Chapter 3

(a) beau debet legi bev, (b) enfaunt, (c) fraunceys, (d) bein, (e) belement, (f) ce, (g) cet vel eyztt, (h) Iil, (i) neot, (k) toutdiz, (l) afetes, (m) dissafetes, (n) beetez, (o) dv et non Dieu.

The subsequent chapters deal with the same subjects as in Bibbesworth, and sometimes the wording is almost identical. The concluding chapter, "De moribus infantis," is taken from another source, and gives admonitions for discreet behaviour, quoting the moral treatise of the pseudo-Cato, the Proverbs of Solomon, and the like. The passage in whichFeminadeals with the upbringing of the child may be of interest, as showing how the later author repeats the earlier, while altering the wording; and as throwing some light on the way French was then learnt:

Et quaunt il court en graunt ageMettez ly apprendre langage.And when he runs in great age[84]Put him to learn language.

Et quaunt il court en graunt ageMettez ly apprendre langage.

Et quaunt il court en graunt age

Mettez ly apprendre langage.

And when he runs in great age[84]Put him to learn language.

And when he runs in great age[84]

Put him to learn language.

En fraunceys a luy vous devez direComez il doit soun corps discrire.In French to him ye shall sayHow first he shall his body describe.

En fraunceys a luy vous devez direComez il doit soun corps discrire.

En fraunceys a luy vous devez dire

Comez il doit soun corps discrire.

In French to him ye shall sayHow first he shall his body describe.

In French to him ye shall say

How first he shall his body describe.

Et pur ordre garder de moun et ma,Toun et ta, son et sa, masculino et feminino.And for order to kepe of mon and ma,Toun and ta, soun and sa, for ma souneth.

Et pur ordre garder de moun et ma,Toun et ta, son et sa, masculino et feminino.

Et pur ordre garder de moun et ma,

Toun et ta, son et sa, masculino et feminino.

And for order to kepe of mon and ma,Toun and ta, soun and sa, for ma souneth.

And for order to kepe of mon and ma,

Toun and ta, soun and sa, for ma souneth.

Quia ma sonat feminino moun masculino.To femynyn gender and moun to masculyn.

Quia ma sonat feminino moun masculino.

To femynyn gender and moun to masculyn.

Cy que en parle soit bien apris,Et de nule homme escharnis.So that in speach he be well learned,And of no man scorned.

Cy que en parle soit bien apris,Et de nule homme escharnis.

Cy que en parle soit bien apris,

Et de nule homme escharnis.

So that in speach he be well learned,And of no man scorned.

So that in speach he be well learned,

And of no man scorned.

At the end is a 'calendar,' or table of words arranged alphabetically in three parallel columns. The first gives the orthography of the word, the second the pronunciation, and the third the explanation of its meaning and construction, which usually takes the form of an English equivalent.

In the meanwhile the grammatical study of French was not neglected. There are still extant numerous small treatises[85]dealing with different aspects of French grammar, chiefly the flexions, and belonging to the end of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The conjugation of verbs receives special attention, and there are several manuscripts providing paradigms and lists of the chief parts of speech—often very incorrect, and of more value as showing the interest taken in French in England than as illustrating any development in the history of the conjugations of French verbs. The usual verbs described in these fragmentary works[86]areamo,habeo,sum,volo,facio, and the French paradigms are generally accompanied by Latin ones, on which they are naturally based, and which were intended to help the student to understand the French ("cum expositione earundem in Latinis"). The two most considerable of these works known add many verbs to the list mentioned above. Of these the first, theLiber Donati,[87]gives examples of law French rather than literary French;[88]but the other, written in French, endeavours to teach "douce françois de Paris"—cy comence le Donaitsoloum douce franceis de Paris.[89]TheDonaitbelongs to the fifteenth century, and is the work of one R. Dove, who also wrote someRegulae de Orthographia Gallicain Latin,[90]which show considerable resemblance to those of the earlierOrthographia Gallica. The same is true of some of the rules devoted to orthography in theLiber Donati, which also owes something to the work of 'T. H., Student of Paris,' either in the original form, or, more probably, in the recast, due to Canon Coyfurelly. In this respect, Coyfurelly continues the efforts of the earlier writer to purify English spelling of French—efforts which at this time would meet with more success than was the case earlier.[91]

Another topic touched on in theRegulaeof R. Dove is the formation of the plural of nouns, and of the feminine of adjectives. The substance of one of these rules may be quoted, as an example of the failure of these early writers to grasp general principles. All nouns ending inge, likelange, says the grammarian, takesin the plural, aslanges; all nouns ending inurc, asbourc, havezorsin the plural and drop thec, asbours; all nouns ending innyn, asconyn, takesin the plural, aschemyns; all nouns ending ineyn, aspeyn, form their plural by addings, aspeyns. Such is the rule for the formation of the plural of nouns, and that for the feminine of adjectives, which follows, is on the same lines. Pronouns also received some attention from these early grammarians. TheLiber Donati[92]contains a few remarks on the personal, demonstrative and possessive pronouns, giving the different forms for the singular and plural and the various cases; thus it tells us thatjeoand sometimesmoyare used forI(ego) in the nominative case, and in other casesmoyormein the singular, whilenousis used for the plural in all cases, and so forth.

We thus see that the verbs, nouns and pronouns received consideration, varying in degree, at the hands of these pioneers in French grammar. Neither were the indeclinable parts of speech neglected; at the end of theLiber Donatithere is a list of some of these as well as of the ordinal and cardinal numbers in both Latin and French, while theDonaitgives the numbers only. Some manuscripts contain lists of adverbs,prepositions and conjunctions in Latin and French.[93]Others give lists of the cardinal and ordinal numbers in French, and one adds to these a nomenclature of the different colours.[94]The names of the days, months, and feast-days were another favourite subject.

Of these small treatises that which nearest approaches the form of a comprehensive grammar is theLiber Donati, which includes observations on the orthography and pronunciation, on verbs and pronouns, and lists of adverbs, conjunctions, and numerals. But there appeared at the beginning of the fifteenth century, before 1409, a more comprehensive treatise of some real value—theDonait françois pur briefment entroduyr les Anglois en la droit langue du Paris et de pais la d'entour,[95]a work which but for its very many anglicisms might be placed on a level with some of the similar grammars of the sixteenth century.[96]The origin of thisDonaitis interesting. A certain Englishman, John Barton, born and bred in the county of Cheshire, but a student of Paris, and a passionate lover of the French language, engaged some good clerks to compose theDonait, at his own great cost and trouble, for the benefit of the English, who are so eager ("embrasez") to learn French.[97]Judging from the lines with which Barton closes his short but communicative preface, the work was intended mainly for the use of young people—the "chers enfants" and "tres douces pucelles," 'hungering' to learn French: "Pur ce, mes chiers enfantz et tresdoulcez puselles," he writes, "que avez fam d'apprendre cest Donait scachez qu'il est divisé en belcoup de chapiters si come il apperera cy avale." Barton then retires to make way for his 'clerks,' whose remarks are entirely confined to grammatical teaching and who, like Barton, write in French.

Most of the early treatises on French grammar which appeared in England are written in Latin. Latin appearsto have been the medium through which French was learnt and explained to a large extent, although in the case of the riming vocabularies English was used for teaching the young children for whom these nomenclatures were chiefly written. But grammar, probably intended to be learnt by older students, was usually studied in Latin, which was also found to be a help in learning French. Students are told to base French orthography on that of Latin, and there are constant references from French words to their Latin originals. TheDonait soloum douce franceis de Parisis apparently the only work of any importance written in French before that of Barton. English was not used for this purpose before the sixteenth century, when it was almost invariably employed, even by Frenchmen. A grammar such as Barton's would, no doubt, be read and translated with the help of a tutor; and it is highly probable that the children for whom it was intended would have previously acquired some practical knowledge of French from some such elementary treatise as Bibbesworth's vocabulary. Moreover, French was so generally in use in the higher classes of society, and had been for so long a kind of semi-national tongue, that it would hardly be approached as an entirely foreign language, as in later times. In writing a French grammar in French, Barton and those who followed the same course merely adopted for the teaching of French a method in common use in the teaching of Latin. The advisability of writing French grammars in French was a question, as we shall see, much discussed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as well as in much more recent times.

The clerks employed by Barton made free use of the observations on French grammar which had appeared previously. But their work had an additional value; the rules are stated with considerable clearness and are usually correct.[98]The opening chapters deal with the letters and their pronunciation, set forth, like the rest of the grammar, in a series of questions and answers:

Quantez letters est il? Vint. Quellez? Cinq voielx et quinse consonantez. Quelx sont les voielx et ou seroit ils sonnés? Le premier vouyel estaet serra sonné en la poetrine, la seconde esteet serra sonné en la gorge, le tiers estiet serra sonné entre les joues, le quart estoet serra sonné du palat de la bouche, le quint estuet serra sonné entre les levres.

To these observations on the vowels are added a few on the consonants, and "belcoup de bones rieules" (six in all) treating the avoidance of hiatus between two consonants and the effects of certain vowels and consonants on each other's pronunciation. Next come a few observations on the parts of speech; for "apres le Chapitre des lettres il nous fault dire des accidens." Instead of giving a number of isolated instances as rules for the formation of the plural, the general rule for the addition ofsto the singular is evolved and emphasized by this advice: "Pour ceo gardez vous que vous ne mettez pas le singuler pour le pulier (pluriel) ne a contraire, si come font les sots." Further, we must avoid imitating the 'sottez gens,' to whom frequent reference is made, in using one person of a tense for another, and sayingje ferraforje ferray.[99]In this section of the work the rules follow each other without any orderly arrangement.[100]

At about the same time an English poet is said to have written a French grammar, as another poet, Alexander Barclay, actually did later. An early bibliographer[101]includes in his list of Lydgate's works one entitledPraeceptiones Linguae Gallicae, in one book, of which no further trace remains to-day. Lydgate, however, was well acquainted with French; he made the customary foreign tour, besides visiting Paris again on a later occasion in attendance on noble patrons, and put his knowledge of the language to the test by translating or adapting several works from the French, like most contemporary writers.[102]The same early authority informs us that, as soon as Lydgate returned from his travels, he openeda school for the sons of noblemen, possibly at Bury St. Edmunds. Probably Lydgate wrote a French grammar for the use of these young noblemen, who would certainly have to learn the language; and, after serving their immediate purpose, these rules, we may surmise, were lost and soon forgotten.

In the fifteenth century, instruction in French epistolary style of all degrees continued to be supplied in collections of model letters; and at the end of the fourteenth century a new kind of book for teaching French appeared—theManière de Langageor model conversation book, intended for the use of travellers, merchants, and others desiring a conversational and practical rather than a thorough and grammatical knowledge of French. Contrary to the custom, prevalent at this later period, of providing English translations, the earliest of these contain no English gloss, but simply the French text without any attempt at even the slight grammatical instruction provided in the vocabularies. Their sole purpose was to give the traveller or wayfarer a supply of phrases and expressions on the customary topics; grammatical instruction could be sought elsewhere.

The earliest of these[103]is the first work for teaching French to which a definite date can be assigned. A sort of dedication at the end is dated from Bury St. Edmunds, "la veille du Pentecote, 1396." We have not the same definite information as to the author.[104]The anglicisms make it clear that he was an Englishman, while the references to Orleans and its university, and the trouble there between the students and the townspeople in 1389, suggest that he was a student of that university, then much frequented by the English and other foreigners, especially law students. He may have been Canon M. T. Coyfurelly, Doctor of Law of Orleans,[105]and author of the contemporary recasting of T. H.'s treatise on French orthography. The author tells us he undertook his task at the request of a "tres honoré et tres gentil sire"; that he had learnt French "es parties la mere," and that he wrote according to the knowledge he acquired there, which, he admits, may not beperfect. Indeed his French is full of anglicisms;que hommeis written for 'that man';œuvrerfor 'worker';quefor 'why,' and so on; there are also many grammatical mistakes such as wrong genders,au homme,de lesfordes,de lefordu. This "manière" must have enjoyed a very considerable popularity, judging from the number of manuscripts, of various dates, still in existence. And, in modern times, it presents a greater interest to the reader than any of the treatises mentioned before, partly from the naïveté and quaintness of its style, partly owing to the vivid picture it gives us of the life of the time at which it was written.

It opens in a religious strain, with a prayer that the students of the book may have "sens naturel" to learn to speak, pronounce, and write "doulz françois":

A noster commencement nous dirons ainsi: en nom du pere, filz et Saint Esperit, amen. Ci comence la Maniere de Language qui t'enseignera bien a droit parler et escrire doulz françois selon l'usage et la coustume de France. Primiers, au commencement de nostre fait et besogne nous prierons Dieu devoutement et nostre Dame la benoite vierge Marie sa tres douce mere, et toute la glorieuse compaigne du Saint reaume de Paradis celeste, ou Dieux mette ses amis et ses eslus, de quoi vient toute science, sapience, grace et entendement et tous manieres vertuz, qu'il luy plaist de sa grande misericorde et grace tous les escoliers estudianz en cest livre ainsi abruver et enluminer de la rousée de sa haute sapience et entendement, qu'ils pouront avoir sens naturel d'aprendre a parler, bien soner et a droit escrire doulz françois.

Then, because man is the noblest of all created things, the author proceeds to give a list of the parts of his body, which recalls the old riming vocabularies. This, however, is the only portion in which conversation is sacrificed to vocabulary. In the rest of the work, though the vocabulary is increased by alternative phrases wherever possible, it is never allowed to encroach too much on the conversation.

The second chapter presents a scene between a lord and his page, in which the page receives minute instructions for commissions to the draper, the mercer, and upholsterer—an excellent opportunity of introducing a large choice of words. Conversation for travellers is the subject of the third chapter, the most important, and certainly the most interesting in the whole book. It tells, "Coment un homme chivalchant ou cheminant se doit contenir et parler sur son chemin qui voult aler bien loin hors de son pais." After witnessing the preparations for the journey, the reader accompanies the lord and his page through an imaginary journey in France. Dialogue and narrative alternate, and the lord talkswith his page Janyn or whiles away the time with songs:

Et quant il aura achevée sa chanson il comencera a parler a son escuier ou a ses escuiers, ainsi disant: "Mes amys, il est bien pres de nuyt," vel sic: "Il sera par temps nuyt." Doncques respont Janyn au son signeur bien gentilment en cest maniere: "Vrayement mon seigneur, vous ditez verité"; vel sic: "vous ditez voir"; vel sic: "vous dites vray"—"Je panse bien qu'il feroit mieux pour nous d'arester en ce ville que d'aller plus avant maishuy. Coment vous est avis?"—"Ainsi comme vous vuillez, mon seigneur." "Janyn!"—"Mon signeur?"—"Va devant et prennez nostre hostel par temps."—"Si ferai-je, mon seigneur." Et s'en vait tout droit en sa voie, et quant il sera venu a l'ostel il dira toutcourtoisementen cest maniere. "Hosteler, hosteler," etc.

The page then proceeds to make hasty preparations for the coming of his master to the inn, and we next assist at the arrival of the lord and his evening meal and diversions—another opportunity for the introduction of songs—and his departure in the morning towards Étampes and Orleans.

More humble characters appear in the next chapter: "Un autre manière de parler de pietalle, comme des labourers et œuvrers de mestiers." Here we have conversations between members of the working classes. A gardener and a ditcher discuss their respective earnings, describe their work, and finally go and dine together; a baker talks with his servant, and so gives us the names of the chief things used in his trade, just as the gardener gave a list of flowers and fruits. A merchant scolds his apprentice for various misdemeanours, and then sends him off to market:

Doncques l'apprentiz s'en vait au marchié pour vendre les danrées de son maistre et la vienment grant cop des gens de divers pais de les achater: et apprentiz leur dit tout courtoisement en cest maniere,—'Mes amis venez vous ciens et je vous monstrerai de aussi bon drap comme vous trouverez en tout ce ville, et vous en aurez de aussi bon marché comme nul autre. Ore regardez, biau sire, comment vous est avis; vel sic: comment vous plaist il;

and after some bargaining he sells his goods.

In the next "manière de parler" a servant brings a torn doublet to a mender of old clothes, and enlists his services. A chapter of more interest and importance is that dealing with greetings and salutations to be used at different times of the day to members of the various ranks of society:

Quant un homme encontrera aucun au matinée il luy dira tout courtoisement ainsi: "Mon signour Dieux vous donne boun matin et bonne aventure," vel sic: "Sire Dieux vous doint boun matin et bonne estraine, Mon amy, Dieux vous doint bon jour et bonne encontre." Et a midi vous parlerez en cest maniere: "Monsieur Dieux vous donne bon jour et bonnes heures";vel sic: "Sire, Dieu vous beneit et la compaignie!" A peitaille vous direz ainsi: "Dieux vous gart!" . . . Et as œuvrers et labourers vous direz ainsi: "Dieux vous ait, mon amy,"

and so on. One traveller asks another whence he comes and where he was born, and the other says he comes from Orleans, where there is a fierce quarrel between the students and the townspeople; and was born in Hainaut, where they love the English well, and there is a saying that "qui tient un Henner (Hennuyer) par la main, tient un Englois par le cuer." We are next taught how to speak to children: "Quant vous verez un enfant plorer et gemir, vous direz ainsi: Qu'as tu, mon enfant," and comfort him, and when a poor man asks you for alms, you shall answer, "Mon amy, se je pourroi je vous aidasse tres volantiers. . . ."

From this we return to subjects more suited to merchants and wayfarers—how to inquire the road, and to go on a pilgrimage to the tomb of St. Thomas-à-Becket. The work closes with a gathering of companions in an inn, which, like the rest of the chapters, is full of life and interest. Last of all, a sort of supplement is added in the form of a short poem on the drawbacks of poverty:

Il est hony qui pouveres est,

and afatrasiein prose.

Another treatise of the same kind, written about three years later, was intended chiefly for the use of children,Un petit livre pour enseigner les enfantz de leur entreparler comun françois.[106]It was not the first of its kind. The metrical vocabularies of Bibbesworth and his successors were chiefly intended for the use of children. There is also some evidence to show that the grammatical treatises were used by children; the commentary was added to theOrthographica Gallicabecause the rules were somewhat obscure "pour jeosne gentz," and Barton, in his introduction, mentions the "chiers enfantz" and "tresdoulez puselles," as those whom his grammar particularly concerns.

In thePetit livre, however, the teaching is of the simplest kind, and specially suited to children. The dialogue lacks the interest of the earlier 'manière,' and inclines, in places, to become a list of phrases pure and simple. The work opens abruptly with the words: "Pour ce sachezpremierement que le an est divisé en deux, c'est asscavoir le yver et la esté. Le yver a six mois et la esté atant, que vallent douse," and so on to the other divisions of the year and time. The children are then taught the numbers in French, the names of the coins, and those of the persons and things with which they come into daily contact. Then follow appropriate terms for addressing and greeting different persons, and the author even goes so far as to provide the child with a stock of insulting terms for use in quarrels. The rest of the treatise does not appear to be intended for children. There are conversations in a tavern, lists of salutations, familiar talk for the wayside and for buying and selling, all of which has little special interest, and is designed apparently to meet the needs of merchants more than any other class. In the chatter on the events of the day there occurs a passage which enables us to date the work. The traveller tells the hostess of the captivity of Richard II. as a recent event:

"Dieu, dame, j'ay ouy dire que le roy d'Angleterreest osté."—"Quoy desioie!"—"Par ma alme voir."—"Et les Anglois n'ont ils point de roy donques?"—"Marie, ouy, et que celuy que fust duc de Lancastre, que est nepveu a celluy que est osté."—"Voire?"—"Voire vraiement."—"Et le roygne que fera elle?"—"Par dieu dame, je ne sçay, je n'ay pas esté en conceille."—"Et le roy d'Angleterre ou fust il coronné?"—"A Westmynstre."—"Fustez vous la donques?"—"Marie, oy, il y avoit tant de presse que par un pou que ne mouru quar a paine je eschapey a vie."—"Et ou serra il a nouvel?"—"Par ma foy je ne sçay, mais l'en dit qu'il serra en Escoce."

The authorship is not so easy to ascertain. The manual may be due to Canon T. Coyfurelly, probable author of the earlier and better-known work also.[107]The many mistakes and anglicisms, such asquoyforquelle('what') and the exclamatory 'Marie' in the quotation just given, show it to be the work of an Englishman.

Another book of conversation appeared in 1415,[108]as may be gathered from its first two chapters, in which a person fresh from the wars in France tells of the siege of Harfleur and the battle of Agincourt, and announces the return of the victorious English army. The rest of the dialogues are represented as taking place in and about Oxford. There is the usual tavern scene. Travellers from Tetsworth arrive atan Oxford inn, and are present at the evening meal and diversions. The hostess describes the fair at Woodstock and the articles bought and sold there; her son, a boy of twelve years, wants to be apprenticed in London; he goes to the school of Will Kyngesmylle, where writing, counting, and French are taught. One of the merchants calls the lad and questions him as to his knowledge of French: "Et que savez vous en fraunceys dire?—Sir je say moun noun et moun corps bien descrire.—Ditez moy qu'avez a noun.—J'ay a noun Johan, bon enfant, beal et sage et bien parlant engleys, fraunceys et bon normand, beneyt soit la verge que chastie l'enfant et le bon maistre qui me prist taunt! Je pri a Dieu tout puissant nous graunte le joye tous diz durant!" The lad then proceeds to give proof of his knowledge by naming the parts of his body and his clothing, always, it appears, the first things learnt.

This reference to the teaching of French in the school of an Oxford pedagogue shows that, though French had at this time lost all standing in the Grammar Schools, it was still taught in private establishments.[109]It seems highly probable that Will Kyngesmylle was the author of this work, and that he used his text-book as a means of self-advertisement, a method very common among later teachers of French. At the close comes a chapter belonging to another work of the same type, which is only preserved in this fragment; no doubt other such works existed and have been entirely lost.

It is likely that in the fifteenth century these conversational manuals supplanted, to a considerable extent, the earlier type of practical manual for teaching French—the metrical vocabulary—with which they had something in common. At any rate, there is no copy of such nomenclatures extant afterFemina(1415). The 'manières' provided in their dialogues much of the material found in the vocabularies, giving, wherever possible, groups of words on the same topics—the body, its clothing, houses, and men's occupations. Further, the vocabularies, which had never departed from the type instituted by Bibbesworth in the thirteenth century, dealt more with the feudal and agricultural life of the Middle Ages, and so had fallen behind the times. The 'Manières de Langage' were more in keeping with the new conditions. Towards the end of the century (and perhaps at the beginningof the sixteenth century) we come to a manual,[110]which, while resembling the 'manières' in most points, reproduces some of the distinctive external marks of the vocabularies. For instance, the French is arranged in short lines, which, however, do not rime, and vary considerably in the number of syllables they contain; and these are followed by a full interlinear English gloss, as in the later vocabularies. The subject matter, however, is similar to that of the early conversation books. First comes gossip at taverns and by the wayside:

Ditez puisse ie savement aler?Saie may I saufly goo?Ye sir le chemyn est sure assez.Yes sir the wey is sure inough.Mes il convent que vous hastez.But it behoveth to spede you.Sir dieu vous donne bon aventure.Sir god geve you good happe.Sir a dieu vous commaunde.Sir to god I you betake.

Ditez puisse ie savement aler?Saie may I saufly goo?

Ditez puisse ie savement aler?

Saie may I saufly goo?

Ye sir le chemyn est sure assez.Yes sir the wey is sure inough.

Ye sir le chemyn est sure assez.

Yes sir the wey is sure inough.

Mes il convent que vous hastez.But it behoveth to spede you.

Mes il convent que vous hastez.

But it behoveth to spede you.

Sir dieu vous donne bon aventure.Sir god geve you good happe.

Sir dieu vous donne bon aventure.

Sir god geve you good happe.

Sir a dieu vous commaunde.Sir to god I you betake.

Sir a dieu vous commaunde.

Sir to god I you betake.

Sir dieu vous esploide.Sir god spede you.Sir bon aventure avez vous.Sir good chaunce have ye.Sir par saint Marie cy est bon servise.Sir by saint Marie her is good ale.Sir pernes le hanappe, vous comenceres.Sir take the coppe, ye shal beginne.Dame ie ne feray point devaunt vous.Dame I wil not doo bifor you.Sir vous ferrez verrement.Sir ye shal sothely.

Sir dieu vous esploide.Sir god spede you.

Sir dieu vous esploide.

Sir god spede you.

Sir bon aventure avez vous.Sir good chaunce have ye.

Sir bon aventure avez vous.

Sir good chaunce have ye.

Sir par saint Marie cy est bon servise.Sir by saint Marie her is good ale.

Sir par saint Marie cy est bon servise.

Sir by saint Marie her is good ale.

Sir pernes le hanappe, vous comenceres.Sir take the coppe, ye shal beginne.

Sir pernes le hanappe, vous comenceres.

Sir take the coppe, ye shal beginne.

Dame ie ne feray point devaunt vous.Dame I wil not doo bifor you.

Dame ie ne feray point devaunt vous.

Dame I wil not doo bifor you.

Sir vous ferrez verrement.Sir ye shal sothely.

Sir vous ferrez verrement.

Sir ye shal sothely.

After some disconnected discourse on inquiring the time, asking the way, etc., we again return to the tavern:

Dame dieu vous donne bon jour.Dame god geve you good daie.Dame avez hostel pour nous trois compaignons?Dame have ye hostel for us iij felowes?Sir quant longement voudrez demourer?Sir how long wol ye abide?Dame nous ne savons point.Dame we wote not.Et que vouldrez donner le iour pour vostre table?And what wil ye geve a daie for your table?Dame que vouldrez prendr pour le iour?Dame what wol ye take for the daie?Sir non meynns que vj deniers le iour.Sir noo lesse thenne vj d. the day ... etc.

Dame dieu vous donne bon jour.Dame god geve you good daie.

Dame dieu vous donne bon jour.

Dame god geve you good daie.

Dame avez hostel pour nous trois compaignons?Dame have ye hostel for us iij felowes?

Dame avez hostel pour nous trois compaignons?

Dame have ye hostel for us iij felowes?

Sir quant longement voudrez demourer?Sir how long wol ye abide?

Sir quant longement voudrez demourer?

Sir how long wol ye abide?

Dame nous ne savons point.Dame we wote not.

Dame nous ne savons point.

Dame we wote not.

Et que vouldrez donner le iour pour vostre table?And what wil ye geve a daie for your table?

Et que vouldrez donner le iour pour vostre table?

And what wil ye geve a daie for your table?

Dame que vouldrez prendr pour le iour?Dame what wol ye take for the daie?

Dame que vouldrez prendr pour le iour?

Dame what wol ye take for the daie?

Sir non meynns que vj deniers le iour.Sir noo lesse thenne vj d. the day ... etc.

Sir non meynns que vj deniers le iour.

Sir noo lesse thenne vj d. the day ... etc.

Next comes the usual scene between buyers and sellers, followed by another inn scene of greater length. After attending to their horses, the travellers sup and spend the night at the inn, and set out the next morning after reckoning with their hostess. The manuscript ends abruptly in the midst of a list of salutations. The nature of the French[111]betrays the author's nationality; he was evidently an Englishman. As to the English, the quaint turn given to many of the phrases is usually explained by the writer's desire to give a literal translation of the French; many of the inaccuracies in both versions are probably due to careless work on the part of the scribe.

Merchants thus appear to have been one of the chief classes among which there was a demand for instruction in French. In addition to the large part assigned to them in the 'Manières de Langage,' and in the epistolaries, where letters of a commercial nature are a usual feature, there exist collections of model forms for drawing up bills, indentures, receipts and other documents of similar import. They are usually called 'cartularies,' are accompanied by explanations in Latin, and may be looked upon as the first text-books of commercial French.[112]One author explains their origin and aim by this introductory remark:[113]"Pour ceo qe j'estoie requis par ascunz prodeshommez de faire un chartuarie pour lour enfantz enformer de faire chartours, endenturs, obligations, defesance, acquitancez, contuaries, salutaries, en Latin et Franceys ensemblement . . . fesant les chartours, escripts munimentz a de primes en Latyn et puis en Franceys."

More emphasis is laid on the demand for instruction in French among the merchant class by the fact that the earliest printed text-books were designed chiefly for their use. The first of these may be classed with the new development of the 'Manières de Langage,' comprising dialogues in French and English, although it does not exactly answer to this description.[114]It was issued from the press of William Caxton in about 1483, and at least one other edition appeared at alater date.[115]In form it is a sort of narrative in French, with an English translation opposite. The aim of the work is stated clearly in an introductory passage which informs the reader that "who this book shall learn may well enterprise merchandise from one land to another and to know many wares which to him shall be good to be bought, or sold for rich to become." Caxton thus recommends the book to the learner:

Tres bonne doctrineRygt good lernyngPour aprendreFor to lerneBriefment fransoys et engloys.Shortly frenssh & englyssh.Au nom du pereIn the name of the fadreEt du filzAnd of the sooneEt du sainte esperiteAnd of the holy ghostVeul comnencierI wyll begynneEt ordonner ung livre,And ordeyne this book,Par le quel on pourraBy the which men shall moweRaysonnablement entendreResonably understandeFrançoys et Anglois,Frenssh and Englissh,Du tant comme cest escriptOf as moche as this writingPourra contenir et estendre,Shall conteyne & stratche,Car il ne peut tout comprendre.For he may not all comprise.Mais ce qu'on n'y trouveraBut that which cannot be foundenDeclairé en cestuiDeclared in thisPourra on trouver ailleursShall be founde somwhere elsEn aultres livres.In other bookes.Mais sachies pour voirBut knowe for trutheQue es lignes de cest aucteurThat in the lynes of this auctourSount plus de parolles et de raysonsBen moo wordes & reasonsComprinses, et de responsesComprised, & of answersQue en moult d'aultres livres.Than in many other bookes.Qui ceste livre vouldra aprendreWho this booke shall wylle lerneBien pourra entreprendreMay well enterpriseMerchandises d'un pays a l'autre,Marchandise fro one land to anoothir,Et cognoistre maintes denréesAnd to know many waresQue lui seroient bon achetésWhich to him shall be good to be boughtOu vendues pour riche devenir.Or sold for rich to become.Aprendes ce livre diligement,Lerne this book diligently,Grande prouffyt y gyst vrayement.Grete prouffyt lieth therein truly.

The 'doctrine' itself opens with a list of salutations with the appropriate answers. A house and all its contents come next, then its inhabitants, which introduces the subject of degrees of kinship:

Or entendes petys et grands,Je vous dirai maintenantDune autre matereLa quele ie commence.Se vous estes mariésEt vous avez femmeEt vous ayez marye,Se vous maintiens paisiblementQue vos voisins ne disentDe vous fors que bien:Ce seroit vergoigne.Se vous aves pere et mere,Si les honnourés tousiours;Faictes leur honneur;. . .Si vous aves enfans,Si les instruesDe bonnes meurs;Le temps qu'ilz soient josnesLes envoyes a l'escoleAprendre lire et escripre. . . .

At the end of the category come the servants and their occupations, which affords an opportunity of bringing in the different shops to which they are sent and of specifying the meat and drink they purchase there. We then pass to buying, selling, and bargaining in general, and to merchandise of all kinds, with a list of coins, popular fairs, and fête-days.

After an enumeration of the great persons of the earth comes the main chapter of the work, giving a fairly complete list of crafts and trades. This takes the form of an alphabetical list of Christian names, each of which is made to represent one of the trades, beginning with Adam the ostler: "For this that many words shall fall or may fall which be not plainly heretofore written, so shall I write you from henceforth divers matters of all things, first of one thing, then of another, in which chapter I will conclude the names of men and women after the order of a, b, c." The baker may be selected as a fair example:

Ferin le boulengierFierin the bakerVend blanc pain et brun.Selleth whit brede and brown.Il a sour son grenier gisantHe hath upon his garner liengCent quartiers de bled.One hundred quarters of corn.Il achete a temps et a heure,He byeth in tyme and at hour,Si qu'il n'a pointSo that he hath notDu chier marchiet.Of the dere chepe (high buying prices).

At last the author, "all weary of so many names to name, of so many crafts, so many offices, so many services," finds relief in certain considerations of a religious order: "God hath made us unto the likeness of himself, he will reward those who do well and punish those who do not repent of their sins, and attend the holy services: If ye owe any pilgrimages, so pay them hastily; when you be moved for to go your journey, and ye know not the waye, so axe it thus." The usual directions for inquiring the way follow with the description of the arrival at an inn, and the customary gossip. The reckoning and departure on the following morning afford an opportunity of including a further list of Flemish and English coins together with the numerals; and Caxton concludes his work by commending it to the reader with a prayer that those who study it may persevere sufficiently to profit by it:

Cy fine ceste doctrine,Here endeth this doctrine,A Westmestre les LoundresAt Westmestre by LondonEn formes impressée,In fourmes enprinted,En le quelle ung chaucunIn the whiche one everishPourra briefment aprendreMay shortly lerneFrançois et Engloys.French and English.La grace de sainct esperitThe grace of the holy ghosstVeul enluminer les curesWylle enlyghte the hertesDe ceulx qui le aprendront,Of them that shall lerne it,Et nous doinst perseveranceAnd us gyve perseveransEn bonnes operacions,In good werkes,Et apres cest vie transitorieAnd after lyf transitorieLa pardurable ioye et glorie!The everlasting ioye and glorie!

The short introduction and epilogue were most probably the composition of Caxton himself. The rest of the book is drawn from a set of dialogues in French and Flemish, first written at the beginning of the fourteenth century, calledLe Livre des Mestiersin reference to its main chapter.[116]This would possibly be known to merchants trading with Bruges and other centres of the Low Countries; and when we notice the numerous points of resemblance between it and the English manuals of conversation, the first of which did not appear before the end of the same century, it seems very probable that the Flemish original had some influence on the works produced in England. Caxton was a silk mercer of London, and his business took him to the towns of the Low Countries, especially Bruges, where the English merchants had a large commercial connexion. There, no doubt, he became acquainted with theLivre des Mestiers, and probably improved his knowledge of French by its help, for he studied and read the language a good deal during his long sojourn abroad. There also he probably added an English column to his copy of the French-Flemish phrase-book, as a sort ofexercise rather than with any serious intention of publication; and when he had set up his press at Westminster, remembering the need he had felt for French, in his own commercial experience, and the little book which had assisted him, he would decide to print it. Caxton's copy of theLivre des Mestiersbelonged, no doubt, to a later date than the one extant to-day,[117]probably to the beginning of the fifteenth century. It must have been fuller, and have had different names attached to the characters, so that, as the names are still arranged in alphabetical order, it is difficult, at a glance, to distinguish the identity of the two texts.

Caxton's rendering of the French is often inaccurate, owing perhaps to the influence of the Flemish version from which he seems to have made his translation.[117]Moreover, at the early date at which Caxton, probably, added the English column to theLivre des Mestiers, his knowledge of French had not yet reached that state of thoroughness which was to enable him to translate such a remarkable number of French works into English. He himself tells us in the prologue to theRecuyell of the Histories of Troyof Raoul le Fèvre (Bruges, 1475)—the first of his translations from the French, and, indeed, the first book to be printed in English—that his knowledge of French was not by any means perfect. With the exception of the introductory and closing sentences, Caxton made few additions to his original. He did indeed supply the names of English towns, coins, bishoprics, and so on; but, on the whole, the setting of the work is foreign; Bruges, not London, is the centre of the action, and no doubt the place where the original was composed.

Not long after the publication of Caxton's doctrine another work of like character and purpose appeared. It claims to be "a good book to learn to speak French for those who wish to do merchandise in France, and elsewhere in other lands where the folk speak French." The atmosphere is entirely English, and consequently its contents bear a closer resemblance to its English predecessors. In the arrangement of the dialogue it is identical with the Cambridge conversation book, except that the English lines come before the French, and not the French before the English.[118]The four subjectsround which the dialogue turns, namely, salutations, buying and selling, inquiring the way, and conversation at the inn, were all favourites in the early "Manières de Langage." For the rest it follows in the steps of its English predecessors in confining itself to dialogue pure and simple, while Caxton's 'doctrine' adopted the narrative form. In one point, however, the work differs from the latest development of the old "Manière de Langage," as preserved in the Cambridge Dialogues in French and English; the dialogues are followed by a vocabulary, then a reprint of one of the old books on courtesy and demeanour for children, with a French version added, and finally commercial letters in French and English. The work is thus made much more comprehensive than any of its type which had as yet appeared, and includes samples, so to speak, of all the practical treatises for teaching French which had appeared in the Middle Ages.

It was printed separately by the two chief printers of the time, both foreigners: Richard Pynson, a native of Normandy and student of Paris, who came to England and began printing on his own account about 1590-1591; and Wynkyn de Worde, a native of Alsace, and apprentice to Caxton, with whom he probably came to England from Bruges in 1476, and to whose business he succeeded in 1491.[119]Although neither of the printers dated their work, it seems probable that the earliest edition was issued by Pynson. There is a unique copy of his edition in the British Museum; it is without title-page, pagination, or catch-words, and the colophon reads simply "Per me Ricardum Pynson." The colophon of Wynkyn's work, of which there is a complete copy in the Grenville Library (British Museum),[120]and a fragment of two leaves in the Bodleian, is slightly more instructive and runs as follows: "Here endeth a lytyll treatyse for to lern Englyshe and Frensshe. Emprynted at Westmynster by my Wynken de Worde." Now as Wynkyn moved from Westminster in 1500 to set up his shop in the centre of the trade in Fleet Street, opposite to that of his rival Pynson, his edition of the work must have appeared before that date, because it was issued from what had been Caxton's house in Westminster.On the other hand, the type used by Pynson is archaic,[121]and the work is evidently one of the earliest issued from his press. It is inferior to Wynkyn's edition from the technical point of view. A headline is all there is by way of title; while in Wynkyn's copy we find a separate title-page, containing the words, "Here begynneth a lytell treatyse for to lern Englishe and Frensshe," and a woodcut of a schoolmaster seated in a large chair, with a large birch-rod in his left hand, and, on a stool at his feet, three small boys holding open books. This particular woodcut was a favourite in school-books of the period;[122]it appears, for instance, in a little treatise entitledPervula, giving instructions for turning English into Latin, which Wynkyn de Worde printed about 1495.[123]Moreover, each page of Wynkyn's edition has a descriptive headline, "Englysshe and Frensshe," which is not found in Pynson's. The text also is in many places more accurate than that of the Norman printer, and gives the impression of having been corrected here and there. It is therefore probable that Pynson first printed the treatise shortly after 1490,[124]and that another edition was issued by Wynkyn de Worde during the period intervening between the date of the issue of Pynson's edition and the end of the century. A remnant, consisting of one page of yet another edition, is preserved in the British Museum, and shows some variations in spelling from the two other texts.

This little book, then, seems to have enjoyed considerable popularity during its short life. On the whole it is more elementary in character than the 'doctrine' of Caxton. The first things taught are the numbers and a list of ordinary mercantile phrases. The opening passage is very much like that written by Caxton for his work:

Here is a good boke to lerne to speke Frenshe.Vecy ung bon livre apprendre parler françoys.In the name of the fader and the soneEn nom du pere et du filzAnd of the holy goost, I wyll begynneEt du saint esperit, je vueil commencerTo lerne to speke Frensshe,A apprendre a parler françoys,Soo that I maye doo my marchandiseAffin que je puisse faire ma marchandiseIn Fraunce & elles where in other londes,En France et ailieurs en aultre pays,There as the folk speke Frensshe.La ou les gens parlent françoys.And fyrst I wylle lerne to reken by lettre.Et premierement je veux aprendre a compter par lettre. . . .

Here is a good boke to lerne to speke Frenshe.Vecy ung bon livre apprendre parler françoys.

Here is a good boke to lerne to speke Frenshe.

Vecy ung bon livre apprendre parler françoys.

In the name of the fader and the soneEn nom du pere et du filz

In the name of the fader and the sone

En nom du pere et du filz

And of the holy goost, I wyll begynneEt du saint esperit, je vueil commencer

And of the holy goost, I wyll begynne

Et du saint esperit, je vueil commencer

To lerne to speke Frensshe,A apprendre a parler françoys,

To lerne to speke Frensshe,

A apprendre a parler françoys,

Soo that I maye doo my marchandiseAffin que je puisse faire ma marchandise

Soo that I maye doo my marchandise

Affin que je puisse faire ma marchandise

In Fraunce & elles where in other londes,En France et ailieurs en aultre pays,

In Fraunce & elles where in other londes,

En France et ailieurs en aultre pays,

There as the folk speke Frensshe.La ou les gens parlent françoys.

There as the folk speke Frensshe.

La ou les gens parlent françoys.

And fyrst I wylle lerne to reken by lettre.Et premierement je veux aprendre a compter par lettre. . . .

And fyrst I wylle lerne to reken by lettre.

Et premierement je veux aprendre a compter par lettre. . . .

Next come the cardinal numbers and a vocabulary of words "goode for suche as use marchaundyse":

Of gold & sylver.D'or et d'argent.Of cloth of golde.De drap d'or.Of perles & precyous stones.De perles et Pieres precieuses.Of velvet & damaskes.De velours et damas etc. . . .

Of gold & sylver.D'or et d'argent.

Of gold & sylver.

D'or et d'argent.

Of cloth of golde.De drap d'or.

Of cloth of golde.

De drap d'or.

Of perles & precyous stones.De perles et Pieres precieuses.

Of perles & precyous stones.

De perles et Pieres precieuses.

Of velvet & damaskes.De velours et damas etc. . . .

Of velvet & damaskes.

De velours et damas etc. . . .

and so on for nearly a page, in which the names of various cloths, spices, and wines are provided.

Then follows another "manner of speeche" in a list of salutations arranged in dialogue form:

Other maner of speche in frensshe.Autre magniere de langage en françoys.Syr, God gyve you good daye.Sire, Dieu vous doint bon iour.Syr, God gyve you goode evyn.Sire, Dieu vous doint bon vespere.Syr, God gyve you goode nyght & goode reste.Sire, Dieu vous doint bon nuyt et bon repos.Syr, how fare ye?Sire, comment vous portez vous?Well at your commaundement.Bien a vostre commandement.How fare my lorde & my lady?Coment se porte mon seigneur et ma dame?Ryght well blessyd be God.Tres bien benoit soit Dieu.

Other maner of speche in frensshe.Autre magniere de langage en françoys.

Other maner of speche in frensshe.

Autre magniere de langage en françoys.

Syr, God gyve you good daye.Sire, Dieu vous doint bon iour.

Syr, God gyve you good daye.

Sire, Dieu vous doint bon iour.

Syr, God gyve you goode evyn.Sire, Dieu vous doint bon vespere.

Syr, God gyve you goode evyn.

Sire, Dieu vous doint bon vespere.

Syr, God gyve you goode nyght & goode reste.Sire, Dieu vous doint bon nuyt et bon repos.

Syr, God gyve you goode nyght & goode reste.

Sire, Dieu vous doint bon nuyt et bon repos.

Syr, how fare ye?Sire, comment vous portez vous?

Syr, how fare ye?

Sire, comment vous portez vous?

Well at your commaundement.Bien a vostre commandement.

Well at your commaundement.

Bien a vostre commandement.

How fare my lorde & my lady?Coment se porte mon seigneur et ma dame?

How fare my lorde & my lady?

Coment se porte mon seigneur et ma dame?

Ryght well blessyd be God.Tres bien benoit soit Dieu.

Ryght well blessyd be God.

Tres bien benoit soit Dieu.

Syr, whan go ye agayne to my lorde,Sire, quant retournez vous a mon seigneour,I praye you that ye wyll recommaunde me unto hym,Je vous prie que me recomandez a lui,And also to my lady his wyfe.Et aussi a ma dame sa femme.Syr, God be wyth you.Sire, Dieu soit avecques vous.

Syr, whan go ye agayne to my lorde,Sire, quant retournez vous a mon seigneour,

Syr, whan go ye agayne to my lorde,

Sire, quant retournez vous a mon seigneour,

I praye you that ye wyll recommaunde me unto hym,Je vous prie que me recomandez a lui,

I praye you that ye wyll recommaunde me unto hym,

Je vous prie que me recomandez a lui,

And also to my lady his wyfe.Et aussi a ma dame sa femme.

And also to my lady his wyfe.

Et aussi a ma dame sa femme.

Syr, God be wyth you.Sire, Dieu soit avecques vous.

Syr, God be wyth you.

Sire, Dieu soit avecques vous.

Yet another favourite subject is next introduced—a conversation on buying and selling:

Other maner of speche to bye and selle.Aultre magniere de langage pour vendre et achatter.Syr, God spede you.Sire, Dieu vous garde.Syr, have ye not good cloth to sell?Sire, n'avez vous point de bon drapt a vendre?Ye syr ryght good.Ouy sire tres bon.Now lette me see it and it please you.Or le me laisses voir s'il vous plest.I shall doo it with a good wyll.Je le feray voulentiers.Holde, here it is.Tenez sire, le veez cy.Now saye how moche the yerde is wortheOr me dites combyen l'aune vault.Ten shelynges.Dix solz.Forsothe ye set it to dere.Vrayment vous le faictez trop cher.I shall gyve you eyght shelynges.Je vous en donneray huyt soulz.I wyll not, it is to lytell.Non feroy, cest trop pou.The yerde shall coste you nyne shelynges,L'aune vous coustra neuf soulz,Yf that ye have it.Si vous l'airez.Ye shall have it for no lasse.Vous ne l'avrez pour riens mains.

Other maner of speche to bye and selle.Aultre magniere de langage pour vendre et achatter.

Other maner of speche to bye and selle.

Aultre magniere de langage pour vendre et achatter.

Syr, God spede you.Sire, Dieu vous garde.

Syr, God spede you.

Sire, Dieu vous garde.

Syr, have ye not good cloth to sell?Sire, n'avez vous point de bon drapt a vendre?

Syr, have ye not good cloth to sell?

Sire, n'avez vous point de bon drapt a vendre?

Ye syr ryght good.Ouy sire tres bon.

Ye syr ryght good.

Ouy sire tres bon.

Now lette me see it and it please you.Or le me laisses voir s'il vous plest.

Now lette me see it and it please you.

Or le me laisses voir s'il vous plest.

I shall doo it with a good wyll.Je le feray voulentiers.

I shall doo it with a good wyll.

Je le feray voulentiers.

Holde, here it is.Tenez sire, le veez cy.

Holde, here it is.

Tenez sire, le veez cy.

Now saye how moche the yerde is wortheOr me dites combyen l'aune vault.

Now saye how moche the yerde is worthe

Or me dites combyen l'aune vault.

Ten shelynges.Dix solz.

Ten shelynges.

Dix solz.

Forsothe ye set it to dere.Vrayment vous le faictez trop cher.

Forsothe ye set it to dere.

Vrayment vous le faictez trop cher.

I shall gyve you eyght shelynges.Je vous en donneray huyt soulz.

I shall gyve you eyght shelynges.

Je vous en donneray huyt soulz.

I wyll not, it is to lytell.Non feroy, cest trop pou.

I wyll not, it is to lytell.

Non feroy, cest trop pou.

The yerde shall coste you nyne shelynges,L'aune vous coustra neuf soulz,

The yerde shall coste you nyne shelynges,

L'aune vous coustra neuf soulz,

Yf that ye have it.Si vous l'airez.

Yf that ye have it.

Si vous l'airez.

Ye shall have it for no lasse.Vous ne l'avrez pour riens mains.

Ye shall have it for no lasse.

Vous ne l'avrez pour riens mains.

The merchant has also to be able to ask for directions on his way, and to gossip with the landlady of the wayside inn; the phrases necessary for these purposes are recorded in the next "manner of speech," where, as in the first treatise of 1396, the scene is laid in France:

For to aske the waye.Pour demander le chemin.Frende, God save you.Amy, Dieu vous sauve.Whiche is the ryght wayeQuelle est la voye droiteFor to goo from hens to Parys?Pour aller d'icy a Paris?Syr, ye muste holde the waye on the ryght hande.Sire, il vous fault tenir le chemin a la droite main.Now saye me, my frende,Or me ditez, mon amy,Yf that any good lodgingeY a il point de bon logisBe betwixt this and the next vyllage?Entre cy et ce prochayn village?There is a ryght good one.Il en y a ung tres bon.Ye shall be there ryght well lodged,Vous serez tres bien logé,Ye & also your horse.Vous et aussi vostre chevaul.My frende, God yelde it you,Mon ami, Dieu vous le rende,And I shall doo an other tymeEt ie feraye ung aultre foizAs moche for you and I maye.Autant pour vous se ie puis.God be with you.Dieu soit avecques vous.

For to aske the waye.Pour demander le chemin.

For to aske the waye.

Pour demander le chemin.

Frende, God save you.Amy, Dieu vous sauve.

Frende, God save you.

Amy, Dieu vous sauve.

Whiche is the ryght wayeQuelle est la voye droite

Whiche is the ryght waye

Quelle est la voye droite

For to goo from hens to Parys?Pour aller d'icy a Paris?

For to goo from hens to Parys?

Pour aller d'icy a Paris?

Syr, ye muste holde the waye on the ryght hande.Sire, il vous fault tenir le chemin a la droite main.

Syr, ye muste holde the waye on the ryght hande.

Sire, il vous fault tenir le chemin a la droite main.

Now saye me, my frende,Or me ditez, mon amy,

Now saye me, my frende,

Or me ditez, mon amy,

Yf that any good lodgingeY a il point de bon logis

Yf that any good lodginge

Y a il point de bon logis

Be betwixt this and the next vyllage?Entre cy et ce prochayn village?

Be betwixt this and the next vyllage?

Entre cy et ce prochayn village?

There is a ryght good one.Il en y a ung tres bon.

There is a ryght good one.

Il en y a ung tres bon.

Ye shall be there ryght well lodged,Vous serez tres bien logé,

Ye shall be there ryght well lodged,

Vous serez tres bien logé,

Ye & also your horse.Vous et aussi vostre chevaul.

Ye & also your horse.

Vous et aussi vostre chevaul.

My frende, God yelde it you,Mon ami, Dieu vous le rende,

My frende, God yelde it you,

Mon ami, Dieu vous le rende,

And I shall doo an other tymeEt ie feraye ung aultre foiz

And I shall doo an other tyme

Et ie feraye ung aultre foiz

As moche for you and I maye.Autant pour vous se ie puis.

As moche for you and I maye.

Autant pour vous se ie puis.

God be with you.Dieu soit avecques vous.

God be with you.

Dieu soit avecques vous.

The passage proceeds to describe, always in the form of a dialogue, the traveller's arrival at the inn, his entertainment there, and his departure:

Dame, shall I be here well lodged?Dame, seroy ie icy bien logé?Ye syr, ryght well.Ouy sire, tres bien.Nowe doo me have a good chambreOr me faites avoir ungue bonne chambreAnd a good fyre,Et bon feu,And doo that my horseEt faites que mon chevaulMaye be well governed,Puisse estre bien gouverné,And gyve hym good hay and good otes.Et lui donnés bon foin et bon avoine.Dame, is all redy for to dyne?Dame, est tout prest pour aller digner?Ye syr, whan it please you.Oui sire, quant il vous plaise.Syr, moche good do it you.Sire, bon preu vous face.I praye you make good chereJe vous prie faictez bonne chereAnd be mery, I drynke to you.Et soyez ioieux, ie boy a vous.Now, hostes, saye me how moche have we spende at this dyner.Hostesse, or me dites combien nous avons despendu a ce digner.I shall tell you with a good wyll.Je vous le diray voulentiers.Ye have in alle eyght shelyngs.Vous avez en tout huyt solz.Nowe well holde your sylver and gramercy.Or bien tenez vostre argent et grandmercy.Do my horse come to me.Or me faittz venir mon cheval.Is he sadled and redy for to ryde?Est il sellé et appointé pour chevaucher?Ye syr, all redy.Ouy sire, tout prest.Now fare well and gramercy.Or adiu et grandmercy.

Dame, shall I be here well lodged?Dame, seroy ie icy bien logé?

Dame, shall I be here well lodged?

Dame, seroy ie icy bien logé?

Ye syr, ryght well.Ouy sire, tres bien.

Ye syr, ryght well.

Ouy sire, tres bien.

Nowe doo me have a good chambreOr me faites avoir ungue bonne chambre

Nowe doo me have a good chambre

Or me faites avoir ungue bonne chambre

And a good fyre,Et bon feu,

And a good fyre,

Et bon feu,

And doo that my horseEt faites que mon chevaul

And doo that my horse

Et faites que mon chevaul

Maye be well governed,Puisse estre bien gouverné,

Maye be well governed,

Puisse estre bien gouverné,

And gyve hym good hay and good otes.Et lui donnés bon foin et bon avoine.

And gyve hym good hay and good otes.

Et lui donnés bon foin et bon avoine.

Dame, is all redy for to dyne?Dame, est tout prest pour aller digner?

Dame, is all redy for to dyne?

Dame, est tout prest pour aller digner?

Ye syr, whan it please you.Oui sire, quant il vous plaise.

Ye syr, whan it please you.

Oui sire, quant il vous plaise.

Syr, moche good do it you.Sire, bon preu vous face.

Syr, moche good do it you.

Sire, bon preu vous face.

I praye you make good chereJe vous prie faictez bonne chere

I praye you make good chere

Je vous prie faictez bonne chere

And be mery, I drynke to you.Et soyez ioieux, ie boy a vous.

And be mery, I drynke to you.

Et soyez ioieux, ie boy a vous.

Now, hostes, saye me how moche have we spende at this dyner.Hostesse, or me dites combien nous avons despendu a ce digner.

Now, hostes, saye me how moche have we spende at this dyner.

Hostesse, or me dites combien nous avons despendu a ce digner.

I shall tell you with a good wyll.Je vous le diray voulentiers.

I shall tell you with a good wyll.

Je vous le diray voulentiers.

Ye have in alle eyght shelyngs.Vous avez en tout huyt solz.

Ye have in alle eyght shelyngs.

Vous avez en tout huyt solz.

Nowe well holde your sylver and gramercy.Or bien tenez vostre argent et grandmercy.

Nowe well holde your sylver and gramercy.

Or bien tenez vostre argent et grandmercy.

Do my horse come to me.Or me faittz venir mon cheval.

Do my horse come to me.

Or me faittz venir mon cheval.

Is he sadled and redy for to ryde?Est il sellé et appointé pour chevaucher?

Is he sadled and redy for to ryde?

Est il sellé et appointé pour chevaucher?

Ye syr, all redy.Ouy sire, tout prest.

Ye syr, all redy.

Ouy sire, tout prest.

Now fare well and gramercy.Or adiu et grandmercy.

Now fare well and gramercy.

Or adiu et grandmercy.

Here the 'manière de langage' ends. It is followed by a list of nouns arranged under headings. The enumeration begins with the parts of the body,[125]followed by the clothing and armour—a list containing valuable information on the fashions of the time; then come the natural phenomena, the sun, the stars, water, the winds, and so on; the products of the earth and the food they supply, and finally, the names of the days of the week. With the exception of the last page, each word is preceded by a possessive adjective or an article indicating its gender. The English rendering is sometimes placed above the French word, sometimes opposite.

After the vocabulary, which covers nearly five pages, comes the courtesy book in English and French, occupying the next seven pages. It is a reprint of theLytylle Chyldrenes Lytil Boke,[126]which contains a set of maxims for discreet behaviour at meals, in which children are told not to snatch meat from the table before grace is said; not to throw bones on the floor; nor pick their teeth with their knife; nor do many other things, which, when we remember that such books were intended for the instruction of the gentry, throw interesting sidelights on contemporary manners. The inclusion of such precepts for children in a text-book for teaching French was not without precedent; in the last of the series of riming vocabularies,Femina(1415), there is a collection of moral maxims taken, in this instance, from the ancient writers, and printed in Latin, French, and English.

In conclusion, the author reverts to the more strictly commercial side of the treatise, with two letters, given in both French and English. One is from an apprentice who writesto his master reporting on some business he is transacting at Paris, and asking for more money. In the second a merchant communicates to his 'gossip' the news of the arrival at London and Southampton of ships laden with rich merchandise, and proposes that they should "find means and ways in this that their shops shall be well stuffed of all manner of merchandise." In both these letters the English comes first:

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