Figure 15.—Tomatoes pruned and trained with post, wire and twine. This is the trellis system of New England.Figure 15.—Tomatoes pruned and trained with post, wire and twine. This is the trellis system ofNew England.
Figure 16.—Fine clusters on trained plants.Figure 16.—Fine clusters on trained plants.
The advantages claimed for pruning and training are:
Earliness.High yield per acre.Ease of cultivating and spraying.Ease of picking.No injury from snails and wire worms.Quality of fruit:—size, color, smoothness and cleanliness.Crop finished earlier.Less sunscald.
Earliness.High yield per acre.Ease of cultivating and spraying.Ease of picking.No injury from snails and wire worms.Quality of fruit:—size, color, smoothness and cleanliness.Crop finished earlier.Less sunscald.
The disadvantages claimed are:
Many plants required.Reduced yield.More blossom-end rot.Higher cost of labor.Cost and care of stakes and wire.
Many plants required.Reduced yield.More blossom-end rot.Higher cost of labor.Cost and care of stakes and wire.
The validity of each of these points varies greatly with conditions; in fact, the answer to the whole question depends largely upon the location and the ideas of the grower. In trying to reach a conclusion, it is well to realize that training makes certain radical changes in the plant. It loses leaves through pruning, it is supported from the ground, and it is spaced differently. Since the leaves manufacture the basic substance for themselves, and for the rest of the plant, removal of leaves reduces the resources of the plant. H. C. Thompson[17]hasfound that the root system is reduced about in proportion to leaf reduction. It is fairly clear that single-stem training greatly reduces the yield per plant, and other methods result similarly in proportion to the severity of pruning. When plants are spaced closely enough together the yield may be brought up to that of areas unpruned and unstaked. Idaho experiments indicate that staking alone does not affect the total yield, but that it does favor early maturity under the different pruning systems. The disadvantages of training are largely economic. Will the marketing conditions justify the extra cost of staking and pruning?
Experiments have shown pretty clearly that sunscald, blossom-end rot and cracking are worse on trained plants. Using varieties of good foliage will help the first trouble while uniform and adequate water supply achieved by selection of suitable land, by building humus content of the soil and by irrigation will solve the latter two problems. Thompson found increased yield of early fruit. Other evidence is somewhat conflicting but, in general, it supports Thompson. It is generally agreed that pruned plants yield larger, cleaner and more perfectly formed and colored fruits. Ease of spraying or dusting and of picking is important.
For pruned plants, 3½ feet between rows and 1½-2 feet between plants is about right.
To train or not to train is a question that one must answer for himself as the controlling factors vary too widely—costs of stakes, wire and labor, prices of early tomatoes and possibility of cultivating a more or less fancy trade.
The tomato, in most regions, is not one of our most "pestered" crops. Although over thirty diseases of tomatoes are discussed in books and bulletins, most of them are only occasionally serious or are subject to definite control methods. Enemies are generally worse in the warmer climates.
Most home garden tomatoes and many commercial crops are grown without benefit of spray or dust. If trouble arises, county agent or college specialist can usually advise, suggesting methods suitable for local conditions.
Experience must, of necessity, be the guide in shaping a program and costs must be carefully balanced against results.
The principal measures that are widely used are seed treatment against damping off, use of resistant strains against fusarium wilt and application of bordeaux mixture against leaf blights.
As with all plants, thoroughness must be the watchword in spraying or dusting. Timeliness,choice of weather conditions so far as possible, and covering all surface lightly rather than throwing on heavy blotches of spray or dust all require careful attention.
Fusarium Wilt(Fusarium lycopersici) is perhaps the most serious of all the tomato diseases although it occasions little trouble in the more northerly states. It is troublesome as far north as New Jersey to Iowa.
The fungus winters in the soil, enters through the roots and blocks the water passages of the plant causing wilting, yellowing, and finally, death. Water vessels in the stem are discolored,—another means of identifying the disease.
Spraying or dusting are of no service since the fungus is within. Long time rotation and use of the many resistant strains areeffective means ofcontrol.
Figure 17.—Resistance to fusarium wilt. Row on left center is planted to an ordinary variety, row on right with one of F. J. Pritchard's wilt-resistant selections. Insert shows plant attacked by wilt fungus.Figure 17.—Resistance to fusarium wilt. Row on left center is planted to an ordinary variety, row on right with one of F. J. Pritchard's wilt-resistant selections. Insert shows plant attacked by wilt fungus.
Leaf Spot,Septoria Blight(Septoria lycopersici) causes heavy loss by destroying the foliage and so the fruit-making power of the plant. It also opens the fruits to sunscald. The spots appear as small dark water soaked areas which enlarge but little though they increase in number and turn brown. Tiny black dots, the fruiting bodies of the fungus, appear. The spores germinate only on moist leavesand the disease is spread by wind, rain, workers and the like. It winters on refuse of the tomato and related plants.
Fall plowing helps to control. Bordeaux spraying beginning in the seed bed and carried faithfully through the season will usually hold the trouble in check.
Late Blight(Phytophthora infestans) is the same fungus as the late blight of potatoes, affecting both foliage and fruit. It is often troublesome the first few weeks after plants are set out-of-doors. Clean soil in seed bed and bordeaux spraying are helpful.
Western Blight,Yellows,Curly Top,—cause unknown,—is prevalent in California. Leaves roll and become thickened and brittle, later turning a sulfury yellow. Veins become purplish. The trouble prevails in hot weather. The cause is likely a virus, similar to or identical with the curly top of beets. It is apparently spread by leaf hoppers. No satisfactory control has been devised though there is some promise inresistant strains.
Figure 18.—Diseases of the tomato. 1. Septoria or leaf spot. 2. Mosaic. 3. Mosaic, filiform.Figure 18.—Diseases of the tomato. 1. Septoria or leaf spot. 2. Mosaic. 3. Mosaic, filiform.
Mosaic.—No organism has been definitely connected with the mosaic diseases of tomatoes, but they are highly infectious, being spread by means of what is called a "virus," which passes the finestfilters. It is spread by insects, notably aphids, which carry plant juice, and in the handling of plants, but it does not persist in seeds or in litter. It is wintered on horse nettles and three species of ground cherries. Control suggestions include roguing affected plants, eliminating weeds, and controlling carrying insects. The symptoms are widely various, the most common being mottling of leaves, stunting and malformation of leaflets, which sometimes become fine ribbons or threads, curling, appearance of small brown dead areas, and spots and cracks on fruits.
Damping offis caused by various fungi in the seed bed which attack the stem near the surface of the soil and cause the plant to drop over and die. Clean soil, heating of soil, commonly called sterilization, and care in watering are all helpful. It is now common practice to dust seed with formaldehyde dust, or with red copper oxid or with an organic mercury disinfectant. If trouble is serious, a watering with semesan just before seedlings emerge may be helpful.
A government bulletin on "Market Diseases of Tomatoes" (Miscellaneous Publication 121, 1932) is an excellent summary with colored plates to help in recognizing the various troubles.
The Fruit Worm(Chloridea obsoleta) is probably the worst of the tomato insects, but is not prevalent in the North. It is the same as the corn ear-worm or the cotton boll-worm, and bores into green or ripening fruits. It winters in the soil and fall plowing is recommended for its control. Planting corn as a trap crop is also suggested. The Virginia Truck Experiment Station finds that the addition of two pounds of calcium arsenate to 50 gallons of the Bordeaux used for disease control helps materially.
Cut-worms(various species of the family Noctuidae) cause severe losses at the time of field setting. They winter in the soil and are worse when sod has been plowed under, or following other host plants. Poison bran mash is commonly used to combat them, using a spoonful to each plant. Hand picking and the use of paper collars are resorted to on a small scale. Well-hardened plants seem less subject to injury by these pests than tender plants.
Colorado Potato Beetle(Leptinotarsa decemlineata) can cause a world of damage to young plants. Arsenical spray or dust will ordinarilycontrol them. The old-fashioned potato bug (family Meloidae), is reported as troublesome in Missouri. When they appear in droves, the only control is to drive them with brush. Arsenical spray or dust is of some value.
Flea Beetles(family Chrysomelidae) are the little black jumping fellows that perforate leaves in plant beds and in the field. They are also accused of injuring blossoms and reducing the set of fruit. Their attacks upon young plants are sometimes ruinous. Bordeaux with arsenical serves as a repellant. Dusting with nicotine sulphate dust is also suggested.
Green Tomato Worms, orHorn Worms(Phlegethontius sexta) are big, green fellows and have a great capacity for tomato foliage. Hand-picking and arsenical spray or dust are usual means of combat.
The stalk-borer(Papaipema nitela) is a slender caterpillar which is reported as serious in Indiana. No satisfactory control is suggested except clean culture around fields and pinching the stems to destroy the pest.
The most skillful production is in vain if marketing is not done well. At the same time, the quality of the goods is the principal factor in making the price and in moving the goods. Even then, if costs in production and marketing are too high, the enterprise is a failure.
The differences between high and low quotations on the same market the same day, are usually fairly wide,—say, $1.75 to $2.50; or $0.75 to $1.25; or $0.20 to $0.25 per basket. These differences are sufficient to make the difference between profit and loss. Small differences in quality of the product, in handling and dress-up of the market pack and skill in finding buyers may easily result in price differences as great or greater than those indicated.
Picking in the field calls for the closest care and supervision to prevent damage to the fruits andvines. Stems should be removed to avoid punching other fruits, and long finger-nails do great harm by cutting the skin and admitting infection. Containers should not be too large to be handled conveniently. Round half-bushel stave baskets and galvanized pails are excellent. Baskets made of quarter-inch staves rather than veneer are smooth and durable, but the investment is rather heavy unless dumping is resorted to. In practice, all sorts of boxes and crates are used, often the package that is used for marketing. No container as deep as a bushel basket should be used.
The stage of ripeness at which tomatoes are picked depends upon the time and distance to market. For home use or local market, fruit may range from the first turn to almost fully colored.
A few growers pick at the turn and use ripening rooms to prepare for local selling. In this way cracking, injury by soil, by insects, and by uneven coloring are avoided. Fruits are wiped and handled with less loss and may even be washed if need be.
Fully ripened fruit will not stand handling and hauling and will quickly deteriorate, reaching the consumer in bad condition.
For cannery, full ripening is desired with evencoloring. MacGillivray[18]has shown that success in this is largely a matter of care in picking. Cracking and slight softening are not serious defects for this purpose, but molds and bacteria in broken places are serious as they throw the product out of grade or occasion rejection.
Most tomatoes for long distance shipment, are picked before color appears,—at the mature-green stage. One of the great difficulties is to judge this stage correctly; to train ordinary labor to pick by maturity and not by size. Immature-green tomatoes ripen slowly and do not achieve good appearance or table quality.
It is almost impossible to describe the ear marks of a mature-green tomato. Most of those usually cited are of doubtful value—glossy surface, whitish cast of color and the dark ring at the stem scar. The jelly-like or mucilaginous material in the seed cells has sufficiently developed in a mature green tomato so that the fruit may be sliced without cutting seeds. Of course, the tomato is ruinedbut the method can be used to check one's judgment based on the exterior. Also, one can learn by laying aside tomatoes judged mature-green and immature-green to ripen.
Some efforts have recently been made in Florida to pick tomatoes at the turn, that is, at the first show of color, a practice suggested by Sando[19]some years ago. This should provide fruits of uniform degree of maturity, that would be about ready to sell on arrival and it would eliminate the serious problem of immature-greens. It would require more frequent picking of fields and there could be no delay in packing. There would, doubtless, also be problems of temperature and ventilation in transit. Results of tests thus far have been rather encouraging.
Green wrap tomatoes are received at terminal markets by produce houses that have special ripening rooms where temperature is kept at about 70°, with high humidity to prevent wilting or shriveling. Ethylene gas is used by some tohasten ripening. It does not change the nature of the process, merely speeding it up. Some of these repackers have elaborate equipment for sorting and packing.
The tomatoes, on arrival, are shaken out of their paper wraps. Any that have ripened in transit are taken out and packed while the greens go into the ripening rooms. They may have to be sorted over two or three times as ripening progresses.
The ripening process in tomatoes has been rather thoroughly studied. Sando found that tomatoes ripen uniformly, regardless of size, at a certain age, dating from the setting of the fruit. This time, which, of course, varies according to weather conditions, was eight weeks when the studies were made. Ripening is accompanied by an increase in moisture, acids and sugars, with decrease of solids, nitrogen, starch, pentisans, crude fibre and ash. Sugars increase from about a quarter to about half of the dry weight. Chemical analysis did not show differences sufficient to account for the difference in quality between vine-ripened fruit and green fruit ripened in the laboratory. Lack of ventilation seems to be detrimental.
It is commonly held that tomatoes chilled without freezing will not ripen satisfactorily afterward. This belief is discounted by results of Wright and associates and of Platenius who found little effect of low temperatures upon later ripening.
Wright[20]and Platenius[21]have both found that tomatoes should not be stored at low temperatures, 50° to 60° F. being best. Storage is not likely to be satisfactory for more than a month.
Waxing of tomatoes by immersion in a dilute water emulsion of paraffine and carnauba waxes is being tried out with very promising results. Waxes are also dissolved in volatile hydrocarbons and sprayed on. Moisture loss and shriveling are materially retarded, and interference with the ripening process is negligible. The wax coating is very thin, adds an attractive gloss and isentirely harmless.
Figure 19.—Packing tomatoes on a farm in Connecticut. Boys in the background are wiping and sorting. The others are packing in half-bushel boxes. The top slats are put on before packing and the bottom is nailed on at the finish of the job. A board which is turned over with the box keeps tomatoes from falling out.Figure 19.—Packing tomatoes on a farm in Connecticut. Boys in the background are wiping and sorting. The others are packing in half-bushel boxes. The top slats are put on before packing and the bottom is nailed on at the finish of the job. A board which is turned over with the box keeps tomatoes from falling out.
Figure 19.—Packing tomatoes on a farm in Connecticut. Boys in the background are wiping and sorting. The others are packing in half-bushel boxes. The top slats are put on before packing and the bottom is nailed on at the finish of the job. A board which is turned over with the box keeps tomatoes from falling out.Figure 19.—Packing tomatoes on a farm in Connecticut. Boys in the background are wiping and sorting. The others are packing in half-bushel boxes. The top slats are put on before packing and the bottom is nailed on at the finish of the job. A board which is turned over with the box keeps tomatoes from falling out.
It is generally true that at market the poorest products in a given lot tend to fix the price. When the buyer finds a few inferior specimens he assumes there are many more. Imperfect and diseased specimens infect others. Grading enhances the appearanceof the pack.
Courtesy Tripak Mach. Service
Figure 20.—A California packing house with elaborate machinery and fully organized.Figure 20.—A California packing house with elaborate machinery and fully organized.
Of course, the grower who picks marketable tomatoes and leaves unmarketable fruits on the vine is engaged in a form of grading—informal and subconscious. Methods may range from this simple practice to the elaborate schemes adopted in large packing houses. There is no difficulty in adopting methods for the farm that are easily managed and perfectly practical. In general, two grades to sell represent a good plan, leaving culls at home unless prices are high and there is good demand for them. The set-up may involve no more than a worker at a table with three baskets—one with tomatoes from the field; another for #1's and a third for #2's. The worker may well use a cotton flannel glove or cloth to wipe the tomatoes and the fruits should be placed in layers to bring the package to a good face. With some practice, this slows the operation but very little. Shed packingshould be more common than it is though the practice seems to be gaining.
Shippers scattered from Cuba and California to New York state have packing houses set up to all degrees of elaborateness. Some have machines and conveyors that wash, sort for size, provide for hand sorting for grade and deliver to bins for packing. Experienced packers advance with the season from Florida to Lake Erie. These workers become almost incredibly expert and speedy. It is not uncommon for a worker to pick up, wrap and place in the lug box 60 or 70 tomatoes per minute—not as a show-off but in courseof regular work.
Figure 21.—Puffiness is a common defect in tomatoes, especiallyFigure 21.—Puffiness is a common defect in tomatoes, especially when grown in the winter in the South.
The federal government has worked out and published standards for the grades of tomatoes along with most other vegetables. These standards are practical and have found wide acceptance as furnishing common language between seller and buyer, especially for long distance shipment. The one who grades may, however, set up a standard of his own to meet the needs of his conditions and market.
U.S. Standards for cannery tomatoes are widely used as a basis of payment to the grower and this practice is to be commended.
The lug box has almost wholly replaced the older 6-basket carrier and 4-basket flat for shipment of tomatoes. It is in almost every respect, a good package for tomatoes. It is built with solid board ends, with veneer or sawed sides, bottom and cover. Cleats on the ends serve to raise the lids so that a bulge pack will not be injured by pressure. Veneer covers and bottoms are held together by stitched veneer cross pieces. The lug box is packed in three layers and holds about 30 pounds net of tomatoes though it is often over-packedto carry considerably more. The bulge pack is desirable only so far as it is necessary to insure a tight pack and to take up the small shrinkage that takes place in transit. Ordinarily, it goes beyond this. It results in delivery of more tomatoes than are paid for, and in bruising because the topcenter is too high.
Courtesy Southern Arkansas Growers Association
Figure 22.—The lug box is the most widely used of all tomato packages. This is well packed and labeled but shows too much bulge making for difficulty in loading and handling and increasing danger of bruising the upper fruits.Figure 22.—The lug box is the most widely used of all tomato packages. This is well packed and labeled but shows too much bulge making for difficulty in loading and handling and increasing danger of bruising the upper fruits.
Figure 22.—The lug box is the most widely used of all tomato packages. This is well packed and labeled but shows too much bulge making for difficulty in loading and handling and increasing danger of bruising the upper fruits.
The late M. R. Ensign in Florida, was working with a wire-bound lug to carry 20 pounds of tomatoes in two layers without bulge.
The lug box is packed in three layers and the size of fruits is designated by the number of tomatoes each way,—6 x 6, 6 x 7, and 7 x 7 being the commonest sizes. Each tomato is wrapped in a square of tissue paper which may or may not be printed. The principal advantage of the paper is to cushion the pack and protect the tomatoes against rubbing and abrasion. Where tomatoes are small, U.S. Standards provide for "bridge pack" or partial extra layers, for extra rows and for double wraps or two tomatoesin one paper.
Figure 23.—Lug boxes as loaded in car.Figure 23.—Lug boxes as loaded in car.
Lug boxes were formerly loaded lengthwise of the car but are now generally loaded crosswise,—thatis, the side of the box is crosswise throwing the heavy endwise thrust against the substantial end of the box. Thin strips are nailed between layers, butting against the sides of the car to prevent shifting of the load and closing of ventilation channels. Refrigerated cars are generally usedbut icing is not usual.
Figure 24.—The square braid basket is widely used as a local market package for tomatoes. The faced pack looks better and is easily put up. Covers permit stacking six or eight high.Figure 24.—The square braid basket is widely used as a local market package for tomatoes. The faced pack looks better and is easily put up. Covers permit stacking six or eight high.
A few shipping sections, notably New Jersey, still use the 12-quart climax basket for tomatoes.
Local markets use various containers for tomatoes,—the Boston bushel box; a half bushel of the same depth also used in New England; lug boxes; the Jersey tomato crate; and very commonly, 8 and 12-quart square braid veneer market baskets. Peach baskets and bushel baskets are now used but little, being too deep for good carrying. The diamond market basket of earlier years has about disappeared—being too flexible and not suited for stacking. The square braid with suitable cover may be stacked very satisfactorily in trucks but is hardly substantialenough for rail shipment.
Figure 25.—The Connecticut half bushel box. Figure 19 shows how this is packed.Figure 25.—The Connecticut half bushel box. Figure 19 shows how this is packed.
Hot house tomatoes travel in square braid, climax or paper fibre baskets, now rather commonly,the latter. The Cleveland section sells some millions of baskets of 8-quart capacity but carrying 8 pounds of tomatoes in two layers, usually with stems on, usually wrapped and sometimes with a paper dividerbetween layers.
Figure 26.—Repacked tomatoes. Southern tomatoes go to wholesale houses that specialize in ripening and repacking. Many kinds of packages are used. The flat 10-pound box is one of the popular packs especially in the Boston area.Figure 26.—Repacked tomatoes. Southern tomatoes go to wholesale houses that specialize in ripening and repacking. Many kinds of packages are used. The flat 10-pound box is one of the popular packs especially in theBoston area.
CelluloseFigure 27.—Cellulose film is used for repacked tomatoes.
Cannery tomatoes move in field crates belonging to the canner or, in Jersey, in 5/8 bushel baskets, about as awkward a container as could be readily devised unless it should be the Jerseytomato crate with its two cover strips permanently fastened.
Repack tomatoes are sometimes replaced in lugs or in half lugs. Ten pound corrugated cartons are widely used, newer and fancier packs being but one layer deep. Fruits are wrapped with paper or cellulose film. An increasing proportion of repacks are now put up in one-pound cartons with a window of cellulose film, carrying four or five tomatoes. A variation is a paper tray wrapped with cellulose film.
Good marketing calls for a good label for whatever package is used. These are usually pasted on the package. Paper containers are often printed directly but the problem of misuse of second hand packages is coming to the fore.
Success in selling demands in the producer the qualities which we ordinarily expect in the business man. The good grower is a business man if he succeeds, and this will be more true in the future than in the past, as competition increases. It is necessary to judge the men one deals with, forming estimates as to reliability and character.Mutual confidence is essential to satisfactory dealings. It is worth while to study the produce business and to learn its ins and outs, reading a trade paper, talking with dealers, and making trips to markets.
Shipments are made on "f.o.b." or track sale, on consignment, or on joint account. The first plan of outright sale is the most desirable and is possible where there is enough business at a given point to attract buyers or where grades and business standing are well enough established to assure the purchaser of what he is getting. When the quality of the product is uncertain or when markets are glutted, consignment must be resorted to. Under this plan, the shipper owns the goods until the receiver makes a sale and all the risks up to this point are his. There are many consignment houses of high character if the shipper will take the trouble to find them instead of shipping to any one who writes a good letter, and there is vigorous competition in the trade. These factors make it possible to secure fairly good service most of the time. Joint account selling, where shipper and receiver agree on how returns shall be divided, is sometimes undertaken where mutual acquaintance justifies it.
Selling on distant markets is more complex and difficult than local selling for many reasons. Shoving crates off the wagon into the car and forgetting them is not selling. Co-operative organization has helped many communities through pooling of resources, standardizing, grading and packing the product, encouraging better field practices, and securing the services of able managers and salesmen.
A very small amount of produce is sold by producers directly to the consumer at his home, but the roadside market has greatly developed retail activity by growers. Here fine quality, attractive appearance, moderate prices, and fair dealing are effective in building business. Stands that plan to "fleece them as they pass" do not last long. It is the return business that counts. The bulk of local selling is done directly to retailers—grocers or hucksters—either at market or store-door. The costliness of this system is being realized and local commission business is growing, in many cases through the establishment of commission houses co-operatively owned and managed by growers,as in Providence, Cleveland, Chicago and other markets.
Some effort has been made to increase the use of tomatoes as has been successfully done with oranges and bananas. These efforts have been sporadic and results have been hardly more consistent than the efforts. Co-operative publicity, especially at times when large quantities are to be moved, would seem to offer fine possibilities. Growers of some crops are finding chain store groups very ready to help in moving out large volumes of produce when the supply is large.
Cannery sales are generally made at a stipulated price on contracts closed in advance of planting. These contracts have usually devoted more words to protecting the interests of the packer than those of the grower, largely because the grower has accepted the canner's initiative with little question. Farseeing companies have been fair in enforcement of terms and liberal in their dealings, realizing that prosperity must be mutual for the highest success. A few canners have contract provisions that enable the grower to share in pricesrealized for the packed product when they rise beyond a certain figure. Too many canners have lacked vision, however, and have taken all they could get. Farmers have known little about costs and so have frequently been lured by the prospect of cash return even though they see no money until the packed tomatoes are actually sold. During recent years, much has been learned about the business side of growing for cannery purposes and the knowledge has been made available through extension channels. Growers have shown some tendency to organize and some canners welcome this movement as helping them to set their affairs on a plane of definite understanding. Canners have suffered sadly through failure of growers to live up to contracts if it suited them better to evade the terms, and organization helps greatly to develop the producer's sense of responsibility. Indiana has formed a federation of locals, but an organization movement in another state failed, more because the directors and members did not live up to their duties than through opposition of certain hostile canners. Co-operation in this field has the same possibilities, requirements and dangers as in other fields. With time and experience,co-operation will be an increasing and beneficial factor in the business.
In some sections, most of the cannery tomatoes are sold on open market, and in others, the early part of the crop is free for local sale or shipment. This arrangement would seem to have possibilities for further development by the use of good plants and good culture.
Happily, the home gardener does not need to keep books with his tomatoes. If he likes the culture and the product, he need not inquire further.
Not so with the commercial grower. After all skill has been exercised in growing and selling, the books must show black and not red. This calls for good management and judgment not only as to what is best for the tomatoes and for the consumer but also how much one can afford to spend to gain a given advantage.
Fortunately, quality, yield and economy generally go hand in hand. One of the best ways to achieve low unit cost is to win a high yield per acre.
For the cannery crop, conditions are sometimes such that one cannot afford to apply, say, optimum fertilizer because some other factor not readily controlled may limit the returns and so make heavy feeding uneconomical.
Yield.—The average yield per acre of cannery tomatoes for the United States was, in 1940, 5.39 tons per acre and the 10-year average, to 1938, was 4.15 tons per acre. For tomatoes for fresh market, the average yield for 1940 was 148 bushels per acre, 14 bushels above the 10-year average. Of course, these yields would not satisfy a grower who calls himself successful. In the canning sections of New York, it takes about 7 tons per acre to cover costs of production. Some years ago a survey in Arkansas recorded costs as low as $36 per acre. However, the same survey showed cost per ton as $13.64. Cannery contracts that year averaged about $12.75 per ton. That does not yield much money to bank even if ten or twenty acres are grown. Rarely yields run to 25 tons per acre.
It is accordingly necessary to keep costs down and to bring yields up. Each item of cost must be scrutinized and adjusted to bring lowest cost per ton or per package.
In counting costs, it is necessary to include every element. The following summary from 118 Western New York farms for 1934 for cannery tomatoes illustrates the various items:
Per centof totalGrowing costs:Land$ 7.669.17Manure3.914.68Commercial fertilizer8.219.83Plants15.5518.62Plowing3.4024.10Fitting3.834.59Applying fertilizer1.651.98Setting5.416.48Cultivating6.387.64All other growing costs2.142.56——————Total growing costs per acre$58.1669.65Harvesting and delivering (8.2 tons)25.3430.35——————Total costs$83.50100.00
All too often, growers think they are counting costs when such important items as interest, use of truck and machinery or others are omitted. One sometimes sees such figures in print.
One good way to view returns is in terms of cents per hour for labor. Cost accounts in New York have showed that a group of farmers who raised cannery tomatoes the nine years up to 1937 and whose records were studied, realized $0.34 per hour for their time given to tomatoes, $0.51 for potatoes, $0.24 for wheat, and $0.11 for oats.
This book is not a monograph in the scientific sense and no attempt has been made to cite references for all statements. This list is intended to include the publications that are likely to prove most useful to one who wishes to read further about tomatoes. There are many others of great value, most of them being included in bibliographies in the works cited below.
Unless otherwise stated, references are to publications of the state experiment stations, addresses of which may be obtained by writing Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
Beattie, W. R.Tomatoes as a truck crop.U.S. Dept. of Agr. Farmers Bul. 1338. 1923.Snyder, G. B. and Dempsey, P. W.Tomato production in Massachusetts.Mass. Ext. Leaf. 51. May, 1937.Porter, D. R. and MacGillivray, John H.The production of tomatoes in California.Calif. Exp. Sta. Cir. 104. 1937.Cochran, H. L.Improved methods of tomato production in Georgia.Ga. Exp. Sta. Bul. 206. 1940.Huelsen, W. A.Growing tomatoes in Illinois.Ill. Exp. Sta. Cir. 451. 1936.Balch, W. B.Growing tomatoes in Kansas.Kan. Exp. Sta. Cir. 172. 1933.Seaton, H. L.Tomato growing in Michigan.Mich. Exp. Sta. Ext. Bul. 156. 1936.Allen, E. J. and Talbert, T. J.Tomato culture in Missouri.Mo. Exp. Sta. Cir. 173. 1934.Schermerhorn, L. G., Tiedjens, V. A., et al.Questions and answers relative to tomato production.N.J. Exp. Sta. Ext. Bul. 174. 1936.Raleigh, G. J.Growing tomatoes for market.Cornell Ext. Bul. 377. 1937.Tracy, W.Tomato culture.Orange Judd Co. 1907.Work, Paul.Tomato production.Orange Judd Co. 1926.Pellett, F. C. and M. A.Practical tomato culture.A. T. De La More Co. 1930.
Beattie, W. R.Tomatoes as a truck crop.U.S. Dept. of Agr. Farmers Bul. 1338. 1923.
Snyder, G. B. and Dempsey, P. W.Tomato production in Massachusetts.Mass. Ext. Leaf. 51. May, 1937.
Porter, D. R. and MacGillivray, John H.The production of tomatoes in California.Calif. Exp. Sta. Cir. 104. 1937.
Cochran, H. L.Improved methods of tomato production in Georgia.Ga. Exp. Sta. Bul. 206. 1940.
Huelsen, W. A.Growing tomatoes in Illinois.Ill. Exp. Sta. Cir. 451. 1936.
Balch, W. B.Growing tomatoes in Kansas.Kan. Exp. Sta. Cir. 172. 1933.
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