CHAPTER VIII

CHAPTER VIIITHE DESTINY OF THE SUBMARINEStudies of the submarine which deal with the subject solely from the engineering or military standpoint, or which treat of the development of this weapon simply in the light of its strategic value, fail to recognize the human aspects of the problem.I have stated in the Foreword that at the present time the submarine is a tremendous factor in the political and industrial economy of the world, and I believe that a treatment of the submarine which gives no consideration to it in this broader relationship to the life and welfare of humanity is altogether incomplete. In my opinion, just as the submarine is to-day a power to be reckoned with in the world—an agency the prodigious capacity for destruction of which we realize but too well—so is it to be in the future an instrument the influence of which upon the progress and safety of the nations of the earth will be well-nigh incalculable. Temporarily, it presents itself as a power for evil, as the weapon, the bludgeon, as it were, of either a misguided people or of an overbearing and power-thirsty aristocracy; permanently, I believe, it will prove to be destined to work for the highest good of humanity, and will serve the noblest and most intimate interests of men; for, as I have asserted above, the submarine has by no means been brought to its fullest measure of development. The limit of its capabilities has not been approached by modern ship constructors, even remotely. It will have a future; it has a destiny; it will serve mankind.There have been many criticisms and attacks directed at the submarine and against the designers of submarines within the past few years. These may be classified in general into two main categories: first, those which discredit the submarine on the basis of its mechanical limitations, and, secondly, those which assail the submarine on moral and humanitarian grounds and condemn the use of the weapon as piratical and murderous. For people who criticise the submarine on the grounds first stated I have little sympathy; they are those "who have eyes and see not, and having ears, hear not." They disavow the very testimony of the senses. I can, however, fully sympathize with those who attack the submarine on the latter basis; the events of the past three years may have borne this conviction upon them. Yet they also fail to realize that the submarine, in the end, will render great benefits and service to the world. They judge too much from the present and look too rarely into the future. By way of answering these criticisms I will be able to present the facts concerning the future of the submarine as they appear to me after years of thought and experimentation in this field.THE "ARGOSY AND ARGONAUT III"A house boat with submarine and access tube attached, built by the author in 1917, for pleasure and experimental purposes in making underwater explorations and investigation of sea coast waterbed formation, in locating beds of shellfish, wrecks, etc., and to demonstrate the practicability of their recovery. The house boat is 100 ft. overall, 20 ft. beam. The submarine can operate up to depths of 150 ft. by adding additional lengths of access tube.There are many who believe that the submarine is limited in its power because of the inherent nature of its operation. These are the people who erroneously conceive that the submarine designers in some peculiar and miraculous way manage to get around the laws of the universe. They think that the activity of the submarine is in defiance of the law of gravitation; that it performs unnatural feats. People with such views, of course, are inclined to believe that the submarine by now must have reached the height of its development, and that in any case it is an unreliable mechanism.Criticism from such sources is worthy of notice solely because of its positive stupidity. Inventors never perform miracles and they never defy nature. Man can never master nature nor override her dictates. The inventor, rather, is one who comes to know the laws of nature with intimacy, and devises ways to turn them to his use. He works in harmony with nature, perhaps a little more closely than ordinary men; the secret of inventors' successes lies in the fact that they are those who best know how to coöperate with nature. Just so the submarine, as we have seen, acts in response to the laws of gravity, hydraulics, pneumatics, and other natural sciences, and is in complete accordance with nature's dictates; it has no limitations set by nature upon its operation. Objectors on these grounds are in the same class with those who asserted some years ago that an iron ship could not float.DIAGRAM OF THE "ARGOSY AND ARGONAUT III"Sketch showing the submarine "Argonaut III" on the bottom and operator in diving compartment inspecting the waterbed through the open diver's door.There is also a very numerous class of persons who hold that the submarine is a very risky and dangerous mechanism; they feel that the principles of its operation have not yet been brought to a point of safety or certainty. The facts upon which they base this judgment are found by them in the accounts of the many accidents which have occurred to submarines in recent years. As a matter of fact, these accidents have been due, as a rule, to either of two causes; namely, faulty construction or carelessness. There is not a case on record of a properly constructed, well-handled submarine coming to grief through any cause related to the principle of her operation. The principles of successfully navigating under the water were discovered twenty years ago, and have been applied with perfect safety ever since. Many designers since that time have failed to recognize the correct principles, and their incorrectly built boats havegiven trouble; hence accidents have occurred. To-day, however, the true principles of construction are universally recognized. The modern submarine has passed the stage of experimentation.Another source for notions of this same sort, as to the unreliability of submarine navigation, is the constant repetition in the daily press that our submarines are not operating satisfactorily. These complaints also lead people to conclude that the mechanical demands of under-water navigation are not completely fulfilled. Now, submarine vessels may be constructed to-day which are a great deal more trustworthy in their operation and considerably less dangerous to go about in than are certain well-known United States railroads. Nearly every submarine in use in the navies of the world at the present day is capable of functioning in perfect safety, so far as submergence and emergence are concerned. They may be operated with almost exact precision while located many feet beneath the surface. If given sufficient static stability, there is no danger that they will dive to the bottom or that they will not come up again.The cause of all these complaints about our submarines is traceable to a single difficulty. The reader by this time realizes that the difficulty is with the engines, and not with the principles of submarine construction. The modern submarine builder cannot find an engine of sufficiently light weight to install with safety in a submarine hull which will give all the speed which the government demands that his boat should produce. On attempting to attain speed much engine trouble has developed, due to experimentation and trial, and from this source have sprung all the criticisms of the operation of our vessels. There is no such natural limitationto the possible utility of the submarine as many people believe; the only limitation is that of speed. Our boats are safe, they are seaworthy, they are capable of a tremendous radius of action. Sooner or later a reliable engine will be developed which will meet the needs of military submarines and which will deliver power sufficient to give the submarine battleship speed. This is at present the only limitation upon submarine development, and it is not an insuperable obstacle.Those critics of the submarine who base their opinions upon moral and humanitarian notions are as self-deceived as those who disparage the mechanical success of the under-water vessel. People in this latter class, however, are not afflicted with a distorted vision of the truth, as are those of the other group, but rather, we may say, they suffer from nearsightedness. They do not look far enough ahead to judge as to the permanent utility of the submarine. They base their inferences entirely upon the use which one of the belligerent powers has made of its submarines. It is true, indeed, that the activities of a great many submarine commanders, and the policy of frightfulness which has been so consistently maintained throughout the course of the war by a certain group of autocrats, have temporarily put a moral stigma upon the submarine as a justifiable naval weapon. They have made it appear that the submarine cannot play a humane and legitimate part in warfare. While I have firmly maintained, and still believe, that a submarine blockade is a legitimate use of this weapon in warfare, I do regret that many acts committed by the submarines of one of the belligerents in the present war have been little short of outright piracy.Strange to say, from the time when I first went into submarine work a fear has always possessed me that the submarine might be turned to piratical uses. I have often thought that some unscrupulous and adventurous group of men might terrorize the commerce of the world in times of peace by taking advantage of the invisible qualities of submarine vessels. Such a group of men with the use of such a weapon might make submarine attacks on peaceful merchant vessels and escape detection and capture for years. I did not, however, nor did any other submarine inventor, anticipate that any of the world's recognized governments would sanction piratical and barbarous actions on the part of their naval officers. In fact, it has been the aim of submarine inventors, from Fulton's time to the present, to devise a weapon that would ultimately bring war between maritime nations to an end. They have not had in mind the murderous designs which have been accredited to them from the very outset. It is my firm conviction that it is the destiny of the submarine to put an end forever to the possibility of warfare upon the high seas, and to eliminate warfare between nations which have no other access to each other except by sea. This is the wonderful opportunity of the submarine, and the submarine inventor has been and will be a laborer in the cause of peace, and not the cause of war and bloodshed.Robert Fulton pointed out this possibility when he was working upon his own devices. In a letter upon the subject he stated:"All my reflections have led me to believe that this application of it (the use of the mines placed by submarines) will in a few years put a stop to maritime wars, give thatliberty on the seas which has been long and anxiously desired by every good man, and secure to Americans that liberty which will enable citizens to apply their mental and corporeal faculties to useful and humane pursuits, to the improvement of our country, and the happiness of the whole people."Later on it was Josiah L. Tuck who recognized the same fact, and entitled the vessel of his constructionThe Peacemaker.The reason which underlies this conviction held by submarine inventors was succinctly expressed by the late Mr. John P. Holland. He pointed out the fact that "submarines cannot fight submarines," the submarine inventors have long since grasped the significance of this fact, realizing as they have that the submarine eventually was to drive the battleship from the sea.When the day comes that submarines are equipped with engines of battleship speed, and thus take away from the battleships the only means of defence which they now have—namely, the ability to run away from the submarine—the submarine will dominate the surface of the high seas. Submarines may be built of almost any conceivable size, and carry large-calibre disappearing guns and ten, fifty, or one hundred torpedoes. The battleship will be powerless before the submarine of the future; the advantage will always be with the submarines, as they are invisible.When every country with a sea-coast is equipped with a sufficient number of defensive submarines, even of very low speed, attacks by invasion of their sea-coasts will become impossible. In case two maritime nations go to war, the submarines belonging to each will effectively blockade the ports of the other. Commerce will come to an end, but therewill be no invasions and no naval battles. The submarines, not being able to see each other, will not be able to fight. The worst that can happen is a deadlock, and a commercial deadlock of this sort will soon be ended by mutual agreement. The smallest of countries may fear no country, however large, whose sole access to her is by way of water. With a few defensive submarines she may adequately protect herself from invasion. Her shipping may be bottled up, but she needs to stand in no fear of invading hosts and of rapine by armies from across the ocean. She stands prepared, with a fleet of a few tiny submarines, to stand for her rights and for her liberty.Offensively the submarine will be of little value when brought to its highest point of development, for when every nation is fully equipped with submarines the menace of these vessels will keep enemy surface ships from venturing on the sea. There will be nothing for the submarines to attack except ships of their own kind, and that, of course, will be impossible. Thus wars between maritime nations will come to be nothing more than a mutual check; no surface ships or transports will dare to move in any direction. Offensive warfare will thus end, and each nation will be playing a waiting game, relying upon her submarines for defence.This is the destiny of the submarine. This has been the aim and the prophecy of the pioneers in submarine development. There is nothing which will stand in the way of the accomplishment of this happy result. The success of the submarine in the present war has at last forced those in power—and among them many who bitterly opposed its development—to recognize the value of this weapon. Submarine designers and submarine inventors will from now onreceive the encouragement and the attention of naval authorities throughout the world. Hence we may expect to see the submarine developed and improved until it has many times the efficiency, speed, and destructive power which is possessed by it to-day. We may also expect to see the industrial possibilities of the submarine developed to a high degree within a few years. Travel will be made safer, rich cargoes will be recovered, and the ocean will be forced to give up its wealth and its products to the uses of man in greater quantity than ever before. Thus, instead of following a career of murder and of piracy, the submarine is destined to protect the weak, to strengthen the strong, and to serve humanity in general as an agent for prosperity and for peace.

Studies of the submarine which deal with the subject solely from the engineering or military standpoint, or which treat of the development of this weapon simply in the light of its strategic value, fail to recognize the human aspects of the problem.

I have stated in the Foreword that at the present time the submarine is a tremendous factor in the political and industrial economy of the world, and I believe that a treatment of the submarine which gives no consideration to it in this broader relationship to the life and welfare of humanity is altogether incomplete. In my opinion, just as the submarine is to-day a power to be reckoned with in the world—an agency the prodigious capacity for destruction of which we realize but too well—so is it to be in the future an instrument the influence of which upon the progress and safety of the nations of the earth will be well-nigh incalculable. Temporarily, it presents itself as a power for evil, as the weapon, the bludgeon, as it were, of either a misguided people or of an overbearing and power-thirsty aristocracy; permanently, I believe, it will prove to be destined to work for the highest good of humanity, and will serve the noblest and most intimate interests of men; for, as I have asserted above, the submarine has by no means been brought to its fullest measure of development. The limit of its capabilities has not been approached by modern ship constructors, even remotely. It will have a future; it has a destiny; it will serve mankind.

There have been many criticisms and attacks directed at the submarine and against the designers of submarines within the past few years. These may be classified in general into two main categories: first, those which discredit the submarine on the basis of its mechanical limitations, and, secondly, those which assail the submarine on moral and humanitarian grounds and condemn the use of the weapon as piratical and murderous. For people who criticise the submarine on the grounds first stated I have little sympathy; they are those "who have eyes and see not, and having ears, hear not." They disavow the very testimony of the senses. I can, however, fully sympathize with those who attack the submarine on the latter basis; the events of the past three years may have borne this conviction upon them. Yet they also fail to realize that the submarine, in the end, will render great benefits and service to the world. They judge too much from the present and look too rarely into the future. By way of answering these criticisms I will be able to present the facts concerning the future of the submarine as they appear to me after years of thought and experimentation in this field.

THE "ARGOSY AND ARGONAUT III"A house boat with submarine and access tube attached, built by the author in 1917, for pleasure and experimental purposes in making underwater explorations and investigation of sea coast waterbed formation, in locating beds of shellfish, wrecks, etc., and to demonstrate the practicability of their recovery. The house boat is 100 ft. overall, 20 ft. beam. The submarine can operate up to depths of 150 ft. by adding additional lengths of access tube.

A house boat with submarine and access tube attached, built by the author in 1917, for pleasure and experimental purposes in making underwater explorations and investigation of sea coast waterbed formation, in locating beds of shellfish, wrecks, etc., and to demonstrate the practicability of their recovery. The house boat is 100 ft. overall, 20 ft. beam. The submarine can operate up to depths of 150 ft. by adding additional lengths of access tube.

There are many who believe that the submarine is limited in its power because of the inherent nature of its operation. These are the people who erroneously conceive that the submarine designers in some peculiar and miraculous way manage to get around the laws of the universe. They think that the activity of the submarine is in defiance of the law of gravitation; that it performs unnatural feats. People with such views, of course, are inclined to believe that the submarine by now must have reached the height of its development, and that in any case it is an unreliable mechanism.Criticism from such sources is worthy of notice solely because of its positive stupidity. Inventors never perform miracles and they never defy nature. Man can never master nature nor override her dictates. The inventor, rather, is one who comes to know the laws of nature with intimacy, and devises ways to turn them to his use. He works in harmony with nature, perhaps a little more closely than ordinary men; the secret of inventors' successes lies in the fact that they are those who best know how to coöperate with nature. Just so the submarine, as we have seen, acts in response to the laws of gravity, hydraulics, pneumatics, and other natural sciences, and is in complete accordance with nature's dictates; it has no limitations set by nature upon its operation. Objectors on these grounds are in the same class with those who asserted some years ago that an iron ship could not float.

DIAGRAM OF THE "ARGOSY AND ARGONAUT III"Sketch showing the submarine "Argonaut III" on the bottom and operator in diving compartment inspecting the waterbed through the open diver's door.

Sketch showing the submarine "Argonaut III" on the bottom and operator in diving compartment inspecting the waterbed through the open diver's door.

There is also a very numerous class of persons who hold that the submarine is a very risky and dangerous mechanism; they feel that the principles of its operation have not yet been brought to a point of safety or certainty. The facts upon which they base this judgment are found by them in the accounts of the many accidents which have occurred to submarines in recent years. As a matter of fact, these accidents have been due, as a rule, to either of two causes; namely, faulty construction or carelessness. There is not a case on record of a properly constructed, well-handled submarine coming to grief through any cause related to the principle of her operation. The principles of successfully navigating under the water were discovered twenty years ago, and have been applied with perfect safety ever since. Many designers since that time have failed to recognize the correct principles, and their incorrectly built boats havegiven trouble; hence accidents have occurred. To-day, however, the true principles of construction are universally recognized. The modern submarine has passed the stage of experimentation.

Another source for notions of this same sort, as to the unreliability of submarine navigation, is the constant repetition in the daily press that our submarines are not operating satisfactorily. These complaints also lead people to conclude that the mechanical demands of under-water navigation are not completely fulfilled. Now, submarine vessels may be constructed to-day which are a great deal more trustworthy in their operation and considerably less dangerous to go about in than are certain well-known United States railroads. Nearly every submarine in use in the navies of the world at the present day is capable of functioning in perfect safety, so far as submergence and emergence are concerned. They may be operated with almost exact precision while located many feet beneath the surface. If given sufficient static stability, there is no danger that they will dive to the bottom or that they will not come up again.

The cause of all these complaints about our submarines is traceable to a single difficulty. The reader by this time realizes that the difficulty is with the engines, and not with the principles of submarine construction. The modern submarine builder cannot find an engine of sufficiently light weight to install with safety in a submarine hull which will give all the speed which the government demands that his boat should produce. On attempting to attain speed much engine trouble has developed, due to experimentation and trial, and from this source have sprung all the criticisms of the operation of our vessels. There is no such natural limitationto the possible utility of the submarine as many people believe; the only limitation is that of speed. Our boats are safe, they are seaworthy, they are capable of a tremendous radius of action. Sooner or later a reliable engine will be developed which will meet the needs of military submarines and which will deliver power sufficient to give the submarine battleship speed. This is at present the only limitation upon submarine development, and it is not an insuperable obstacle.

Those critics of the submarine who base their opinions upon moral and humanitarian notions are as self-deceived as those who disparage the mechanical success of the under-water vessel. People in this latter class, however, are not afflicted with a distorted vision of the truth, as are those of the other group, but rather, we may say, they suffer from nearsightedness. They do not look far enough ahead to judge as to the permanent utility of the submarine. They base their inferences entirely upon the use which one of the belligerent powers has made of its submarines. It is true, indeed, that the activities of a great many submarine commanders, and the policy of frightfulness which has been so consistently maintained throughout the course of the war by a certain group of autocrats, have temporarily put a moral stigma upon the submarine as a justifiable naval weapon. They have made it appear that the submarine cannot play a humane and legitimate part in warfare. While I have firmly maintained, and still believe, that a submarine blockade is a legitimate use of this weapon in warfare, I do regret that many acts committed by the submarines of one of the belligerents in the present war have been little short of outright piracy.

Strange to say, from the time when I first went into submarine work a fear has always possessed me that the submarine might be turned to piratical uses. I have often thought that some unscrupulous and adventurous group of men might terrorize the commerce of the world in times of peace by taking advantage of the invisible qualities of submarine vessels. Such a group of men with the use of such a weapon might make submarine attacks on peaceful merchant vessels and escape detection and capture for years. I did not, however, nor did any other submarine inventor, anticipate that any of the world's recognized governments would sanction piratical and barbarous actions on the part of their naval officers. In fact, it has been the aim of submarine inventors, from Fulton's time to the present, to devise a weapon that would ultimately bring war between maritime nations to an end. They have not had in mind the murderous designs which have been accredited to them from the very outset. It is my firm conviction that it is the destiny of the submarine to put an end forever to the possibility of warfare upon the high seas, and to eliminate warfare between nations which have no other access to each other except by sea. This is the wonderful opportunity of the submarine, and the submarine inventor has been and will be a laborer in the cause of peace, and not the cause of war and bloodshed.

Robert Fulton pointed out this possibility when he was working upon his own devices. In a letter upon the subject he stated:

"All my reflections have led me to believe that this application of it (the use of the mines placed by submarines) will in a few years put a stop to maritime wars, give thatliberty on the seas which has been long and anxiously desired by every good man, and secure to Americans that liberty which will enable citizens to apply their mental and corporeal faculties to useful and humane pursuits, to the improvement of our country, and the happiness of the whole people."

Later on it was Josiah L. Tuck who recognized the same fact, and entitled the vessel of his constructionThe Peacemaker.

The reason which underlies this conviction held by submarine inventors was succinctly expressed by the late Mr. John P. Holland. He pointed out the fact that "submarines cannot fight submarines," the submarine inventors have long since grasped the significance of this fact, realizing as they have that the submarine eventually was to drive the battleship from the sea.

When the day comes that submarines are equipped with engines of battleship speed, and thus take away from the battleships the only means of defence which they now have—namely, the ability to run away from the submarine—the submarine will dominate the surface of the high seas. Submarines may be built of almost any conceivable size, and carry large-calibre disappearing guns and ten, fifty, or one hundred torpedoes. The battleship will be powerless before the submarine of the future; the advantage will always be with the submarines, as they are invisible.

When every country with a sea-coast is equipped with a sufficient number of defensive submarines, even of very low speed, attacks by invasion of their sea-coasts will become impossible. In case two maritime nations go to war, the submarines belonging to each will effectively blockade the ports of the other. Commerce will come to an end, but therewill be no invasions and no naval battles. The submarines, not being able to see each other, will not be able to fight. The worst that can happen is a deadlock, and a commercial deadlock of this sort will soon be ended by mutual agreement. The smallest of countries may fear no country, however large, whose sole access to her is by way of water. With a few defensive submarines she may adequately protect herself from invasion. Her shipping may be bottled up, but she needs to stand in no fear of invading hosts and of rapine by armies from across the ocean. She stands prepared, with a fleet of a few tiny submarines, to stand for her rights and for her liberty.

Offensively the submarine will be of little value when brought to its highest point of development, for when every nation is fully equipped with submarines the menace of these vessels will keep enemy surface ships from venturing on the sea. There will be nothing for the submarines to attack except ships of their own kind, and that, of course, will be impossible. Thus wars between maritime nations will come to be nothing more than a mutual check; no surface ships or transports will dare to move in any direction. Offensive warfare will thus end, and each nation will be playing a waiting game, relying upon her submarines for defence.

This is the destiny of the submarine. This has been the aim and the prophecy of the pioneers in submarine development. There is nothing which will stand in the way of the accomplishment of this happy result. The success of the submarine in the present war has at last forced those in power—and among them many who bitterly opposed its development—to recognize the value of this weapon. Submarine designers and submarine inventors will from now onreceive the encouragement and the attention of naval authorities throughout the world. Hence we may expect to see the submarine developed and improved until it has many times the efficiency, speed, and destructive power which is possessed by it to-day. We may also expect to see the industrial possibilities of the submarine developed to a high degree within a few years. Travel will be made safer, rich cargoes will be recovered, and the ocean will be forced to give up its wealth and its products to the uses of man in greater quantity than ever before. Thus, instead of following a career of murder and of piracy, the submarine is destined to protect the weak, to strengthen the strong, and to serve humanity in general as an agent for prosperity and for peace.

INDEXAA-8, English submarine,47A-1, English submarine,48Abbott, Leon,123Aerial torpedoes,240Aeroplanes,234ffAir supply, question of,49-51"Alligator," Russian submarine,67"American Turtle,"79,80,149ff"Amphibious" submarines,202ffAnchoring weights,20,21Appropriation, U. S., 1893, requirements,161ffAppropriation, U. S., 1915, requirements,175"Argonaut,"1,7,10,36,41,50,55,58,60,70,125,177ff,264,270,276"Argonaut, Junior,"125,127,176ffAsphyxiation,32,70BBaker, G. F.,121,161,163Ballast tanks,9"Battle of the Kegs,"81Becklemechief, Capt.,65Berg, H. O.,137Blinding the submarine,244Board on Submarine Defense, report of,209ff,215ffBombs,248Bonaparte, Napoleon,81Bottom wheels,216,219Bourgois and Brun,153Brayton engines,94Bubonoff, Constructor,65Buoyancy, negative,18-19Buoyancy, positive,18-19Buoyancy, reserve of,9Bushnell, Dr. David,79,149CCarbonic acid gas, engine,10Cargo-carrying submarines,251ffChampion, S. T.,127Champion, B. F.,128Churchill, Winston,217Classes of submarine,206Coast defense submarines,197Compass, adjustment of,180,181Compressed air engine,10"Congress, The," 87Conning tower (invisible),26Converse, G. A.,162Convoy,249Criticisms of submarine,290ffCruiser submarines,199ff"Cumberland, The,"87DDangers of submarining,32ffDaniels, Josephus,139Dawson, Sir Trevor,174Day,79Debrell, Cornelius,77,78Deck guns,239Decompression, question of,278Defensive devices,232"Delphine," Russian submarine,65,66Depth control,17ff,216Destiny of submarine,296,297Detection of surface ships,257"Deutschland, The,"251Dickey,91Diesel engines,13ffDirigibles,234ffDiscs, whirling,248Divers,59,276,277ffDivers' compartment,30,51ff,221Dixon, Lieut.,39Doyle, A. Conan,4Dunkerly,91"Dzrewiecke apparatus,"192EE-2, American submarine,76"Eagle, The,"79,80,150Echo device,241Edison, Thos. A.,16,141Electric Boat Company,114Engines,9ffEngines, difficulty with,11ff,292,293"Even-keel,"173ff,183Exius, Otto,140Explosions,70ffFF-1, American submarine,76F-4, American submarine,76"Farfadet," French submarine,76Fenian movement,96,157,158"Fenian Ram,"96ff,157,158Fessenden, Prof.,27,238Fisher, J. J.,56Fleet submarines,199ff"Foca, The,"13Folger, Commander,162"Fortuna,"63Freight submarine,58"Fulton," American submarine,76Fulton, Robert,81,151,294,295GGadd, Capt. Alex.,44Garrett, G. W.,158Geological investigation (submarine),264Goubet, M.,160Government aid to inventors,138ffGrubb, Sir Howard,25"Gustave Zédé," French submarine,162"Gymnote," French submarine,162Gyroscope,29HHale, Senator,125Halstead, O. S.,155Hanson, Capt. Scott,263Hasker, C. H.,38,152Haswell, C. H.,126Holland, J. P.,84ff,157,163,295Holland, J. P., Jr.,85"Holland, The," American submarine,190,191Hopkinson, Francis,81"Housatonic," S. S.,39Hull, construction of,6,7"Hunley, The,"37,38,152,158Hydrogen,16Hydrographic investigation,269ffHydroplanes,17,171ffI"Intelligent Whale, The,"155ffInternal combustion engines,10International peace, influence of submarines,295Installation of batteries,16Inventors, proposed institution for,146ff"Irish Ram." See "Fenian Ram."JJonson, Ben,77KKoenig, Capt. Paul,251Krupps,183,184LLake, 1893 design,169ffLauboeuf, M.,2,173,183Laurenti, naval constructor,183,186Lees, Capt. Edgar,174Legitimacy of the submarine,294Limitations of the submarine,290ffLister, John,91"Lutine, The,"76MMagnetic devices,247ffMalster, W. T.,131Maxim, Sir Hiram,137"Merrimac, The,"86Metacentric height,8ffMicrophone,198Mines,80,220Mine-evading submarine,206,216ffMine-laying submarine,208,216ffMirabello, Admiral,185"Monitor, The,"86"Morse, The," French submarine,191NNansen, Capt.,263"Narval, The," French submarine,191"Nautilus, The,"81Nautilus Submarine Boat Co.,109Naval Consulting Board,139,141ffNets, usedvs.submarines,242ff,245ffNet-evading submarines,206,216ffNew Orleans submarine,39,152,153New York Herald,129,141Nordenfelt,158,159O"Obry" gear,29Offensive devices,232Officina Galileo,24Omniscope,25One-man submarines,205Oscillator, Fessenden,27,238PPaget, Lord,87Patent attorneys,134Patent laws,187Patent "sharks,"134Payne, Lieut.,38"Peacemaker, The,"83,160Peral, Lieut. Isaac,160Periscope,22ff,47,48Perpetual motion machine,135,136Piratical submarine,294Pitt, William,83Planté storage battery,15"Plongeur, Le," French submarine,153,154"Plunger, The,"166ff,176,188ff"Pluviose, The," French submarine,76Promoters,130ffPropelling mechanism,9ff"Protector, The,"43,50,62,209ff,235,260,262R"Resurgam, The,"158Rice, Isaac,115,192Richards, G. M.,98,99,102"Running down," danger of,42ffRussian experiences,63ffSSampson, Admiral,96,124Salvaging,57,275"Schwartzkopf" torpedoes,247Scientific American,242Scott, Sir Percy,3Searching for wrecks,275,276Searchlights,240Shell-fishing,285ffSmoke screen,249Sound receivers,27ffSound detectors,237ff,239Spear, L. Y.,173Speed, demand for,11-19Stability,7ff,70,150Storage batteries,9,15ffSubmarine engineering,287Submarine guns,240Submarine supply boats,223ffSubmarinevs.submarine,244Sueter, Murray F.,173Superstructure,7,182TTillian, Capt.,67Torpedoes,28ff,247Torpedo tubes,28Triangular drag,165Trinitrotoluol (T-N-T),30Tuck, Josiah L.,83,84,160,295Turret, armored,235UU-1, Austrian submarine,48U-2, Austrian submarine,48U-boats, German,3Under-ice navigation,260ffUnsinkable ships,248VVerne, Jules,1,119Vickers Company,193Vision, underwater,236,241WWaddington,160,161"Wake" of a periscope,233Ward, Dr. Francis,266,267Washington, George,150Weddingen, Lieut.,4White, Sir William,192Whitehead torpedo,2,28,29,247Williamson Brothers,265ffWilliamson, Capt. Charles,265Wireless,28,198Wrecking work,57Wright Brothers,137ZZalinski, Capt.,109Zigzag course,250FOOTNOTES:[1]Probably "The Intelligent Whale."[2]Note.—The blockade of Alexandria was in progress at that time.TRANSCRIBER'S NOTEObvious typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources.Except for those changes noted below, inconsistent or archaic spelling of a word or word-pair within the text has been retained. For example: gasolene gasoline; waterbed water-bed; air lock air-lock; under-sea undersea; conquerer; to-day.List of Illustrations:p xi. 'Tubes Assembled for' changed to 'Tubes Assembled Ready for'.p xi. 'Built in August,' changed to 'Built. Launched in August,'.p xii. 'of "Argosy" and' changed to 'of the "Argosy" and'.p xii. 'Le Plungeur' changed to 'Le Plongeur'.p 117. 'blank space' replaced by '__________'.p 194. (caption)'Laubeuf' changed to 'Lauboeuf'.p 301. 'Schwarzkopf' changed to 'Schwartzkopf'.

AA-8, English submarine,47A-1, English submarine,48Abbott, Leon,123Aerial torpedoes,240Aeroplanes,234ffAir supply, question of,49-51"Alligator," Russian submarine,67"American Turtle,"79,80,149ff"Amphibious" submarines,202ffAnchoring weights,20,21Appropriation, U. S., 1893, requirements,161ffAppropriation, U. S., 1915, requirements,175"Argonaut,"1,7,10,36,41,50,55,58,60,70,125,177ff,264,270,276"Argonaut, Junior,"125,127,176ffAsphyxiation,32,70BBaker, G. F.,121,161,163Ballast tanks,9"Battle of the Kegs,"81Becklemechief, Capt.,65Berg, H. O.,137Blinding the submarine,244Board on Submarine Defense, report of,209ff,215ffBombs,248Bonaparte, Napoleon,81Bottom wheels,216,219Bourgois and Brun,153Brayton engines,94Bubonoff, Constructor,65Buoyancy, negative,18-19Buoyancy, positive,18-19Buoyancy, reserve of,9Bushnell, Dr. David,79,149CCarbonic acid gas, engine,10Cargo-carrying submarines,251ffChampion, S. T.,127Champion, B. F.,128Churchill, Winston,217Classes of submarine,206Coast defense submarines,197Compass, adjustment of,180,181Compressed air engine,10"Congress, The," 87Conning tower (invisible),26Converse, G. A.,162Convoy,249Criticisms of submarine,290ffCruiser submarines,199ff"Cumberland, The,"87DDangers of submarining,32ffDaniels, Josephus,139Dawson, Sir Trevor,174Day,79Debrell, Cornelius,77,78Deck guns,239Decompression, question of,278Defensive devices,232"Delphine," Russian submarine,65,66Depth control,17ff,216Destiny of submarine,296,297Detection of surface ships,257"Deutschland, The,"251Dickey,91Diesel engines,13ffDirigibles,234ffDiscs, whirling,248Divers,59,276,277ffDivers' compartment,30,51ff,221Dixon, Lieut.,39Doyle, A. Conan,4Dunkerly,91"Dzrewiecke apparatus,"192EE-2, American submarine,76"Eagle, The,"79,80,150Echo device,241Edison, Thos. A.,16,141Electric Boat Company,114Engines,9ffEngines, difficulty with,11ff,292,293"Even-keel,"173ff,183Exius, Otto,140Explosions,70ffFF-1, American submarine,76F-4, American submarine,76"Farfadet," French submarine,76Fenian movement,96,157,158"Fenian Ram,"96ff,157,158Fessenden, Prof.,27,238Fisher, J. J.,56Fleet submarines,199ff"Foca, The,"13Folger, Commander,162"Fortuna,"63Freight submarine,58"Fulton," American submarine,76Fulton, Robert,81,151,294,295GGadd, Capt. Alex.,44Garrett, G. W.,158Geological investigation (submarine),264Goubet, M.,160Government aid to inventors,138ffGrubb, Sir Howard,25"Gustave Zédé," French submarine,162"Gymnote," French submarine,162Gyroscope,29HHale, Senator,125Halstead, O. S.,155Hanson, Capt. Scott,263Hasker, C. H.,38,152Haswell, C. H.,126Holland, J. P.,84ff,157,163,295Holland, J. P., Jr.,85"Holland, The," American submarine,190,191Hopkinson, Francis,81"Housatonic," S. S.,39Hull, construction of,6,7"Hunley, The,"37,38,152,158Hydrogen,16Hydrographic investigation,269ffHydroplanes,17,171ffI"Intelligent Whale, The,"155ffInternal combustion engines,10International peace, influence of submarines,295Installation of batteries,16Inventors, proposed institution for,146ff"Irish Ram." See "Fenian Ram."JJonson, Ben,77KKoenig, Capt. Paul,251Krupps,183,184LLake, 1893 design,169ffLauboeuf, M.,2,173,183Laurenti, naval constructor,183,186Lees, Capt. Edgar,174Legitimacy of the submarine,294Limitations of the submarine,290ffLister, John,91"Lutine, The,"76MMagnetic devices,247ffMalster, W. T.,131Maxim, Sir Hiram,137"Merrimac, The,"86Metacentric height,8ffMicrophone,198Mines,80,220Mine-evading submarine,206,216ffMine-laying submarine,208,216ffMirabello, Admiral,185"Monitor, The,"86"Morse, The," French submarine,191NNansen, Capt.,263"Narval, The," French submarine,191"Nautilus, The,"81Nautilus Submarine Boat Co.,109Naval Consulting Board,139,141ffNets, usedvs.submarines,242ff,245ffNet-evading submarines,206,216ffNew Orleans submarine,39,152,153New York Herald,129,141Nordenfelt,158,159O"Obry" gear,29Offensive devices,232Officina Galileo,24Omniscope,25One-man submarines,205Oscillator, Fessenden,27,238PPaget, Lord,87Patent attorneys,134Patent laws,187Patent "sharks,"134Payne, Lieut.,38"Peacemaker, The,"83,160Peral, Lieut. Isaac,160Periscope,22ff,47,48Perpetual motion machine,135,136Piratical submarine,294Pitt, William,83Planté storage battery,15"Plongeur, Le," French submarine,153,154"Plunger, The,"166ff,176,188ff"Pluviose, The," French submarine,76Promoters,130ffPropelling mechanism,9ff"Protector, The,"43,50,62,209ff,235,260,262R"Resurgam, The,"158Rice, Isaac,115,192Richards, G. M.,98,99,102"Running down," danger of,42ffRussian experiences,63ffSSampson, Admiral,96,124Salvaging,57,275"Schwartzkopf" torpedoes,247Scientific American,242Scott, Sir Percy,3Searching for wrecks,275,276Searchlights,240Shell-fishing,285ffSmoke screen,249Sound receivers,27ffSound detectors,237ff,239Spear, L. Y.,173Speed, demand for,11-19Stability,7ff,70,150Storage batteries,9,15ffSubmarine engineering,287Submarine guns,240Submarine supply boats,223ffSubmarinevs.submarine,244Sueter, Murray F.,173Superstructure,7,182TTillian, Capt.,67Torpedoes,28ff,247Torpedo tubes,28Triangular drag,165Trinitrotoluol (T-N-T),30Tuck, Josiah L.,83,84,160,295Turret, armored,235UU-1, Austrian submarine,48U-2, Austrian submarine,48U-boats, German,3Under-ice navigation,260ffUnsinkable ships,248VVerne, Jules,1,119Vickers Company,193Vision, underwater,236,241WWaddington,160,161"Wake" of a periscope,233Ward, Dr. Francis,266,267Washington, George,150Weddingen, Lieut.,4White, Sir William,192Whitehead torpedo,2,28,29,247Williamson Brothers,265ffWilliamson, Capt. Charles,265Wireless,28,198Wrecking work,57Wright Brothers,137ZZalinski, Capt.,109Zigzag course,250

[1]Probably "The Intelligent Whale."

[2]Note.—The blockade of Alexandria was in progress at that time.

TRANSCRIBER'S NOTEObvious typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources.Except for those changes noted below, inconsistent or archaic spelling of a word or word-pair within the text has been retained. For example: gasolene gasoline; waterbed water-bed; air lock air-lock; under-sea undersea; conquerer; to-day.List of Illustrations:p xi. 'Tubes Assembled for' changed to 'Tubes Assembled Ready for'.p xi. 'Built in August,' changed to 'Built. Launched in August,'.p xii. 'of "Argosy" and' changed to 'of the "Argosy" and'.p xii. 'Le Plungeur' changed to 'Le Plongeur'.p 117. 'blank space' replaced by '__________'.p 194. (caption)'Laubeuf' changed to 'Lauboeuf'.p 301. 'Schwarzkopf' changed to 'Schwartzkopf'.

TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE

Obvious typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources.

Except for those changes noted below, inconsistent or archaic spelling of a word or word-pair within the text has been retained. For example: gasolene gasoline; waterbed water-bed; air lock air-lock; under-sea undersea; conquerer; to-day.

List of Illustrations:p xi. 'Tubes Assembled for' changed to 'Tubes Assembled Ready for'.p xi. 'Built in August,' changed to 'Built. Launched in August,'.p xii. 'of "Argosy" and' changed to 'of the "Argosy" and'.p xii. 'Le Plungeur' changed to 'Le Plongeur'.

p 117. 'blank space' replaced by '__________'.p 194. (caption)'Laubeuf' changed to 'Lauboeuf'.p 301. 'Schwarzkopf' changed to 'Schwartzkopf'.

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