore-Burschenare present. Here the affairs of the Chore are discussed, and resolutions passed. TheConsenioropens these resolutions to theRenouncen, in the likewise weekly heldRenoncen-Convent, or official meeting of theRenoncen, which has to carry them into effect, without power to alter them.
As theChore-Conventin each Chore is, so to say, its first board of Administration, so there is a supreme board over all the Chores, and thus, to a certain degree, over the whole body of students. It constitutes the highest court of honour of the students. It is composed of the wholeChargirtenof the whole Chores. Each Chore possesses, in alphabetical rotation, the presidency; and theConvents, or meetings, held at theKneipe-room of that Chore which at that time is in power. The presidency changes monthly, so that, as the court is held four times in each month, it falls four times in each Chore, which has to defray the cost of the beer that is therein drunk. TheSeniorof this Chore is president, theConseniorvice-president, and theDritte-Chargirtesecretary. Under the jurisdiction of this court fall general affairs, those which affect the interests of all students; and it passes all the resolutions, to which the whole student-body of the university must submit itself. It keeps what students callAllgemeine Comment, that is, the student code of laws. It addresses itself, to protect their rights from all encroachments. It hurls the terrors of itsBannstrahl, that is, of its power of excommunication, upon students or citizens, upon individuals or large bodies. When a burger of the university city, or of the vicinity, whose trade derives benefit from the students--for example, an innkeeper, or a shopkeeper--treats a student harshly or unjustly, the complaint must lay his charge before this court. His memorial to the S. C. must be drawn up in due form, according to the nature of its contents, and established custom, and must bear the signature of one of the Seniors. The S. C. now makes inquiry into the guilt or innocence of the accused. If he be found guilty, it decrees the punishment, which consists in proscription, for a longer or shorter period. This state of proscription, or being under the bann, is very exactly determined in years, months, weeks, and days; and during this period no student, be he in Chore or not in Chore, dare to purchase any thing from the condemned, or enter his house, otherwise he exposes himself to the certain danger of being also laid under the bann, and the Chores regularly send their people to see whether any violation of their edict take place. For instance, should a proscribed innkeeper have a ball or dance in his house, the Chore emissaries will be there to see whether any student shows himself at it. The student falls under similar punishment who is accused and found guilty of refusing to give satisfaction by duel to another that he has insulted. Yet is no one compelled to the duel by this regulation. If a student will not fight, whether from a principle against it, or any other cause, he must, once for all, announce this fact to the S. C, and he stands exempt, only, he cannot be allowed to make any exception to the rule which he has himself thus laid down. If he commits assault or aggression against any student or students, having thus sheltered himself from the necessity of the duel, though he be no longer amenable to this particular law of the student world, he is still amenable to the laws of his country, and may be summoned before the amtmann to answer for his offence. Should he meanly avail himself of such a declaration against fighting, and yet permit himself to insult or annoy his fellow-students, so cunningly as not to come within the operation of any civil statute, and yet to be offensive and obnoxious to the rules and maxims of social life, he will be shunned and despised by the students, and will find himself pretty much in the same situation as he who is actually under the bann. The bann is chiefly launched against students for such offences as are considered to amount to loss of honour--such as one student giving another a box on the ear, or a student committing a theft; and therefore to him who lies under theVerruf, or proscription, on such account, there remains scarcely an alternative but to quit the university, where every channel of intercourse would be closed against him, and where he would be shunned by all. Whole university cities have at times been laid under the bann, examples of which we shall give as we proceed.
TheChargirtenwatch over the institutions of the Chores and of the students in general,--or, in other words, over the so-calledAllgemeine Comment. They settle also the time, place, and manner of all the public festivities and celebrations. They determine whether, and in what style, a torch-train, or a "Vivat," shall be got up; in what manner a deceased member of the Chore shall be interred; and how the studentship shall be represented in the public solemnities of the High School. They direct the choice of the ball directors, who take part in the direction of the public balls, as, for instance, in those at the Museum at Heidelberg. The presiding Chore fixes the Allgemeine, or general assembly, and announces it to the other Chores.
Besides this court of honour, there also exists a Beer court, which has to settle all contentions that arise in the drinking companies on points of drinking etiquette, which, as we shall hereafter find, are no few in number. To the constitution of this beer court, one man is chosen out of each Chore, and the oldest Chore-Bursch is generally elected for this purpose. It is held in regular routine at every Kneipe-room of the Chores in succession. Of the beer court generally we shall, anon, speak more particularly, and here need say no more than that before the principal Beer court, the accuser must have two witnesses, who must give their statements on their word of honour,[3]and the accused must in his defence be supported by two witnesses also. Thus constitute, as may be seen from what is already stated, these unions, an aristocracy amongst the students, which exercises a certain influence over the general academical class; which contributes to establish a principle of unity amongst them; and whose members are ready to give up some portion of their personal freedom, for the consideration and authority which they acquire in the social system; and so alluring is the feeling of the members of Chores in public processions,Commerses,--parties which they make to some place in the country for a day's jollification, and whither they go in a long train of carriages with outriders; and inComitaten,--processions formed to accompany a departing fellow-student with public honour out of the city,--being enabled to play the gentleman, and torenommiren, or in English popular phrase, "to cut a swell," that members are never wanting to these societies.
There yet remains to be mentioned the numerous class of students termed, in student phrase, Camels--amongst whom are again contemptuously distinguished those who live totally isolated and retired, and never on any occasion, or on any account, visit the Chores, theirKneips, or take any part in their festivities and processions, and are therefore ignominiously dubbedKettles, Bookworms, etc. In conclusion, we must employ a few sentences on the early Burschenschaft and the modern fragments of its wreck.
But nothing comes up to our pleasant self-satisfaction, when we erect ourselves into judges of the high and the distinguished, of Princes and Statesmen; find public institutions clumsy and absurd; observe only possible and actual impediments; and acknowledge neither the greatness of the intention, nor the co-operation, which in every undertaking are to be expected from time and circumstances.Hauff's Memoirs of Satan.
But nothing comes up to our pleasant self-satisfaction, when we erect ourselves into judges of the high and the distinguished, of Princes and Statesmen; find public institutions clumsy and absurd; observe only possible and actual impediments; and acknowledge neither the greatness of the intention, nor the co-operation, which in every undertaking are to be expected from time and circumstances.
Hauff's Memoirs of Satan.
We have already traced the derivation of the word "Bursche," and observed that the first unions of the students were designated "Landsmanschafts" and "Orders." The origin of the first actual Burschenschaft is to be sought in the times when, on the establishment of the Rhenish Prince-league, which placed itself submissively under the sceptre of Napoleon, and the consequent abdication of the imperial throne of Germany by Francis II. in 1806, every heart that beat with a German feeling must have been seized with the deepest sorrow at the fall and dashing to pieces of the Fatherland. An earnest desire to be able to give help to the outraged country--the belief in a God who alone was able to free it from its oppressions--filled the heart of the patriot, and must have roused him to a tone of mind, than which nothing could be farther from that serene enjoyment of life, often bordering on actual frivolity, to which the members of academical unions were not rarely accustomed to resign themselves. A patriotic spirit, a zealous, earnest aspiration, had already proclaimed itself in the latter years of the former century. Already in its seventieth year had the Poet-league at Göttingen organized itself under Klopstock. John Heinrich Voss, the two Grafs Stollberg, Hölty, and others, belonged to it. At the same time tumbled that fabric which the Order of Jesus had artfully raised, and the German language was finally established in those rights, out of which it had so long been expelled. The lachrymose tribe of common tragedies, and the moving comedies with which Kotzebue and Iffland overflowed the stage, were compelled to give place to knightly dramas, and Goethe's Götz von Berlichingen became for the hundredth time imitated. The German Muse attained a higher flight through Lessing, and finally displayed herself to the world in the two noble forms of Schiller and Goethe. The first, far from all lightness, full of deep earnestness and noble sentiment, sought chiefly to effect the moral elevation and intellectual accomplishment of youth; and the youthful freshness of his language gave to his often more philosophical than poetical reflections and sentences, an irresistible charm for young minds. Goethe moved in a contrary direction. With a predominant sentiment for beauty, and an eminent talent for imitation, he sported through every department of literature, and floated perpetually with the current of the intellectual tendency of the age. By such men the German language was speedily advanced to its point of perfection; the French language ceased to be the conversation language of the court and of the polite circles. Joseph II. introduced the German language into the court of Vienna; after the death of Frederick II. it became acknowledged as that of the court of Prussia. For a long time Weimar became pre-eminently the capital city of German accomplishment; and Goethe, Schiller, Wieland, Herder, and other distinguished men, found in the court of Weimar, a sphere of action as honourable for themselves as advantageous to the literature of their country. The French ascendency in literature had thus ceased at the very point of time when the French political ascendency came to lie heavy and oppressively on the nation; the literary honour sharpened that bitter feeling of political shame, and the more the German people learned to feel it, the stronger became its impatience to liberate itself from that condition into which it had been reduced by the French. But on whom must this feeling have seized more powerfully than on the student? To whom must the situation of Germany have occasioned more serious apprehensions than to him? On the one hand, sufficiently instructed to perceive the dangers which threatened the political and literary liberty of Germany; on the other, full of youthful spirit, and of desires to help the oppressed Fatherland,--such sentiments must have weaned the students from the trivial pursuit of Landsmanships and Orders, and accordingly those of the same sentiment united themselves into a Burschenschaft. The object of this first union was noble; namely, to rescue the Fatherland; and in order to be able to do this worthily, to raise up men strengthened to the utmost completeness of both moral and physical constitution. Thence came it, that bodily exercises, especially gymnastics, rose into new existence; that the Burschen sought to invigorate themselves by hardships of every kind; thence, that they strove after the greatest possible purity of manners, and displayed a spirit of hostility towards the less pure tendencies of the yet existing orders. Germany's noblest sons belonged then to the Burschenschafts. These unions had their leaders and laws, much in the same manner as the Chores. Their leaders were the so-calledRügemeister, monitors, or judges, and had their speaker, who, in the assembly, made statement to the people of whatever affairs appeared of importance to them. In these companies ruled no aristocratic power, as was the case in those of the Chores, especially towards the younger members. To establish a thorough union amongst the students, was a main object of the Burschenschaft. On this account the duel was not permitted between the members of the union; and duels between the members of the orders were very much circumscribed, and only in cases of real injuries, or gross offences, and then under certain conditions, permitted by the court of honour. The Burschenschafts of different university cities stood in combination with each other, and members from one city were in the habit of making visits to the members of the other university cities. The Burschenschafts, as then constituted, were in most places allowed, or at least, tolerated. They celebrated often, and with the consent of the prorector, their so-called foundation-day, or anniversary, with great banqueting, public processions, music, and torch-trains. The members of these companies conducted themselves so discreetly, that people willingly suffered them, and any little distinctions which might gratify youthful vanity--the wearing of the old German costume, the short coat, the broad out-lying shirt-collar, with the open breast, the cap which but scantily covered the long down-hanging hair, and which, as well as the coat, was mostly of black velvet--such old Germanisms and peculiar attire--were cheerfully conceded to them. Hitherto must the life and movements of the Burschenschaft be styled noble. With enthusiasm its members received the call to the fight of freedom, which resounded from Prussia in the year 1813; and from all the universities streamed forth volunteers, to join themselves to the German host, which was to do battle with the oppressors of the Fatherland. Theodore Körner has immortalized in his songs the feelings and sentiments of the German youth at that glorious crisis. Many Burschen died, like him, the hero's death, inspired with equal zeal for the good cause, though it was alone permitted to the poet to flash radiantly forth, as from a mirror, the inner glow of his spirit in patriotic song.
THE SWORD SONG.Sword on my left side gleaming,What means thy clear eyes' beaming?Thou look'st with love on me,And I have joy in thee.Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!A soldier bears me dearly,Hence beam I forth so cheerly;I am a free man's choice,Which makes the Sword rejoice.Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!Good Sword! yes, free I hold thee,And in hearths love enfold thee,As if thou wert alliedTo me, a lovely bride.Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!Already it is tendered,To thee my life surrendered;Ah! were we so allied;When wilt thou fetch thy bride?Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!The bridal night's red morningBreaks to the trumpet's warning;When cannon peals begin,Fetch I the loved-one in.Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!O sweet embrace! untiring,I tarry still desiring;Then bridegroom fetch thou me,My garland waits for thee.Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!Why in thy scabbard ringing,Thou Iron-joy art springingIn such wild battle-glow?My Sword, why ring'st thou so?Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!Ah! in the scabbard ringing,I long to be forth springing,Right wild with battle-glow;Hence, soldier, clink I so!Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!Wait in thy chamber narrow,What wouldst thou here, my marrow?Wait in thy chamber, wait;I'll fetch thee, ere 'tis late.Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!Leave me not long in sadness,Thou garden of love's gladness,Where blood-red roses breathe,And blossom flowers of death.Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!Unsheathe thee then, thou treasure,Of soldier's eyes the pleasure;Come forth, my Sword, come forth,On! to the father's hearth!Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!Aha! the glorious wedding,Here through the free air treading!How flames in sunshine bright,The steel so bridal white!Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!On, on, ye brave contenders!Ye German true defenders!And if your hearts be cold,The loved-one to them hold!Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!While on the left side sitting,Shy are her looks and flitting;But on the right, the brideTrusts God in all her pride.Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!To iron mouth love-glowing,The bridal kiss bestowing,Be every lip applied;Curst he who leaves the bride!Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!Now let the loved-one sing forth!The dazzling flashes spring forth!Fast dawns the marriage tide,Hurrah, thou Iron Bride!Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!
Sword on my left side gleaming,What means thy clear eyes' beaming?Thou look'st with love on me,And I have joy in thee.
Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!
A soldier bears me dearly,Hence beam I forth so cheerly;I am a free man's choice,Which makes the Sword rejoice.
Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!
Good Sword! yes, free I hold thee,And in hearths love enfold thee,As if thou wert alliedTo me, a lovely bride.
Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!
Already it is tendered,To thee my life surrendered;Ah! were we so allied;When wilt thou fetch thy bride?
Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!
The bridal night's red morningBreaks to the trumpet's warning;When cannon peals begin,Fetch I the loved-one in.
Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!
O sweet embrace! untiring,I tarry still desiring;Then bridegroom fetch thou me,My garland waits for thee.
Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!
Why in thy scabbard ringing,Thou Iron-joy art springingIn such wild battle-glow?My Sword, why ring'st thou so?
Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!
Ah! in the scabbard ringing,I long to be forth springing,Right wild with battle-glow;Hence, soldier, clink I so!
Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!
Wait in thy chamber narrow,What wouldst thou here, my marrow?Wait in thy chamber, wait;I'll fetch thee, ere 'tis late.
Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!
Leave me not long in sadness,Thou garden of love's gladness,Where blood-red roses breathe,And blossom flowers of death.
Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!
Unsheathe thee then, thou treasure,Of soldier's eyes the pleasure;Come forth, my Sword, come forth,On! to the father's hearth!
Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!
Aha! the glorious wedding,Here through the free air treading!How flames in sunshine bright,The steel so bridal white!
Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!
On, on, ye brave contenders!Ye German true defenders!And if your hearts be cold,The loved-one to them hold!
Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!
While on the left side sitting,Shy are her looks and flitting;But on the right, the brideTrusts God in all her pride.
Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!
To iron mouth love-glowing,The bridal kiss bestowing,Be every lip applied;Curst he who leaves the bride!
Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!
Now let the loved-one sing forth!The dazzling flashes spring forth!Fast dawns the marriage tide,Hurrah, thou Iron Bride!
Hurrah! Hurrah! Hurrah!
The battle of the people at Leipsic, in the year 1814, freed Germany from its chains. For the complete liberation of Europe, and for the restoration of state relations on a firm foundation, a Congress was determined upon, which in the same year was held in Vienna. The task which this congress had to discharge was the more difficult, in that the people, inspired with a new spirit, in the consciousness of the mighty exertions that they had made, cherished hopes and desires whose realization did not coincide with the interests of Princes. The settlement of territorial relations, and organization of a new general constitution for all Germany, engrossed its deliberations. The restoration of the German empire, which was demanded by a majority of voices, was rendered impossible by the jealousy on the part of the kings of the Rhine-league of their sovereignties. As those states which had sprung up and become great under the former German empire, were now become independent, there remained no alternative, if they were to submit themselves anew to a paternal authority, but, instead of the old German empire, to substitute a sort of family compact The return of Napoleon hastened the settlement of the fundamental principles of a German international-compact; and after eleven sittings, on the 8th of June, 1815, theBundes-Acte, or Act of Convention, was signed and published.
With the rising of the people against Napoleon, a greater life and cordiality of religious faith had come back. This expressed itself in the Holy Alliance. For the maintenance of European peace, the three powers--Austria, Russia, and Prussia--not only renewed their alliance, but based it again upon a religious foundation. On the 26th Sept. 1815, the Holy Alliance was concluded by the three monarchs themselves, without assistance or advice of a minister. By this they bound themselves, the contracting parties, both in the management of their kingdoms and in their transactions with other states, to take alone as their guides the precepts of the Christian religion, the commands of justice, of love, and peace. They expressed a firm resolution, in accordance with the Sacred Writings, to continue in the covenant of a true and indissoluble brotherly love; that national divisions and national animosity should thenceforward retreat before the consideration that their people were the common members of one and the same Christian empire; the princes themselves should acknowledge that the great Christian nation to which they and their people belonged, had in reality no other rulers than Him from whom alone power doth proceed, that is God, and the Saviour Jesus Christ. At the same time were all states solicited to give in their concurrence, and were assured that on recognition of these avowed principles of this Alliance, with alacrity and love they would be received into the sacred covenant. The Holy Alliance found numerous participants. Most of the European states sent in their formal adhesion in the course of the year 1816. One might imagine that all parties--princes and people--were about to co-operate in the sentiment so finely expressed in Arndt's famous song--
THE GERMAN'S FATHERLAND.Which is the German's Fatherland;Is't Prussian-land? Is't Swabian-land?Is't where on Rhine the red grapes hang?Where o'er the Baltic sea-mews clang?Oh no! oh no! oh no! oh no!His Fatherland must wider go!Which is the German's Fatherland?Is't Styrian, or Bavarian land?Is't where the Marsen's herds do wind?[4]I'st where the Markers iron find[5]Oh no! etc.Which is the German's Fatherland?Westphalian, or Pomerian land?Is't where the sand from sea-down blows?Is't where the Danube foaming flows?Oh no! etc.Which is the German's Fatherland?So name to me the mighty land.The land of Hofer?--or of Tell?Both land and people love I well.Oh no! etc.Which is the German's Fatherland?So name to me that mighty land.The Austrian land it sure must be,With glory crowned and victory!Oh no! etc.Which is the German's Fatherland?So name to me that mighty land.Is't what the Princes' hollow theft,From Emperor and from Empire reft?Oh no! etc.Which is the German's Fatherland?So name me finally that land!Wide as the German tree tongue springs,And hymns to God in heaven sings!That shall it be! that shall it be!That land brave German's giv'n to thee!That is the German's Fatherland,Where oaths are sworn by grasp of hand;Where in all eyes clear truth doth shine;Where in warm hearts sits love benign.That shall it be! etc.That is the German's Fatherland,Where foreign folly scorn doth brand;Where all that's base 'neath hate must bend;Where all that's noble name we Friend.That shall it be! that shall it be!That whole, the German land shall be!That whole, the German land shall be!O God of Heaven! hither see!And give us genuine German soul,That we may love it high and whole.That shall it be! etc.
Which is the German's Fatherland;Is't Prussian-land? Is't Swabian-land?Is't where on Rhine the red grapes hang?Where o'er the Baltic sea-mews clang?
Oh no! oh no! oh no! oh no!His Fatherland must wider go!
Which is the German's Fatherland?Is't Styrian, or Bavarian land?Is't where the Marsen's herds do wind?[4]I'st where the Markers iron find[5]
Oh no! etc.
Which is the German's Fatherland?Westphalian, or Pomerian land?Is't where the sand from sea-down blows?Is't where the Danube foaming flows?
Oh no! etc.
Which is the German's Fatherland?So name to me the mighty land.The land of Hofer?--or of Tell?Both land and people love I well.
Oh no! etc.
Which is the German's Fatherland?So name to me that mighty land.The Austrian land it sure must be,With glory crowned and victory!
Oh no! etc.
Which is the German's Fatherland?So name to me that mighty land.Is't what the Princes' hollow theft,From Emperor and from Empire reft?
Oh no! etc.
Which is the German's Fatherland?So name me finally that land!Wide as the German tree tongue springs,And hymns to God in heaven sings!
That shall it be! that shall it be!That land brave German's giv'n to thee!
That is the German's Fatherland,Where oaths are sworn by grasp of hand;Where in all eyes clear truth doth shine;Where in warm hearts sits love benign.
That shall it be! etc.
That is the German's Fatherland,Where foreign folly scorn doth brand;Where all that's base 'neath hate must bend;Where all that's noble name we Friend.
That shall it be! that shall it be!That whole, the German land shall be!
That whole, the German land shall be!O God of Heaven! hither see!And give us genuine German soul,That we may love it high and whole.
That shall it be! etc.
But with the peace which succeeded the second overthrow of Napoleon, the expectations of the German nation began to exhibit themselves more clearly; and out of the disproportion between them and that which was done to satisfy them, sprang the germs of mistrust between the princes and the people. The opening of theBundesversammlung, or confederated assembly, Nov. 5, 1816, betrayed not only the imperfection of the constitution, which had been thrown together in a hurry, but also the uncertainty of the assembly itself, of the extent of its delegated powers. Its declaration that Germany was not to be considered as a united state, but as a confederation of states--(nicht als ein Bundesstaat, sondern als ein Staaten-bund)--gave the less satisfaction, as it was just contrary to what was desired. The nation desired earnestly a common all-embracing bond of union and communion, and not merely a confederacy of their sovereign princes, which the interests of the moment, as they had originated it, would also dissolve again.
The general excitement in Germany received a palpable point of demand in the thirteenth article of the Act of Confederation. In most of the German states the anxiety for a representative constitution displayed itself in such a manner as rendered in the highest degree difficult an accordance between princes and subjects.
In Prussia especially, the constitution of the monarchy opposed so many difficulties to the establishment of a national representation, that its postponement was inevitable; and passionate discontent saw in the impracticability nothing but an evil disposition. In the other German states, the steps made towards the passing of a constitution conducted to as little result; the princes and popular representatives could not agree, since the first were as sparing in their concessions as the latter were unbounded in their demands. But the spirit which was in Germany striving after the constitutional organization of states, had not every where confined itself within due bounds. The secret unions which were formed during the ascendency of Napoleon still continued. The excitement of the public mind, which at an earlier period had been favoured even by the government itself, so far from having subsided, had rather received a new impulse, and as it had now necessarily lost its outward tendency, it sought to take effect in the heart of Germany. The government saw with suspicion the drift of the secret unions, and their influence on the Gymnastic schools and universities; they heard with astonishment, the bold language of the rising generation approximating itself to political fanaticism. The German Confederation satisfied not these heads on fire with ideas of one and a free Germany. The restoration of the empire, in connexion with one of the prevailing theories of conformable national representation, was the master desire of a numerous party, which was spread wide through Germany, and rendered the universities the seminaries of their doctrines. The youth entered with pride into the idea, that they were called to work out their salvation, from the circumstances to which their fathers had reduced them. Political notions of the Middle Ages mingled themselves in the heads of the student youth, with the revolutionary doctrines of modern times, and received, moreover, from religious enthusiasm, a dark addition. Thus degenerated the Burschenschaft, in a manner most deeply to be deplored, and demonstrated in a melancholy degree how near to each other lie the boundaries of truth and falsehood. Noble patriotism metamorphosed itself into a gloomy fanaticism,--zeal for religion and morals, into a hollow hypocrisy, and into a still more dangerous pseudo-philosophy. The landsmannschafts became continually weaker in the German universities, and the young men every day added themselves to the burschenschaft in greater numbers. Truly the greater number of them never dreamed to what lengths such a political fanaticism could lead them; and only by degrees and unobserved mounted the arrogance of an inconsiderate youth, till at length it persuaded itself that it alone had fought out the liberation war, and therefore was now called to give to Fatherland a new constitution.
These perilous imaginations grew continually faster and faster into that horrible avalanche which threatened to overwhelm every thing. What a difference between the years 1816 and 1817, when one compares the celebration of the peace anniversary of 1816, with that of the celebration of the October days of 1817!
On the 18th, 19th, and 20th of January, 1816, Jena, amongst other universities, celebrated the peace-festival in a style and manner, which, say the newspapers of the time, deserve to be published and handed down to posterity.
The report of this festival stands thus:--On the 16th day of January was issued from the grand-ducal police commission, and the city council of Jena, a public programme in regard to this festival. In pursuance of its ordinations, on the 17th, all the bells were rung at noon. Before and after the ringing, mortars and cannon were fired at the outer gate. At eight o'clock in the evening the Landsturm beat tattoo with music.
On the 18th, in the morning, solemn music sounded from the towers, with drum and trumpet, and firing of cannon. At nine o'clock assembled at the council-house, the clergy, the city authorities, and the elder burgers not belonging to the Landsturm, whither also an hour later proceeded the whole body of school youth with their teachers. At ten o'clock, the assembled company moved thence in procession to the city church. A division of the Landsturm, as the procession arrived before the church, made way for it Behind this division walked, as leader of the whole procession, the depositor, or master of the ceremonies, in a black dress, and next to him went the academical officials. Behind these came two beadles, with silver sceptres, and cloaks of red cloth, preceding the then prorector regens, Herr Hofrath Dr. Seidenstecker, the prorector being, however, as well as the prorector designatus, Herr Hofrath Dr. Voigt, who followed him, supported by two students. To the prorectors succeeded the deacons of the four faculties, two and two, and then followed the senate, the professors, the docenten, and the students, whose banner was borne before them. As the train came in front of the council-house, that of the city authorities joined it and proceeded with it to the church, in which each party took their respective seats. A second division of the Landsturm brought up the rear of the train. All conducted themselves with the decorum and dignity befitting this day, and the appearance of the whole congregation excited a lively feeling of something high and important.
When the service was concluded, the train quitted the church in the same order in which it had entered it. At the council-house, the procession of the city authorities, and those who had joined them, separated from that of the academicians, who directed their course again to the university, where they broke off.
The students now betook themselves to the market-place, and after the public appointed religious service which they had just attended, performed a private act of devotion, which in its simplicity and unostentatiousness was extremely striking and affecting. Ranged in a circle, the banner and the leaders of the procession in its centre with uncovered heads, they sung a hymn, written for the occasion by Herr Ullmann of Liefland, with such truth and depth of feeling, that Herr Hofrath Gabler, who with other professors, was present at this solemnity, seized with enthusiastic emotion by its power, thanked the students with heart-enkindled words for the elevation of soul that they had occasioned. A beautiful conclusion of all the religious and public solemnities of this day! for that many houses in the evening, especially in the market-place, were found illuminated, was rather a testimony of individual joy, which took this way to display itself.
The following day, the 19th of January, only was left to the students to make their arrangements for their peace anniversary. And now once more, in how German, how brave, how noble a style was every festive preparation completed!
In the Rau-Thal, through which the haughty enemy of the German name had formerly led his robber-horde to victory, an Oak was selected, that, the witness of former overthrow, it might now, as a memorial of the achieved liberty of Germany--of new flourishing man's strength, be planted on that spot which, ten years before, on the most unfortunate of all days, covered with rubbish and ashes, had been consecrated to a dreadful remembrance. On the morning of the 19th, the oak was taken from its old location, and towards noon brought to the city, where it was received by the students with joyful hearts, and in procession of two and two, conducted with music to the square, the scene of former desolation. On the platz, a division of the Landsturm had stationed itself, and assisted to form the circle; a division of the mounted Landsturm had ridden in advance of the tree, A vast body of spectators stood round the platz! many of the professors, and those who took interest in the scene, stationed themselves near the oak.
When all was ready for the planting of the oak, a hymn composed for the occasion by Herr Goering, from Weimar, to a tune furnished by Herr Cotta, of Eisenach, was sung by the students, fervently and solemnly, with uncovered heads as on the day before; then stepped Herr Horn of Mechlenberg forth from the inner circle, and delivered a pregnant and powerful speech with equal animation and grace. The attention and silence of the vast throng of spectators during the delivery of this speech, testified the impression it produced, to say nothing of its subsequent influence. The speech ended; the planting of the oak was performed, accompanied by the singing of a hymn, also composed by Herr Goering, to a tune by Herr Cotta. The professors present testified their interest and delight in the transaction, by each of them scattering three handfuls of earth on the roots of the planted oak. But numbers of the maidens and young ladies bound ribands on the significant tree, eloquent with so many significations, thereby proclaiming the strength, the desires, the sentiments, and hopes of their hearts.
As now the oak, to which we will all wish a joyful and prosperous growth, especially in its national indications, was planted, Herr Horn pronounced the iambics written for the occasion by Herr Ullmann, with the tone and feeling appropriate to their office and contents. The whole transaction was concluded by the singing of hymns, composed by Herr Neidhart, the elder of Ebersdorf in Voigtland, and breathing a noble, powerful spirit, for right and freedom, which animated the whole nation, and in its own language awarded to festival its high and significant value. The occasion thus brought to its close--a solemnity which our grandchildren may well hold sacred--the students marched in procession of two to the market-place, where they excited one another in brotherly union, with Arndt's thrilling hymn, to unity of spirit and faithful confidence in the sentiments then and there implanted.
THE UNION SONG.In happy hour have we united,A mighty and a German choir!And hence from every soul excited,Burst hymns of praise to God once more;Since we stand here o'er high things musing,With feelings holy and profound,So the full heart its joy diffusing,Must swell with all its chords the sound.To whom shall first our thanks be pealed?To God's most high and wondrous name,Who in our shame's long night revealed,Arose before us all in flame.Who blasted all our foes' disdaining;Our strength and beauty all restored;Who on the stars for ever reigning,Sits there from age to age adored.Our second wish--to whom then flies it?To Fatherland's high glory whole.Perdition seize all who despise it,Hail! he who yields it life and soul!Through virtues pass it still be-wondered;Beloved for honesty and right,Proud from year-hundred to year-hundred,In strength and honour ever bright.To joys of German men,--a measure!One third--in clearer joy and thanks;For freedom is the German pleasure;For freedom leads our German ranks.For it to live, for it to perish,--Each German bosom burns for this;For this the hero-death to cherish,Is German honour, German bliss.The fourth--in solemn consecration,--Hands, hearts aloft together go!Thou ancient truth--and of our nation,Thou faith, united--"live ye hoch!"With these all doubts and fears we banish,These of our bond are rock and shield;The world indeed itself must vanish,When men their plighted word shall yield.Close in,--the sacred circle throng now,And raise the clash of triumph strong;From heart to heart, from tongue to tongue now,Like lightning send this joyful song:--The Word that knits our bond for ever;The Good no fiend can from us rend,--Nor tyrant villany can sever,--Believe!--maintain it to the end!
In happy hour have we united,
A mighty and a German choir!
And hence from every soul excited,
Burst hymns of praise to God once more;
Since we stand here o'er high things musing,
With feelings holy and profound,
So the full heart its joy diffusing,
Must swell with all its chords the sound.
To whom shall first our thanks be pealed?
To God's most high and wondrous name,
Who in our shame's long night revealed,
Arose before us all in flame.
Who blasted all our foes' disdaining;
Our strength and beauty all restored;
Who on the stars for ever reigning,
Sits there from age to age adored.
Our second wish--to whom then flies it?
To Fatherland's high glory whole.
Perdition seize all who despise it,
Hail! he who yields it life and soul!
Through virtues pass it still be-wondered;
Beloved for honesty and right,
Proud from year-hundred to year-hundred,
In strength and honour ever bright.
To joys of German men,--a measure!
One third--in clearer joy and thanks;
For freedom is the German pleasure;
For freedom leads our German ranks.
For it to live, for it to perish,--
Each German bosom burns for this;
For this the hero-death to cherish,
Is German honour, German bliss.
The fourth--in solemn consecration,--
Hands, hearts aloft together go!
Thou ancient truth--and of our nation,
Thou faith, united--"live ye hoch!"
With these all doubts and fears we banish,
These of our bond are rock and shield;
The world indeed itself must vanish,
When men their plighted word shall yield.
Close in,--the sacred circle throng now,
And raise the clash of triumph strong;
From heart to heart, from tongue to tongue now,
Like lightning send this joyful song:--
The Word that knits our bond for ever;
The Good no fiend can from us rend,--
Nor tyrant villany can sever,--
Believe!--maintain it to the end!
The afternoon and evening were dedicated by them to joyous entertainment at the Feurstenkeller, and with testimonies of love and respect towards their teachers, that remarkable and distinguished day terminated. The sacred celebration of the peace-festival on the part of the university, was held on Sunday, the 21st February. The church service itself was very simple, but highly solemn, and worthy of the high thoughts which the celebration of such a day could not fail to call forth. There remained nothing to desire, but that the noble spirit and sterling sentiments which had every where displayed themselves so luminously on that day, should continue to be the universal ruling ones.
So details a newspaper of the time, the celebration of this beautiful festival. But the concluding wish found not its fulfilment in the following year--for in the year 1817 was held the festival on the Wartburg; in the next year the congress of the Burschenschaft at Jena; and in 1819 transpired the bloody deed of Sand, a warning sign of the progress of political fanaticism from its innocent commencement, to that act which found its just reward on the scaffold.
In the year 1817 the celebration of the reformation anniversary falling in conjunction with the anniversary of the Leipsic Folksbattle, it was too exciting an occasion for the young state reformers not to seize on it for the demonstration of their views and aims. The festival was therefore celebrated on the 18th of October, by the students of most of the German universities on the Wartburg, in a manner which quickly excited the attention of the governments. The Prussian government, in particular, ordered the trial of all those who had taken part in the festival; and several professors who had been present, particularly Fries, came under judicial examination. From these trials it was made obvious that the few only were in the secret of the proposed auto-da-fé to be held in Eisenach, but that the majority regarded it as a desirable opportunity for drawing the Burschenschaft into a more intimate and close union, so that it might the more powerfully operate against the landsmanschafts.
The festival was, like the prior one of October, celebrated with much enthusiasm, with sacred service, with singing of Fatherland hymns, and other solemnities: but speeches were delivered, on this occasion, which had not a thoroughly correct tendency, and must appear the more unfitting from the mouth of a teacher of youth. On the evening of the 18th of October, as formerly on that night, fires blazed up on every hill top; but those of the Burschenschaft who had stationed themselves around the fire on the Wartburg, cast into the flames the German History of Kotzebue, as well as some other detested writings. None of the professors, however, were present at this transaction, and none of the speeches connected therewith were delivered by them. That the acts of the Congress of Vienna had been also burnt there, was proved by the inquiry to be false.
The Wartburg festival was concluded on the 19th of October by the assembled participants, to the number of about 600, taking the sacrament in the church. The consequence of this festival was the promotion of the idea here conceived, of one universal German Burschenschaft; that the union of the whole body of student youth must pervade, and be the means of working out, the union of the whole Fatherland.
On the 21st of October, 1818, at Jena, a congress of students, from fourteen universities, was held; then and there the union of the Burschenschafts was discussed, and its constitution established. "One Empire, one Religion, Freedom and Equality!" This was the watchword of the combination, which, since the Wartburg festival, had exchanged its former colours, namely, green, blue, and white, for the union badge, black, red, and a metallic or embroidered oak leaf in the cap. To this circumstance alludes the following celebrated song--