FOOTNOTES:

Maupas died in 1625, when a new edition of his grammar was in preparation. His son, who assisted him in teaching, saw the work through the press, and invited students to transfer to him the favours they had bestowed on his father. Apparently the younger Charles Maupas continued to teachhis father's clientèle for some time.CHARLES MAUPAS OF BLOISIn 1626 he gave further proof of his zeal for the cause in editing and publishing a comedy which both he and his father had frequently read with pupils not advanced enough for more serious matter. We are told vaguely that this comedy, entitledLes Desguisez: Comedie Françoise avec l'explication des proverbes et mots difficiles par Charles Maupas a Bloys, was the work of one of thebeaux espritsof the period.[642]Maupas, however, only had one copy, and knew not where to procure more. He was induced to have it printed on seeing the great labour and time expended by many of his pupils in making copies of it for their own use. For the benefit of students who had no tutor, he added an explanatory vocabulary of proverbs and difficult words.

Maupas'sGrammaire et syntaxe françoiseis still looked on with respect.[643]The reputation it enjoyed in the seventeenth century is the more remarkable in that it was the work of a provincial who had no relations with the Court, then the supreme arbiter in matters of language. But the grammar passed into oblivion in the course of time, as more modern manuals took its place. Maupas's hope that it would be used by foreign students of French as long as the language was held in esteem was not to be fulfilled.

His Grammar was superseded by that of Antoine Oudin—Grammaire Françoise rapportée au langage du temps, Paris, 1632. Oudin's original intention had been merely to enlarge the grammar of his predecessor. But as his work advanced he found "force antiquailles" and many mistakes, besides much confusion, repetition, and pedantry. He felt no compunction in telling the reader that he had enormously improved all he had borrowed from Maupas—although he is careful to note that he has no intention of damaging his rival's reputation, and is proud to share his opinion on several points. He had a great advantage over Maupas in having spent all his life in close connexion with the Court; his father, César, had been interpreter to the French king, and Antoine succeeded him in that office. He also appears to have had continual relations with foreigners, and he tells us on one occasion that he received from them "very considerable benefits." His grammar was certainly much used by foreign students, althoughit does not seem to have enjoyed as great a popularity in England as that of Maupas. Oudin'sCuriositez Françoises(1640) was also addressed "aux estrangers," and his aim was to show his gratitude by attempting to call attention to the mistakes which had made their way into grammars drawn up for their instruction.[644]

L'Eschole Françoise pour apprendre a bien parler et escrire selon l'usage de ce temps et pratique des bons autheurs, divisée en deux livres dont l'un contient les premiers elements, l'autre les parties de l'oraison(Paris, 1604), by Jean Baptiste du Val, avocat en Parlement at Paris and French tutor to Marie de Medicis, was also intended partly for the use of foreigners. He seeks to console foreign students coping with the difficulties of French pronunciation and orthography, by assuring them that though the French themselves may be able to speak correctly, they cannot prescribe rules on this score. As for his grammar, the student will learn more from it in two hours than from any other in two weeks. He also takes up a supercilious attitude, natural in one who exercised his profession in the precincts of the Court, towards anything that resembled a provincial accent; better no teacher at all than one with a provincial accent.

Among other grammars of similar purport is that of Masset in French and Latin,Exact et tres facile acheminement a la langue Françoyse, mis en Latin par le meme autheur pour le soulagement des estrangers(1606);[645]and to the same category belongs also thePraecepta gallici sermonis ad pleniorem perfectioremque eius linguae cognitionem necessaria tum suevissima tum facillima(1607), by Philippe Garnier, who, after teaching French for many years in Germany, settled down at Orleans, his native town, as a language tutor.[646]

Another work widely used by travellers, and well known in England, was theNouvelle et Parfaite Grammaire Françoise(1659) of Laurent Chiflet, the zealous Jesuit and missionary, which continued to be reprinted until the eighteenth century, and enjoyed for many years the highest reputation among foreign students of French. The Swiss Muralt relates howheFRENCH GRAMMARS FOR TRAVELLERSand a friend were inquiring for some books at one of the booksellers of the Palais, the centre of the trade; and how the bookseller answered them civilly and tried to find what they desired, until his wife interfered, crying, "Ne voiez vous pas que ce sont des etrangers qui ne savent ce qu'ils demandent? Donnez leur la grammaire de Chiflet, c'est là ce qu'il leur faut."[647]

Chiflet is very explicit in his advice to foreign students. In the first place the pronunciation should be learnt by reading a short passage every day with a French master, and the verbs most commonly in use committed to memory. Then the other parts of speech and the rules of syntax should be studied briefly; but care should be taken not to neglect reading, and to practise writing French, in order to become familiar with the orthography. One of his chief recommendations is to avoid learning isolated words; words should always be presented in sentence form, which is a means of learning their construction and of acquiring a good vocabulary at the same time. The rest of the method consists in translating from Latin or some other language into French, and in conversing with a tutor who should correct bad grammar or pronunciation. When once a fair knowledge of French is acquired, it should be strengthened by reading and reflecting upon some good book every day. Such reading is the shortest way of learning the language perfectly. Excellence and fluency in speaking may be attained by repeating or reciting aloud the substance of what has been read.[648]

The acquisition of the French language was not the only ambition of the English gentleman abroad. His aim was also to acquire those polite accomplishments in which the French excelled—dancing, fencing, riding, and so on. For this purpose he either frequented one of the "courtly" academies or engaged private tutors; and "every master of exercise," it was felt, served as a kind of language master.[649]We are indebted to Dallington[650]for an account of the cost of such a course abroad. "Money," he says, "is the soule of travell. If he travel without a servant £80 sterling is a competent proportion, except he learn to ride: if he maintain both thesecharges, he can be allowed no less than £150: and to allow above £200 were superfluous and to his hurt. The ordinary rate of his expense is 10 gold crowns a month his fencing, as much his dancing, no less his reading, and 10 crowns monthly his riding except in the heat of the year. The remainder of his £150, I allow him for apparell, books, travelling charges, tennis play, and other extraordinary expenses."

Some of the more studious travellers resorted to one or other of the French universities. John Palsgrave and John Eliote, the two best known English teachers of French in the sixteenth century, had both followed this course. Palsgrave was a graduate of Paris, and John Eliote, after spending three years at the College of Montague in Paris, taught for a year in the Collège des Africains at Orleans. The religious question had much influence in determining the plan of study in France. The university towns of Rheims and Douay were the special resorts of English Catholics.[651]On the suppression of the religious houses in England and the persecution of the English Roman Catholics, English seminaries arose at Paris, Louvain, Cambrai, St. Omer, Arras, and other centres in France. English Roman Catholics flocked to the French universities and colleges, and there is in existence a long list of English students who matriculated at the University of Douay.

On the other hand, the schools,[652]colleges,[653]and academies[654]founded by the Huguenots offered many attractions to Protestant England. The colleges had much in common with the modern French lycée, and the chief subjects taught were the classical languages. They did not take boarders, with the exception of that at Metz, and the students liveden pensionwith families in the town. The same is true of the academies, institutions of university standing. They were eight in number, and situated at Nîmes, Montpellier, Saumur, Montauban, Die, Sedan, Orthez (in the principality of Béarn[655]), and Geneva. Some Englishmen and many Scotchmen[656]heldpositions in the Protestant colleges and academies.BRITISH STUDENTS AT FRENCH UNIVERSITIESMany English Protestants, during their enforced sojourn on the Continent during the reign of Mary, took advantage of their exile to study at one or other of the Protestant academies, as well as to perfect their knowledge of French. A great number flocked to Geneva, including the Protestant author Michael Cope, who frequently preached in French.[657]

Of the colleges, that of Nîmes attracted a large number of foreigners. Montpellier likewise was very popular during the short period at the beginning of the seventeenth century when the town was Protestant. Among the academies in France, Saumur, Montauban,[658]and Sedan were much frequented by English travellers. Saumur in particular quickly attained to celebrity; its rapid growth may be partly accounted for by the fact that Duplessis Mornay, Governor of the town in 1588, naturally became a zealous patron of the Academy. Three years after its foundation the number of foreign students was considerable, and throughout the seventeenth century students from England, Scotland, Holland, and Switzerland thronged to the town.

The Academy at Geneva likewise was very popular.[659]Though not French, it was largely attended by French students, who had some influence in raising the standard of the French spoken in the town, which was rather unsatisfactory in the sixteenth century. It greatly improved in the following century, and when the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685), which dealt the death-blow to the French Protestant foundations, drove many students to Geneva, their influence in all directions was still more strongly felt. Some years before, in 1654, the regents were enjoined to see to it that their pupils "ne parlent savoyard et ne jurent ou diabloyent," but in 1691 Poulain de la Barre, a doctor of the Sorbonne, could say that "à Geneve on prononce incomparablement mieux que l'on ne fait en plusieurs provinces de France."[660]

The Protestant academies usually consisted of faculties ofArts and Theology. At Geneva[661]there were lectures in Law, Theology, Philosophy, Philology, and Literature; the teaching was chiefly in Latin, but sometimes in French. At the end of the sixteenth century a riding school, known as theManège de la Courature, on the same lines as the polite academies of France, was started. The instruction given at Geneva was on broader lines than that of the less popular academies. Nîmes and Montpellier, for instance, were mainly theological.[662]

Of the many Englishmen who went to Geneva, as to other Protestant centres, not all attended lectures at the Academies. Some went merely to learn French, "the exercises and assurance of behaviour," as the general belief in England was that they did so with less danger in the towns tempered by a Calvinistic atmosphere. Among the Englishmen who visited Geneva in the sixteenth and early seventeenth century we find the names of Henry Withers, Roger Manners, fifth Earl of Rutland, Robert Devereux, third Earl of Essex, the son of Elizabeth's unfortunate favourite, and others. Thomas Bodley, the celebrated founder of the Oxford Library, followed all the courses at the University in 1559. It was considered a great honour to lodge in the house of one or other of the professors; Anthony Bacon, the elder brother of the great Bacon, had the good fortune to be received into the house of de Bèze. Casaubon likewise received into his house certain young gentlemen who came to the town with a special recommendation to him. These included the young Henry Wotton, then on the long tour on the Continent, during which he acquired the remarkable knowledge of languages which qualified him for the position of ambassador which he subsequently occupied. In 1593 Wotton wrote to Lord Zouch: "Here I am placed to my great contentment in the house of Mr. Isaac Casaubon, a person of sober condition among the French." The learned professor soon became very fond of Wotton, so far as to allow him to get into debt for his board and lodging, and the young man left Geneva without paying his debts, leaving Casaubon to face his numerous creditors in the town. Casaubon was in despair; but fortunately the episode ended satisfactorily, for Wotton lived up to his character, and paid his debts in full as soon as he was able.[663]

THE AFFECTED TRAVELLERWhen later Casaubon was at Paris (1600-1610) and his fame was widespread, most travellers and scholars passing through the city seized any opportunity of visiting him. Coryat relates his visit to the great humanist as the experience he enjoyed above all others. Lord Herbert of Cherbury was also among the English travellers received by Casaubon into his house at this period. "And now coming to court," writes Lord Herbert, "I obtained licence to go beyond sea, taking with me for my companion Mr. Aurilian Townsend ... and a man to wait in my chamber, who spoke French, two lacqueys and three horses.... Coming now to Paris through the recommendation of the Lord Ambassador I was received to the house of that incomparable scholar Isaac Casaubon, by whose learned conversation I much benefited myself. Sometimes also I went to the Court of the French King Henry IV., who, upon information of me in the Garden of the Tuileries, received me with much courtesy, embracing me in his arms, and holding me some while there."[664]

By the side of the serious traveller we are introduced to the frivolous type, travelling merely as a matter of fashion. These "idle travellers," as they were called, were the cause of most of the objections raised against the journey to France and the longer tour on the Continent—apart from questions of religion and politics. Few such travellers "scaped bewitching passing over seas."[665]When Lord Herbert of Cherbury arrived in Paris he remarked on the great number of Englishmen thronging about the ambassador's mansion. They had, most of them, studied the language and fashions in some quiet provincial town, such as Orleans or Blois, and returned to Paris full of affectations. Herbert draws a picture[666]of one such "true accomplish'd cavalere":

Now what he speaks are complimental speechesThat never go off, but below the breechesOf him he doth salute, while he doth wringAnd with some strange French words which he doth string,Windeth about the arms, the legs and sides,Most serpent like, of any man that bidesHis indirect approach.

Many travellers did not follow Moryson's advice "to layaside the spoone and forke of Italy, the affected gestures of France, and all strange apparrell" on their return to England. Their affectation of foreign languages and customs proved disagreeable to many of their countrymen. The Frenchified traveller and his untravelled imitators were known asbeauxormounsiers. Nash speaks of the "dapper mounsieur pages of the Court," and Shakespeare of the young gallants who charm the ladies with a French song and a fiddle, and fill the Court with quarrels, talks, and tailors.[667]When the English nobles and gentlemen who had held official appointments at Tournai returned to England, after lingering some time at the French Court, the chronicler Hall[668]declares they were "all French in eating, drinking, yea in French vices and brages, so that all estates of England were by them laughed at."

The Englishbeauthought it his duty to despise English ways, fashions, and speech, and to ape and dote upon all things French:[669]

He struts aboutIn cloak of fashion French. His girdle, purse,And sword are French; his hat is French;His nether limbs are cased in French costume.His shoes are French. In short from top to toeHe stands the Frenchman.

Above all, he loves to display his "sorry French" and chide his French valet in public, and

if he speakThough but three little words in French, he swellsAnd plumes himself on his proficiency.

And when his French fails him, as it soon does, he coins words for himself which he utters with "widely gaping mouth, and sound acute, thinking to make the accent French":

With accent French he speaks the Latin Tongue,With accent French the tongue of Lombardy,To Spanish words he gives an accent French,German he speaks with the same accent French,All but the French itself. The French he speaksWith accent British.

Thus thebeaucannot be ranked among the genuine students of French.

Would you believe when you this monsieur seeThat his whole body should speak French, not he?

asks Ben Jonson.[670]"FRENCH-ITALIANATE" GENTLEMENWe have a picture, in Glapthorne'sThe Ladies' Privilege, of a travelled gallant who undertakes to teach French to a young gentleman desiring thereby to be "for ever engallanted." They confer on rudiments; "your French," says the gallant, "is a thing easilygotten, and when you have it, as hard to shake off, runnes in your blood, as 'twere your mother language." Until you have enough of the language to sprinkle your English with it, answer with a shrug, or a nod, or any foreign grimace.[671]The author of theTreatyse of a galauntbemoans the fact that "Englysshe men sholde be so blynde" as to adopt the "marde gere" of the French.[672]Many were the outbursts of patriotic indignation roused by the affectation of the newly returned travellers, who "brought home a few smattering terms, flattering garbes, apish cringes, foppish fancies, foolish guises and disguises and vanities of neighbour nations."[673]In the sixteenth century France was not exclusively responsible for the fopperies of the Englishbeau, who might often be described as "French Italianate."[674]He spoke his own language with shame and lisping.[675]Nothing "will down but French, Italian and Spanish."[676]"Farewell, Monsieur Traveller," says Rosalind to Jacques, "look you lisp, and wear strange suits; disable all the benefits of your own country; be out of love with your nativity, and almost chide God for making you that countenance you are."[677]The affectedbeauwill "wring his face round about as a man would stirre up a mustard pot and talke English through the teeth."[678]He sprinkles his talk with overseas scraps. "He that cometh lately out of Francewill talke French-English, and never blush at the matter, and another chops in with English Italianated."[679]And what profit has he from the journey on which he has gathered such evil fruit? Nothing but words, and in this he exceeds his mother's parrot at home, in that he can speak more and understands what he says.[680]And this is often no more than to be able to call the king his lord "with two or three French, Italian, Spanish or such like terms."[681]His attire, like his tongue, speaks French and Italian.[682]He censures England's language and fashions "by countenances and shrugs," and will choke rather than confess beer a good drink. In time thebeauforgot what little he had learnt of Italian, and in the seventeenth century was generally known as theEnglish monsieur, or thegentleman à la mode.

There were two very different attitudes towards the journey to France, as there were two types of traveller, the serious and the flippant. The prejudiced and insular-minded asked with Nash:[683]"What is there in France to be learned more than in England, but falsehood in fellowship, perfect slovenry, to love no man but for my pleasure, to swearAh par la mort Dieuwhen a man's hands are scabbed. But for the idle traveller (I mean not for the soldier), I have known some that have continued there by the space of half a dozen years, and when they come home, they have hid a little weerish lean face under a broad hat, kept a terrible coil in the dust in the street in their long cloaks of gray paper, and spoke English strangely. Nought else have they profited by their travel, save learned to distinguish the true Bordeaux grape and know a cup of neat Gascoigne wine from wine of Orleans." The opposite view is expressed in the message George Herbert sent to his brother at Paris:[684]"You live in a brave nation, where except you wink, you cannot but see many brave examples. Bee covetous then of all good which you see in Frenchmen whether it be in knowledge or in fashion, or in words; play the good marchant in transporting French commodities to your own country."

FOOTNOTES:[564]Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII.vol. xvi. No. 238.[565]Sir Rt. Naunton,Fragmenta Regalia, 1824, p. 69.[566]Cal. State Papers, Dom.: Add., 1580-1625, p. 99.[567]Ibid.p. 119. A certain Charles Doyley wrote in similar terms from Rouen.[568]Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1595-97, p. 293.[569]Purchas Pilgrimes, 1625.[570]Howell,Epistolae Ho-Elianae.[571]As did Sir James Melville (Memoirs, Bannatyne Club, 1827, p. 12), "to learn to play upon the lut, and to writ Frenche," at the age of fourteen. Similarly, Barnaby Fitzpatrick, Edward VI.'s youthful favourite and proxy for correction, was sent to Paris to study fashions and manners (Nichols,Literary Remains, p. lxx).[572]The practice was also very common in Scotland, especially when the reformers assumed the power of approving private tutors as well as schoolmasters. Gentlemen were driven to evade this restriction by sending their sons to France in the care of what they considered suitable tutors. The Assembly then tried to assert its power by granting passports only to those whose tutors they approved. See Young,Histoire de l'Enseignement en Écosse, p. 52.[573]Copy Book of Sir Amias Poulet's Letters, Roxburghe Club, 1866, pp. 16, 231.[574]The Compleat Gentleman(1622), 1906, p. 33.[575]Ellis,Original Letters, 3rd series, iii. 377.[576]Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII.vol. viii. 517; vol. ix. 1086; vol. xii. pt. i. 972, etc.[577]Dated 1610. Ellis,Original Letters, 2nd series, iii. 230.[578]Green,Letters of Royal and Illustrious Ladies of Great Britain, London, 1846, ii. pp. 294et seq.[579]Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII.vol. xiii. pt. i. 512.[580]Itinerary, 1617, pt. iii. bk. i. p. 5.[581]Of Education.To Master Samuel Hartlib.[582]Copy Book, p. 90.[583]State Papers, Dom., 1598-1601, p. 162; and1601-1603, p. 29. In 1580 a list of some English subjects residing abroad was sent to the queen (ibid., Addenda, 1580-1625, p. 4.)[584]Greene left an account of his impressions of France and Italy in hisNever too Late(Works, ed. Grosart, viii. pp. 20sqq.).[585]Frequently the wording in passports (Cal. State Papers).[586]There were many complaints throughout the two centuries of the travellers' neglect of everything concerning their own country. "What is it to be conversant abroad and a stranger at home?" asks Higford. See also Penton,New Instructions to the Guardian, 1694; and F. B. B. D.,Education with Respect to Grammar Schools and Universities, 1701.[587]Ellis,Original Letters(3rd series, iv. p. 46), publishes one of the licences which had to be obtained.[588]Reprinted by Lady T. Lewis,Lives from the Pictures in the Clarendon Galleries, 1852, i. p. 250.[589]Description of Britaine, 1577, Lib. 3. ch. iv.[590]Euphues, ed. Arber, 1868, p. 152.[591]Scholemaster, ed. Arber, 1870, p. 82. Mulcaster was also eloquent on the evil result of travel (Positions, 1581).[592]Instructions for Youth ..., by Sir W. Raleigh, etc., London, 1722, p. 50.[593]Who founded the English seminary at Douay.[594]See entries inCal. of State Papers.[595]March 25, 1601 (Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1601-1603, p. 18).[596]Correspondence with Hubert Languet, 1912, p. 216.[597]Letter dated September 1, 1631 (J. Forster,Sir John Eliot, a Biography, London, 1864, i. pp. 16, 17).[598]J. Howell,Instructions for Forreine Travel, 1642 (ed. Arber, 1869), p. 19.[599]1656, p. 102.[600]Spence'sAnecdotes, 1820, p. 184;Dict. Nat. Biog., ad nom.[601]A Dialogue concerning Education, inMiscellaneous Works, London, 1751, pp. 313et seq.[602]Cp. Entries of Passports, in theCal. State Papers. The necessity of such a course was considered specially urgent if the traveller was himself ignorant of languages (The Gentleman's Companion, by a Person of Quality, 1672, p. 55).[603]Gailhard,The Compleat Gentleman, 1678, p. 16.[604]Gailhard,op. cit.pp. 19, 20. A gentleman, he thinks, should be sent abroad betimes to prevent his being hardened in any evil course.[605]Some Thoughts on Education, 1693.[606]Walker,Of Education, especially of Young Gentlemen, 1699, 6th ed.[607]Notes on Ben Jonson's Conversations with William Drummond of Hawthornden(1619), Shakespeare Soc., 1842, pp. 21, 47.[608]Autobiography, ed. Sir Sidney Lee (2nd ed., 1906), p. 56.[609]Memoirs of Sir John Reresby, ed. J. J. Cartwright, 1875, p. 26.[610]Dict. Nat. Biog., ad nom.[611]Addison was well acquainted with French literature and criticism. He frequently quotes Boileau, Racine, Corneille, and also Bouhours and Lebossu. HisTragedy of Catois closely modelled on the French pattern. See A. Beljame,Le Public et les hommes de lettres en Angleterre au 18esiècle, 1897, p. 316.[612]Memoirs of the Verney Family, 1892, iii. p. 36.[613]The Correspondence of Philip Sidney and Hubert Languet, ed. W. A. Bradly (Boston, 1912), p. 26.[614]Savile Correspondence, Camden Soc., 1858, pp. 133, 138. O. Walker, in hisOf Education, differs from other writers in proposing that young gentlemen should travel without a governor.[615]In the same category may be placed theTraveiles of Jerome Turler, a native of Saxony, whose work was translated into English in the year of its appearance (1575). It was specially intended for the use of students.[616]T. Palmer,Essay on the Means of making our Travels into Forran Countries more Profitable and Honourable, 1606; T. Overbury,Observations in his Travels, 1609 (France and the Low Countries). William Bourne'sTreasure for Travellers(London, 1578) has no bearing on travel from the language point of view. Of special interest are Dallington'sMethod for Travell, shewed by taking the View of France as it stoode in the Yeare of our Lorde 1598, London (1606?), and hisView of France, London, 1604. Other works areA Direction for English Travellers, licensed for printing in 1635 (Arber,Stationers' Register, iv. 343); Neal'sDirection to Travel, 1643; Bacon'sEssay on Travel, 1625; Howell'sInstructions for Forreine Travel, 1624.[617]The versatile master of the ceremonies to Charles I., Sir Balthazar Gerbier, wrote hisSubsidium Peregrinantibus or an Assistance to a Traveller in his convers with—1. Hollanders. 2. Germans. 3. Venetians. 4. Italians. 5. Spaniards. 6. French(1665), in the first place as avade mecumfor a princely traveller, the unfortunate Duke of Monmouth. It claimed to give directions for travel, "after the latest mode." Cp. alsoA direction for travailers taken by Sir J. S.(Sir John Stradling)out of(theEpistola de Peregrinatione Italica of)J. Lipsius, etc., London. 1592.[618]List in Watt'sBibliographia Britannia, 1824 (headingEducation); and inCambridge History of English Literature, ix. ch. xv. (Bibliography).[619]Method for Travell, 1598, andView of France, 1604.[620]The constant warnings against mixing with Englishmen abroad show how numerous the latter must have been. "He that beyond seas frequents his own countrymen forgets the principal part of his errand—language," wrote Francis Osborne in hisAdvice to a Son(1656).[621]As did Lord Lincoln, who "sees no English, rails at England, and admires France."[622]Itinerary, 1617.[623]Bacon,Essay on Travel, 1625.[624]Gailhard,op. cit.p. 48.[625]S. Penton.New Instructions to the Guardian, 1694, p. 104.[626]Cp. Entries of passports to France in theCalendar of State Papers.[627]Positions, 1581.[628]It appears from a deleted note in the MS. of Defoe'sCompleat English Gentlemanthat travel was not always considered necessary for younger sons (ed. K. Bülbring, London, 1890).[629]French Alphabet, 1592: "Car la plus part de ceux qui vont en France apprennent par routine, sans reigles, et sans art, de sorte qu'il leur est impossible d'apprendre, sinon avec une grande longueur de temps. Au contraire ceux qui apprennent en Angleterre, s'ils apprennent d'un qui ait bonne methode, il ne se peut faire qu'ils n'apprennent en bref. D'avantage ce qu'ils apprennent est beaucoup meilleur que le françois qu'on apprend en France par routine. Car nous ne pouvons parler ce que nous n'avons apris et que nous ignorons. Ceux qui apprennent du vulgaire ne peuvent parler que vulgairement . . . d'un françois corrompu. Au contraire ceux qui apprennent par livres, parlent selon ce qu'ils apprennent: or est il que les termes et phrases des livres sont le plus pur et naif françois (bien qu'il y ayt distinction de livres); il ne se peut donc qu'ils ne parlent plus purement et naivement (comme j'ay dict) que les autres."[630]Wodroeph,Spared houres of a souldier, 1623.[631]Livet,La Grammaire française et les grammairiens au 16esiècle, 1859, p. 2.[632]In linguam gallicam Isagoge, 1531.[633]Le Traité touchant le commun usage de l'escriture françoise, 1542, 1545; cp. Livet,op. cit.pp. 49sqq.[634]Gallicae linguae institutio Latino sermone conscripta(1550, 1551, 1555, 1558, etc.).[635]Institutio gallicae linguae in usum iuventutis germanicae(1558, 1580, 1591, 1593).[636]Dialogue de l'ortografe et prononciacion françoese, departi en deus livres, 1555.[637]"J'ay tousiours eu plus ordinaire hantise, plus de biens et d'honneur et de civile conversation de la nation Angloise que de nul aultre."[638]Villiers had no doubt some previous knowledge of French. From the age of thirteen he had been taught at home by private tutors.[639]Reliquiae Wottonianae, London, 1657, p. 76.[640]12º, pp. 386.[641]"Etranger desireux de nostre langue apprendre,Employe en ce livret et ton temps et ton soin,Que si d'enseignement plus ample il t'est besoin,Viens t'en la vive voix de l'autheur mesme entendre."[642]It differs fromLes Desguisez, a comedy written by Godard in 1594.[643]E. Winkler, "La Doctrine grammaticale d'après Maupas et Oudin," inBeihefte zur Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, Heft 38, 1912.[644]Towards the end of his career, Oudin was appointed to teach Louis XIV. Spanish and Italian; he was the author of several manuals for teaching these languages, and it is worthy of note that sometimes the German language is included.[645]Printed with Nicot's edition of Aimar de Ranconnet'sThresor de la langue françoyse, Paris, 1606.[646]Garnier was also the author of familiar dialogues, published in French, Spanish, Italian, and German in 1656.[647]Lettres sur les Anglais et sur les Français(end of seventeenth century), 1725, p. 305.[648]Another grammar specially intended for the use of strangers wasLe vray orthographe françois contenant les reigles et preceptes infallibles pour se rendre certain, correct et parfait a bien parler françois, tres utile et necessaire tant aux françois qu'estrangers. Par le sieur de Palliot secretaire ordinaire de la chambre du roy.1608.[649]Gailhard,op. cit.p. 33.[650]Method for Travell, 1598.[651]Records of the English Catholics, i. pp. 275et sqq.; F. C. Petre,English Colleges and Convents established on the Continent ..., Norwich, 1849; G. Cardon,La Fondation de l'Université de Douai, Paris, 1802.[652]Cp. p. 343infra.[653]Cp. account by M. Nicolas, inBulletin de la société de l'Histoire du Protestantisme Français, iv. pp. 503sqq.and pp. 582sqq.Twenty-five such colleges are named.[654]Bulletin, i. p. 301; ii. pp. 43, 303, 354sqq.; also articles in vols. iii., iv., v., vi., ix., and Bourchenin'sÉtudes sur les Académies Protestantes.[655]Suppressed as early as 1620.[656]Driven from Scotland, in many cases, by James I.'s attempt to introduce the English Liturgy into the Scottish churches. Robert Monteith, author of theHistoiredes Troubles de la Grande Bretagne, was professor of philosophy at Saumur for four years (Dict. Nat. Biog.).[657]He composed in FrenchA faithful and familiar exposition of Ecclesiastes, Geneva, 1557; cp.Dict. Nat. Biog., ad nom.[658]Cp. Nicolas,Histoire de l'ancienne Académie de Montauban, Montauban, 1885.[659]There was an early Academy at Lausanne which emigrated to Geneva and assured the latter's success (1559); cp. H. Vuilleumier,L'Académie de Lausanne, Lausanne, 1891.[660]Essai de remarques particulières sur la langue françoise pour la ville de Genève, 1691. Quoted by Borgeaud,Histoire de l'Université de Genève, 1900, p. 445.[661]C. Borgeaud,op. cit.[662]They were united at Nîmes in 1617, and finally suppressed in 1644.[663]Pattison,Isaac Casaubon, Oxford, 1892, pp. 40-42, 155. On the English at Geneva, cp.ibid.p. 20.[664]Autobiography, ed. Sir S. Lee (2nd ed., 1906), p. 56.[665]T. Scot,Philomythie, London, 1622.[666]Satyra(addressed to Ben Jonson), 1608.Poems of Lord Herbert of Cherbury, ed. J. Churton Collins, London, 1881.[667]Henry VIII., Act I. Sc. 3.[668]A. T. Thomson,Memoirs of the Court of Henry VIII., London, 1826, i. p. 259.[669]Epigram by Sir Th. More: translated from Latin by J. H. Marsden,Philomorus, 2nd ed., 1878, p. 222.[670]English Monsieur: Works, London, 1875, viii. p. 190. Cp. other satires and epigrams of the time: Hall,Satires, lib. iii. satire 7;Skialetheia, 1598, No. 27; H. Parrot,Laquei, 1613, No. 207;Scourge of Villanie, ed. Grosart, 1879, p. 158.[671]H. Glapthorne, "TheLadies'Privilege,"Plays and Poems, 1874, ii. pp. 81sqq.It was sometimes the good fortune of the gallant to "live like a king," "teaching tongues" (T. Scot,Philomythie, 1622).[672]1510? Colophon: "Here endeth this treatise made of a galaunt. Emprinted at London in the Flete St. at the sygne of the sonne by Wynkyn de Worde." Alex. Barclay, Andrew Borde, Skelton and others, all satirize the mania for French fashions. Every opportunity of getting the latest French fashion was eagerly seized. Thus Lady Lisle, wife of Henry VIII.'s deputy at Calais, constantly sent her friends in England articles of dress "such as the French ladies wear" (Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII., i. 3892). Moryson says the English are "more light than the lightest French."[673]Purchas,Pilgrimes, 1625.[674]Sylvester,Lacrymae Lacrymarum: Works(ed. Grosart), ii. p. 278.[675]Sir T. Overbury,Characters, 1614: "The Affected Traveller."[676]George Pettie,Civile Conversation, 1586 (preface to translation of Guazzo's work).[677]As You Like It, Act IV. Sc. 1.[678]Nash,Pierce Pennilesse, quoted by J. J. Jusserand,The English Novel in the Time of Shakespeare, 1899, p. 322.[679]Wilson,Arte of Rhetorique(1553), ed. G. H. Mair, 1909, p. 162.[680]Hall,Quo Vadis, 1617.[681]Humphrey,The Nobles or of Nobilitye, London, 1563.[682]Overbury,Characters, 1614.[683]The Unfortunate Traveller(1587), Works, ed. McKerrow, ii. p. 300.[684]Letters(1618), ed. Warner,Epistolary Curiosities, 1818, p. 3.

[564]Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII.vol. xvi. No. 238.

[565]Sir Rt. Naunton,Fragmenta Regalia, 1824, p. 69.

[566]Cal. State Papers, Dom.: Add., 1580-1625, p. 99.

[567]Ibid.p. 119. A certain Charles Doyley wrote in similar terms from Rouen.

[568]Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1595-97, p. 293.

[569]Purchas Pilgrimes, 1625.

[570]Howell,Epistolae Ho-Elianae.

[571]As did Sir James Melville (Memoirs, Bannatyne Club, 1827, p. 12), "to learn to play upon the lut, and to writ Frenche," at the age of fourteen. Similarly, Barnaby Fitzpatrick, Edward VI.'s youthful favourite and proxy for correction, was sent to Paris to study fashions and manners (Nichols,Literary Remains, p. lxx).

[572]The practice was also very common in Scotland, especially when the reformers assumed the power of approving private tutors as well as schoolmasters. Gentlemen were driven to evade this restriction by sending their sons to France in the care of what they considered suitable tutors. The Assembly then tried to assert its power by granting passports only to those whose tutors they approved. See Young,Histoire de l'Enseignement en Écosse, p. 52.

[573]Copy Book of Sir Amias Poulet's Letters, Roxburghe Club, 1866, pp. 16, 231.

[574]The Compleat Gentleman(1622), 1906, p. 33.

[575]Ellis,Original Letters, 3rd series, iii. 377.

[576]Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII.vol. viii. 517; vol. ix. 1086; vol. xii. pt. i. 972, etc.

[577]Dated 1610. Ellis,Original Letters, 2nd series, iii. 230.

[578]Green,Letters of Royal and Illustrious Ladies of Great Britain, London, 1846, ii. pp. 294et seq.

[579]Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII.vol. xiii. pt. i. 512.

[580]Itinerary, 1617, pt. iii. bk. i. p. 5.

[581]Of Education.To Master Samuel Hartlib.

[582]Copy Book, p. 90.

[583]State Papers, Dom., 1598-1601, p. 162; and1601-1603, p. 29. In 1580 a list of some English subjects residing abroad was sent to the queen (ibid., Addenda, 1580-1625, p. 4.)

[584]Greene left an account of his impressions of France and Italy in hisNever too Late(Works, ed. Grosart, viii. pp. 20sqq.).

[585]Frequently the wording in passports (Cal. State Papers).

[586]There were many complaints throughout the two centuries of the travellers' neglect of everything concerning their own country. "What is it to be conversant abroad and a stranger at home?" asks Higford. See also Penton,New Instructions to the Guardian, 1694; and F. B. B. D.,Education with Respect to Grammar Schools and Universities, 1701.

[587]Ellis,Original Letters(3rd series, iv. p. 46), publishes one of the licences which had to be obtained.

[588]Reprinted by Lady T. Lewis,Lives from the Pictures in the Clarendon Galleries, 1852, i. p. 250.

[589]Description of Britaine, 1577, Lib. 3. ch. iv.

[590]Euphues, ed. Arber, 1868, p. 152.

[591]Scholemaster, ed. Arber, 1870, p. 82. Mulcaster was also eloquent on the evil result of travel (Positions, 1581).

[592]Instructions for Youth ..., by Sir W. Raleigh, etc., London, 1722, p. 50.

[593]Who founded the English seminary at Douay.

[594]See entries inCal. of State Papers.

[595]March 25, 1601 (Cal. State Papers, Dom., 1601-1603, p. 18).

[596]Correspondence with Hubert Languet, 1912, p. 216.

[597]Letter dated September 1, 1631 (J. Forster,Sir John Eliot, a Biography, London, 1864, i. pp. 16, 17).

[598]J. Howell,Instructions for Forreine Travel, 1642 (ed. Arber, 1869), p. 19.

[599]1656, p. 102.

[600]Spence'sAnecdotes, 1820, p. 184;Dict. Nat. Biog., ad nom.

[601]A Dialogue concerning Education, inMiscellaneous Works, London, 1751, pp. 313et seq.

[602]Cp. Entries of Passports, in theCal. State Papers. The necessity of such a course was considered specially urgent if the traveller was himself ignorant of languages (The Gentleman's Companion, by a Person of Quality, 1672, p. 55).

[603]Gailhard,The Compleat Gentleman, 1678, p. 16.

[604]Gailhard,op. cit.pp. 19, 20. A gentleman, he thinks, should be sent abroad betimes to prevent his being hardened in any evil course.

[605]Some Thoughts on Education, 1693.

[606]Walker,Of Education, especially of Young Gentlemen, 1699, 6th ed.

[607]Notes on Ben Jonson's Conversations with William Drummond of Hawthornden(1619), Shakespeare Soc., 1842, pp. 21, 47.

[608]Autobiography, ed. Sir Sidney Lee (2nd ed., 1906), p. 56.

[609]Memoirs of Sir John Reresby, ed. J. J. Cartwright, 1875, p. 26.

[610]Dict. Nat. Biog., ad nom.

[611]Addison was well acquainted with French literature and criticism. He frequently quotes Boileau, Racine, Corneille, and also Bouhours and Lebossu. HisTragedy of Catois closely modelled on the French pattern. See A. Beljame,Le Public et les hommes de lettres en Angleterre au 18esiècle, 1897, p. 316.

[612]Memoirs of the Verney Family, 1892, iii. p. 36.

[613]The Correspondence of Philip Sidney and Hubert Languet, ed. W. A. Bradly (Boston, 1912), p. 26.

[614]Savile Correspondence, Camden Soc., 1858, pp. 133, 138. O. Walker, in hisOf Education, differs from other writers in proposing that young gentlemen should travel without a governor.

[615]In the same category may be placed theTraveiles of Jerome Turler, a native of Saxony, whose work was translated into English in the year of its appearance (1575). It was specially intended for the use of students.

[616]T. Palmer,Essay on the Means of making our Travels into Forran Countries more Profitable and Honourable, 1606; T. Overbury,Observations in his Travels, 1609 (France and the Low Countries). William Bourne'sTreasure for Travellers(London, 1578) has no bearing on travel from the language point of view. Of special interest are Dallington'sMethod for Travell, shewed by taking the View of France as it stoode in the Yeare of our Lorde 1598, London (1606?), and hisView of France, London, 1604. Other works areA Direction for English Travellers, licensed for printing in 1635 (Arber,Stationers' Register, iv. 343); Neal'sDirection to Travel, 1643; Bacon'sEssay on Travel, 1625; Howell'sInstructions for Forreine Travel, 1624.

[617]The versatile master of the ceremonies to Charles I., Sir Balthazar Gerbier, wrote hisSubsidium Peregrinantibus or an Assistance to a Traveller in his convers with—1. Hollanders. 2. Germans. 3. Venetians. 4. Italians. 5. Spaniards. 6. French(1665), in the first place as avade mecumfor a princely traveller, the unfortunate Duke of Monmouth. It claimed to give directions for travel, "after the latest mode." Cp. alsoA direction for travailers taken by Sir J. S.(Sir John Stradling)out of(theEpistola de Peregrinatione Italica of)J. Lipsius, etc., London. 1592.

[618]List in Watt'sBibliographia Britannia, 1824 (headingEducation); and inCambridge History of English Literature, ix. ch. xv. (Bibliography).

[619]Method for Travell, 1598, andView of France, 1604.

[620]The constant warnings against mixing with Englishmen abroad show how numerous the latter must have been. "He that beyond seas frequents his own countrymen forgets the principal part of his errand—language," wrote Francis Osborne in hisAdvice to a Son(1656).

[621]As did Lord Lincoln, who "sees no English, rails at England, and admires France."

[622]Itinerary, 1617.

[623]Bacon,Essay on Travel, 1625.

[624]Gailhard,op. cit.p. 48.

[625]S. Penton.New Instructions to the Guardian, 1694, p. 104.

[626]Cp. Entries of passports to France in theCalendar of State Papers.

[627]Positions, 1581.

[628]It appears from a deleted note in the MS. of Defoe'sCompleat English Gentlemanthat travel was not always considered necessary for younger sons (ed. K. Bülbring, London, 1890).

[629]French Alphabet, 1592: "Car la plus part de ceux qui vont en France apprennent par routine, sans reigles, et sans art, de sorte qu'il leur est impossible d'apprendre, sinon avec une grande longueur de temps. Au contraire ceux qui apprennent en Angleterre, s'ils apprennent d'un qui ait bonne methode, il ne se peut faire qu'ils n'apprennent en bref. D'avantage ce qu'ils apprennent est beaucoup meilleur que le françois qu'on apprend en France par routine. Car nous ne pouvons parler ce que nous n'avons apris et que nous ignorons. Ceux qui apprennent du vulgaire ne peuvent parler que vulgairement . . . d'un françois corrompu. Au contraire ceux qui apprennent par livres, parlent selon ce qu'ils apprennent: or est il que les termes et phrases des livres sont le plus pur et naif françois (bien qu'il y ayt distinction de livres); il ne se peut donc qu'ils ne parlent plus purement et naivement (comme j'ay dict) que les autres."

[630]Wodroeph,Spared houres of a souldier, 1623.

[631]Livet,La Grammaire française et les grammairiens au 16esiècle, 1859, p. 2.

[632]In linguam gallicam Isagoge, 1531.

[633]Le Traité touchant le commun usage de l'escriture françoise, 1542, 1545; cp. Livet,op. cit.pp. 49sqq.

[634]Gallicae linguae institutio Latino sermone conscripta(1550, 1551, 1555, 1558, etc.).

[635]Institutio gallicae linguae in usum iuventutis germanicae(1558, 1580, 1591, 1593).

[636]Dialogue de l'ortografe et prononciacion françoese, departi en deus livres, 1555.

[637]"J'ay tousiours eu plus ordinaire hantise, plus de biens et d'honneur et de civile conversation de la nation Angloise que de nul aultre."

[638]Villiers had no doubt some previous knowledge of French. From the age of thirteen he had been taught at home by private tutors.

[639]Reliquiae Wottonianae, London, 1657, p. 76.

[640]12º, pp. 386.

[641]"Etranger desireux de nostre langue apprendre,Employe en ce livret et ton temps et ton soin,Que si d'enseignement plus ample il t'est besoin,Viens t'en la vive voix de l'autheur mesme entendre."

[641]

"Etranger desireux de nostre langue apprendre,Employe en ce livret et ton temps et ton soin,Que si d'enseignement plus ample il t'est besoin,Viens t'en la vive voix de l'autheur mesme entendre."

[642]It differs fromLes Desguisez, a comedy written by Godard in 1594.

[643]E. Winkler, "La Doctrine grammaticale d'après Maupas et Oudin," inBeihefte zur Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, Heft 38, 1912.

[644]Towards the end of his career, Oudin was appointed to teach Louis XIV. Spanish and Italian; he was the author of several manuals for teaching these languages, and it is worthy of note that sometimes the German language is included.

[645]Printed with Nicot's edition of Aimar de Ranconnet'sThresor de la langue françoyse, Paris, 1606.

[646]Garnier was also the author of familiar dialogues, published in French, Spanish, Italian, and German in 1656.

[647]Lettres sur les Anglais et sur les Français(end of seventeenth century), 1725, p. 305.

[648]Another grammar specially intended for the use of strangers wasLe vray orthographe françois contenant les reigles et preceptes infallibles pour se rendre certain, correct et parfait a bien parler françois, tres utile et necessaire tant aux françois qu'estrangers. Par le sieur de Palliot secretaire ordinaire de la chambre du roy.1608.

[649]Gailhard,op. cit.p. 33.

[650]Method for Travell, 1598.

[651]Records of the English Catholics, i. pp. 275et sqq.; F. C. Petre,English Colleges and Convents established on the Continent ..., Norwich, 1849; G. Cardon,La Fondation de l'Université de Douai, Paris, 1802.

[652]Cp. p. 343infra.

[653]Cp. account by M. Nicolas, inBulletin de la société de l'Histoire du Protestantisme Français, iv. pp. 503sqq.and pp. 582sqq.Twenty-five such colleges are named.

[654]Bulletin, i. p. 301; ii. pp. 43, 303, 354sqq.; also articles in vols. iii., iv., v., vi., ix., and Bourchenin'sÉtudes sur les Académies Protestantes.

[655]Suppressed as early as 1620.

[656]Driven from Scotland, in many cases, by James I.'s attempt to introduce the English Liturgy into the Scottish churches. Robert Monteith, author of theHistoiredes Troubles de la Grande Bretagne, was professor of philosophy at Saumur for four years (Dict. Nat. Biog.).

[657]He composed in FrenchA faithful and familiar exposition of Ecclesiastes, Geneva, 1557; cp.Dict. Nat. Biog., ad nom.

[658]Cp. Nicolas,Histoire de l'ancienne Académie de Montauban, Montauban, 1885.

[659]There was an early Academy at Lausanne which emigrated to Geneva and assured the latter's success (1559); cp. H. Vuilleumier,L'Académie de Lausanne, Lausanne, 1891.

[660]Essai de remarques particulières sur la langue françoise pour la ville de Genève, 1691. Quoted by Borgeaud,Histoire de l'Université de Genève, 1900, p. 445.

[661]C. Borgeaud,op. cit.

[662]They were united at Nîmes in 1617, and finally suppressed in 1644.

[663]Pattison,Isaac Casaubon, Oxford, 1892, pp. 40-42, 155. On the English at Geneva, cp.ibid.p. 20.

[664]Autobiography, ed. Sir S. Lee (2nd ed., 1906), p. 56.

[665]T. Scot,Philomythie, London, 1622.

[666]Satyra(addressed to Ben Jonson), 1608.Poems of Lord Herbert of Cherbury, ed. J. Churton Collins, London, 1881.

[667]Henry VIII., Act I. Sc. 3.

[668]A. T. Thomson,Memoirs of the Court of Henry VIII., London, 1826, i. p. 259.

[669]Epigram by Sir Th. More: translated from Latin by J. H. Marsden,Philomorus, 2nd ed., 1878, p. 222.

[670]English Monsieur: Works, London, 1875, viii. p. 190. Cp. other satires and epigrams of the time: Hall,Satires, lib. iii. satire 7;Skialetheia, 1598, No. 27; H. Parrot,Laquei, 1613, No. 207;Scourge of Villanie, ed. Grosart, 1879, p. 158.

[671]H. Glapthorne, "TheLadies'Privilege,"Plays and Poems, 1874, ii. pp. 81sqq.It was sometimes the good fortune of the gallant to "live like a king," "teaching tongues" (T. Scot,Philomythie, 1622).

[672]1510? Colophon: "Here endeth this treatise made of a galaunt. Emprinted at London in the Flete St. at the sygne of the sonne by Wynkyn de Worde." Alex. Barclay, Andrew Borde, Skelton and others, all satirize the mania for French fashions. Every opportunity of getting the latest French fashion was eagerly seized. Thus Lady Lisle, wife of Henry VIII.'s deputy at Calais, constantly sent her friends in England articles of dress "such as the French ladies wear" (Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII., i. 3892). Moryson says the English are "more light than the lightest French."

[673]Purchas,Pilgrimes, 1625.

[674]Sylvester,Lacrymae Lacrymarum: Works(ed. Grosart), ii. p. 278.

[675]Sir T. Overbury,Characters, 1614: "The Affected Traveller."

[676]George Pettie,Civile Conversation, 1586 (preface to translation of Guazzo's work).

[677]As You Like It, Act IV. Sc. 1.

[678]Nash,Pierce Pennilesse, quoted by J. J. Jusserand,The English Novel in the Time of Shakespeare, 1899, p. 322.

[679]Wilson,Arte of Rhetorique(1553), ed. G. H. Mair, 1909, p. 162.

[680]Hall,Quo Vadis, 1617.

[681]Humphrey,The Nobles or of Nobilitye, London, 1563.

[682]Overbury,Characters, 1614.

[683]The Unfortunate Traveller(1587), Works, ed. McKerrow, ii. p. 300.

[684]Letters(1618), ed. Warner,Epistolary Curiosities, 1818, p. 3.

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