(a)Origin and History

(a)Origin and History1. Numbers and distribution.Gond.—The principal tribe of the Dravidian family, and perhaps the most important of the non-Aryan or forest tribes in India. In 1911 the Gonds were three million strong, and they are increasing rapidly. The Kolis of western India count half a million persons more than the Gonds, and if the four related tribes Kol, Munda, Ho, and Santāl were taken together, they would be stronger by about the same amount. But if historical importance be considered as well as numbers, the first place should be awarded to the Gonds. Of the whole caste the Central Provinces contain 2,300,000 persons, Central India, and Bihār and Orissa about 235,000 persons each, and they are returned in small numbers from Assam, Madras and Hyderābād. The 50,000 Gonds in Assam are no doubt immigrant labourers on the tea-gardens.2. Gondwāna.In the Central Provinces the Gonds occupy two main tracts. The first is the wide belt of broken hill and forest country in the centre of the Province, which forms the Satpūra plateau, and is mainly comprised in the Chhindwārā, Betūl, Seoni and Mandla Districts, with portions of several others adjoining them. And the second is the still wider and more inaccessible mass of hill ranges extending south of the Chhattīsgarh plain, and south-west down to the Godāvari, which includes portions of the three Chhattīsgarh Districts, the Bastar and Kanker States, and a great part of Chānda. In Mandla the Gonds form nearly half the population, and in Bastar about two-thirds. There is, however, no District or State of the Province which does not contain some Gonds, and it is both on account of their numbers and the fact that Gond dynasties possessed a great part of its area that the territory of the Central Provinces was formerly known as Gondwāna, or the country of the Gonds.1The existing importance of the Central Provinces dates from recent years, for so late as 1853 it was stated before the Royal Asiatic Society that “at present the Gondwāna highlandsand jungles comprise such a large tract of unexplored country that they form quite an oasis in our maps.” So much of this lately unexplored country as is British territory is now fairly well served by railways, traversed almost throughout by good roads, and provided with village schools at distances of five to ten miles apart, even in the wilder tracts.Gond women grinding cornGond women grinding corn3. Derivation of name and origin of the Gonds.The derivation of the word Gond is uncertain. It is the name given to the tribe by the Hindus or Muhammadans, as their own name for themselves is Koitūr or Koi. General Cunningham considered that the name Gond probably came from Gauda, the classical term for part of the United Provinces and Bengal. A Benāres inscription relating to one of the Chedi kings of Tripura or Tewar (near Jubbulpore) states that he was of the Haihaya tribe, who lived on the borders of the Nerbudda in the district of the Western Gauda in the Province of Mālwa. Three or four other inscriptions also refer to the kings of Gauda in the same locality. Gauda, however, was properly and commonly used as the name of part of Bengal. There is no evidence beyond a few doubtful inscriptions of its having ever been applied to any part of the Central Provinces. The principal passage in which General Cunningham identifies Gauda with the Central Provinces is that in which the king of Gauda came to the assistance of the ruler of Mālwa against the king of Kanauj, elder brother of the great Harsha Vardhana, and slew the latter king inA.D.605. But Mr. V. A. Smith holds that Gauda in this passage refers to Bengal and not to the Central Provinces;2and General Cunningham’s argument on the locality of Gauda is thus rendered extremely dubious, and with it his derivation of the name Gond. In fact it seems highly improbable that the name of a large tribe should have been taken from a term so little used and known in this special application. Though in theImperial Gazetteer3the present writer reproduced General Cunningham’s derivation of the term Gond, it was there characterised as speculative, and in the light of the above remarks now seems highly improbable. Mr. Hislop considered that the name Gond was a form of Kond, as he spelt the name ofthe Khond tribe. He pointed out thatkandgare interchangeable. Thus Gotalghar, the empty house where the village young men sleep, comes from Kotal, a led horse, andghar, a house. Similarly, Koikopāl, the name of a Gond subtribe who tend cattle, is from Koi or Gond, andgopal, a cowherd. The name by which the Gonds call themselves is Koi or Koitūr, while the Khonds call themselves Ku, which word Sir G. Grierson considers to be probably related to the Gond name Koi. Further, he states that the Telugu people call the Khonds, Gond or Kod (Kor). General Cunningham points out that the word Gond in the Central Provinces is frequently or, he says, usually pronounced Gaur, which is practically the same sound asgod, and with the change ofGtoKwould become Kod. Thus the two names Gond and Kod, by which the Telugu people know the Khonds, are practically the same as the names Gond and God of the Gonds in the Central Provinces, though Sir G. Grierson does not mention the change ofgtokin his account of either language. It seems highly probable that the designation Gond was given to the tribe by the Telugus. The Gonds speak a Dravidian language of the same family as Tamil, Canarese and Telugu, and therefore it is likely that they come from the south into the Central Provinces. Their route may have been up the Godāvari river into Chānda; from thence up the Indravati into Bastar and the hills south and east of the Chhattīsgarh plain; and up the Wardha and Wainganga to the Districts of the Satpūra Plateau. In Chānda, where a Gond dynasty reigned for some centuries, they would be in contact with the Telugus, and here they may have got their name of Gond, and carried it with them into the north and east of the Province. As already seen, the Khonds are called Gond by the Telugus, and Kandh by the Uriyas. The Khonds apparently came up more towards the east into Ganjam and Kālāhandi. Here the name of Gond or Kod, given them by the Telugus, may have been modified into Kandh by the Uriyas, and from the two names came the English corruption of Khond. The Khond and Gondi languages are now dissimilar. Still they present certain points of resemblance, and though Sir G. Grierson does not discuss their connection, it appears from his highlyinteresting genealogical tree of the Dravidian languages that Khond or Kui and Gondi are closely connected. These two languages, and no others, occupy an intermediate position between the two great branches sprung from the original Dravidian language, one of which is mainly represented by Telugu and the other by Tamil, Canarese and Malayālam.4Gondi and Khond are shown in the centre as the connecting link between the two great branches. Gondi is more nearly related to Tamil and Khond to Telugu. On the Telugu side, moreover, Khond approaches most closely to Kolāmi, which is a member of the Telugu branch. The Kolāms are a tribe of Wardha and Berār, sometimes considered an offshoot of the Gonds; at any rate, it seems probable that they came from southern India by the same route as the Gonds. Thus the Khond language is intermediate between Gondi and the Kolāmi dialect of Wardha and Berār, though the Kolāms live west of the Gonds and the Khonds east. And a fairly close relationship between the three languages appears to be established. Hence the linguistic evidence appears to afford strong support to the view that the Khonds and Gonds may originally have been one tribe. Further, Mr. Hislop points out that a word for god,pen, is common to the Gonds and Khonds; and the Khonds have a god called Bura Pen, who might be the same as Bura Deo, the great god of the Gonds. Mr. Hislop found Kodo Pen and Pharsi Pen as Gond gods,5while Pen or Pennu is the regular word for god among the Khonds. This evidence seems to establish a probability that the Gonds and Khonds were originally one tribe in the south of India, and that they obtained separate names and languages since they left their original home for the north. The fact that both of them speak languages of the Dravidian family, whose home is in southern India, makes it probable that the two tribes originally belonged there, and migrated north into the Central Provinces and Orissa. This hypothesis is supported by the traditions of the Gonds.4. History of the Gonds.As stated in the article on Kol, it is known that Rājpūt dynasties were ruling in various parts of the Central Provincesfrom about the sixth to the twelfth centuries. They then disappear, and there is a blank till the fourteenth century or later, when Gond kingdoms are found established at Kherla in Betūl, at Deogarh in Chhīndwara, at Garha-Mandla,6including the Jubbulpore country, and at Chānda, fourteen miles from Bhāndak. It seems clear, then, that the Hindu dynasties were subverted by the Gonds after the Muhammadan invasions of northern India had weakened or destroyed the central powers of the Hindus, and prevented any assistance being afforded to the outlying settlements. There is some reason to suppose that the immigration of the Gonds into the Central Provinces took place after the establishment of these Hindu kingdoms, and not before, as is commonly held.7But the point must at present be considered doubtful. There is no reason however to doubt that the Gonds came from the south through Chānda and Bastar. During the fourteenth century and afterwards the Gonds established dynasties at the places already mentioned in the Central Provinces. For two or three centuries the greater part of the Province was governed by Gond kings. Of their method of government in Narsinghpur, Sleeman said: “Under these Gond Rājas the country seems for the most part to have been distributed among feudatory chiefs, bound to attend upon the prince at his capital with a stipulated number of troops, to be employed wherever their services might be required, but to furnish little or no revenue in money. These chiefs were Gonds, and the countries they held for the support of their families and the payment of their troops and retinue little more than wild jungles. The Gonds seem not to have been at home in open country, and as from the sixteenth century a peaceable penetration of Hindu cultivators into the best lands of the Province assumed large dimensions, the Gonds gradually retired to the hill ranges on the borders of the plains.” The headquarters of each dynasty at Mandla, Garha, Kherla, Deogarh and Chānda seem to have been located in a position strengthened for defence either by a hill or a great river, and adjacent to an especially fertile plain tract, whoseproduce served for the maintenance of the ruler’s household and headquarters establishment. Often the site was on other sides bordered by dense forest which would afford a retreat to the occupants in case it fell to an enemy. Strong and spacious forts were built, with masonry tanks and wells inside them to provide water, but whether these buildings were solely the work of the Gonds or constructed with the assistance of Hindu or Muhammadan artificers is uncertain. But the Hindu immigrants found Gond government tolerant and beneficent. Under the easy eventless sway of these princes the rich country over which they ruled prospered, its flocks and herds increased, and the treasury filled. So far back as the fifteenth century we read in Firishta that the king of Kherla, who, if not a Gond himself, was a king of the Gonds, sumptuously entertained the Bāhmani king and made him rich offerings, among which were many diamonds, rubies and pearls. Of the Rāni Dūrgavati of Garha-Mandla, Sleeman said: “Of all the sovereigns of this dynasty she lives most in the page of history and in the grateful recollections of the people. She built the great reservoir which lies close to Jubbulpore, and is called after her Rāni Talao or Queen’s pond; and many other highly useful works were formed by her about Garha.” When the castle of Chaurāgarh was sacked by one of Akbar’s generals in 1564, the booty found, according to Firishta, comprised, independently of jewels, images of gold and silver and other valuables, no fewer than a hundred jars of gold coin and a thousand elephants. Of the Chānda rulers the Settlement officer who has recorded their history wrote that, “They left, if we forget the last few years, a well-governed and contented kingdom, adorned with admirable works of engineering skill and prosperous to a point which no aftertime has reached. They have left their mark behind them in royal tombs, lakes and palaces, but most of all in the seven miles of battlemented stone wall, too wide now for the shrunk city of Chānda within it, which stands on the very border-line between the forest and the plain, having in front the rich valley of the Wardha river, and behind and up to the city walls deep forest extending to the east.” According to local tradition the great wall of Chānda and other buildings,such as the tombs of the Gond kings and the palace at Junona, were built by immigrant Telugu masons of the Kāpu or Munurwār castes. Another excellent rule of the Gond kings was to give to any one who made a tank a grant of land free of revenue of the land lying beneath it. A large number of small irrigation tanks were constructed under this inducement in the Wainganga valley, and still remain. But the Gond states had no strength for defence, as was shown when in the eighteenth century Marātha chiefs, having acquired some knowledge of the art of war and military training by their long fighting against the Mughals, cast covetous eyes on Gondwāna. The loose tribal system, so easy in time of peace, entirely failed to knit together the strength of the people when united action was most required, and the plain country fell before the Marātha armies almost without a struggle. In the strongholds, however, of the hilly ranges which hem in every part of Gondwāna the chiefs for long continued to maintain an unequal resistance, and to revenge their own wrongs by indiscriminate rapine and slaughter. In such cases the Marātha plan was to continue pillaging and harassing the Gonds until they obtained an acknowledgment of their supremacy and the promise, at least, of an annual tribute. Under this treatment the hill Gonds soon lost every vestige of civilisation, and became the cruel, treacherous savages depicted by travellers of this period. They regularly plundered and murdered stragglers and small parties passing through the hills, while from their strongholds, built on the most inaccessible spurs of the Satpūras, they would make a dash into the rich plains of Berār and the Nerbudda valley, and after looting and killing all night, return straight across country to their jungle fortresses, guided by the light of a bonfire on some commanding peak.8With the pacification of the country and the introduction of a strong and equable system of government by the British, these wild marauders soon settled down and became the timid and inoffensive labourers which they now are.Palace of the Gond kings of Garha-Mandla at RāmnagarPalace of the Gond kings of Garha-Mandla at Rāmnagar5. Mythica traditions. Story of Lingo.Mr. Hislop took down from a Pardhān priest a Gond myth of the creation of the world and the origin of theGonds, and their liberation from a cave, in which they had been shut up by Siva, through the divine hero Lingo. General Cunningham said that the exact position of the cave was not known, but it would seem to have been somewhere in the Himalayas, as the name Dhawalgiri, which means a white mountain, is mentioned. The cave, according to ordinary Gond tradition, was situated in Kachikopa Lohāgarh or the Iron Valley in the Red Hill. It seems clear from the story itself that its author was desirous of connecting the Gonds with Hindu mythology, and as Siva’s heaven is in the Himalayas, the name Dhawalgiri, where he located the cave, may refer to them. It is also said that the cave was at the source of the Jumna. But in Mr. Hislop’s version the cave where all the Gonds except four were shut up is not in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, as the Gonds commonly say; but only the four Gonds who escaped wandered to this latter place and dwelt there. And the story does not show that Kachikopa Lohāgarh was on Mount Dhawalgiri or the Himalayas, where it places the cave in which the Gonds were shut up, or anywhere near them. On the contrary, it would be quite consonant with Mr. Hislop’s version if Kachikopa Lohāgarh were in the Central Provinces. It may be surmised that in the original Gond legend their ancestors really were shut up in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, but not by the god Siva. Very possibly the story began with them in the cave in the Iron Valley in the Red Hill. But the Hindu who clearly composed Mr. Hislop’s version wished to introduce the god Siva as a principal actor, and he therefore removed the site of the cave to the Himalayas. This appears probable from the story itself, in which, in its present form, Kachikopa Lohāgarh plays no real part, and only appears because it was in the original tradition and has to be retained.9But the Gonds think that their ancestors were actually shut up in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, and one tradition puts the site at Pachmarhi, whose striking hill scenery and red soil cleft by many deep and inaccessible ravines would render it a likely place for the incident. Another version locates Kachikopa Lohāgarh at Dārekasain Bhandāra, where there is a place known as Kachagarh or the iron fort. But Pachmarhi is perhaps the more probable, as it has some deep caves, which have always been looked upon as sacred places. The point is of some interest, because this legend of the cave being in the Himalayas is adduced as a Gond tradition that their ancestors came from the north, and hence as supporting the theory of the immigration of the Dravidians through the north-west of India. But if the view now suggested is correct, the story of the cave being in the Himalayas is not a genuine Gond tradition at all, but a Hindu interpolation. The only other ground known to the writer for asserting that the Gonds believed their ancestors to have come from the north is that they bury their dead with the feet to the north. There are other obvious Hindu accretions in the legend, as the saintly Brāhmanic character of Lingo and his overcoming the gods through fasting and self-torture, and also the fact that Siva shut up the Gonds in the cave because he was offended by their dirty habits and bad smell. But the legend still contains a considerable quantity of true Gond tradition, and though somewhat tedious, it seems necessary to give an abridgment of Mr. Hislop’s account, with reproduction of selected passages. Captain Forsyth also made a modernised poetical version,10from which one extract is taken. Certain variations from another form of the legend obtained in Bastar are included.6. Legend of the creation.In the beginning there was water everywhere, and God was born in a lotus-leaf and lived alone. One day he rubbed his arm and from the rubbing made a crow, which sat on his shoulder; he also made a crab, which swam out over the waters. God then ordered the crow to fly over the world and bring some earth. The crow flew about and could find no earth, but it saw the crab, which was supporting itself with one leg resting on the bottom of the sea. The crow was very tired and perched on the crab’s back, which was soft so that the crow’s feet made marks on it, which are still visible on the bodies of all crabs at present. The crow asked the crab where any earth could be found. The crab said that if God would make its body hard it would findsome earth. God said he would make part of the crab’s body hard, and he made its back hard, as it still remains. The crab then dived to the bottom of the sea, where it found Kenchna, the earth-worm. It caught hold of Kenchna by the neck with its claws and the mark thus made is still to be seen on the earth-worm’s neck. Then the earth-worm brought up earth out of its mouth and the crab brought this to God, and God scattered it over the sea and patches of land appeared. God then walked over the earth and a boil came on his hand, and out of it Mahādeo and Pārvati were born.7. Creation of the Gonds and their imprisonment by Mahādeo.From Mahādeo’s urine numerous vegetables began to spring up. Pārvati ate of these and became pregnant and gave birth to eighteen threshing-floors11of Brāhman gods and twelve threshing-floors of Gond gods. All the Gonds were scattered over the jungle. They behaved like Gonds and not like good Hindus, with lamentable results, as follows:12Hither and thither all the Gonds were scattered in the jungle.Places, hills, and valleys were filled with these Gonds.Even trees had their Gonds. How did the Gonds conduct themselves?Whatever came across them they must needs kill and eat it;They made no distinction. If they saw a jackal they killedAnd ate it; no distinction was observed; they respected not antelope, sāmbhar and the like.They made no distinction in eating a sow, a quail, a pigeon,A crow, a kite, an adjutant, a vulture,A lizard, a frog, a beetle, a cow, a calf, a he- and she-buffalo,Rats, bandicoots, squirrels—all these they killed and ate.So began the Gonds to do. They devoured raw and ripe things;They did not bathe for six months together;They did not wash their faces properly, even on dunghills they would fall down and remain.Such were the Gonds born in the beginning. A smell was spread over the jungleWhen the Gonds were thus disorderly behaved; they became disagreeable to Mahādeva,Who said: “The caste of the Gonds is very bad;I will not preserve them; they will ruin my hill Dhawalgiri.”Mahādeo then determined to get rid of the Gonds. With this view he invited them all to a meeting. When they satdown Mahādeo made a squirrel from the rubbings of his body and let it loose in the middle of the Gonds. All the Gonds at once got up and began to chase it, hoping for a meal. They seized sticks and stones and clods of earth, and their unkempt hair flew in the wind. The squirrel dodged about and ran away, and finally, directed by Mahādeo, ran into a large cave with all the Gonds after it. Mahādeo then rolled a large stone to the mouth of the cave and shut up all the Gonds in it. Only four remained outside, and they fled away to Kachikopa Lohāgarh, or the Iron Cave in the Red Hill, and lived there. Meanwhile Pārvati perceived that the smell of the Gonds, which had pleased her, had vanished from Dhawalgiri. She desired it to be restored and commenced a devotion. For six months she fasted and practised austerities. Bhagwān (God) was swinging in a swing. He was disturbed by Pārvati’s devotion. He sent Nārāyan (the sun) to see who was fasting. Nārāyan came and found Pārvati and asked her what she wanted. She said that she missed her Gonds and wanted them back. Nārāyan told Bhagwān, who promised that they should be given back.8. The birth and history of Lingo.The yellow flowers of the tree Pahindi were growing on Dhawalgiri. Bhagwān sent thunder and lightning, and the flower conceived. First fell from it a heap of turmeric or saffron. In the morning the sun came out, the flower burst open, and Lingo was born. Lingo was a perfect child. He had a diamond on his navel and a sandalwood mark on his forehead. He fell from the flower into the heap of turmeric. He played in the turmeric and slept in a swing. He became nine years old. He said there was no one there like him, and he would go where he could find his fellows. He climbed a needle-like hill,13and from afar off he saw Kachikopa Lohāgarh and the four Gonds. He came to them. They saw he was like them, and asked him to be their brother. They ate only animals. Lingo asked them to find for him an animal without a liver, and they searched all through the forest and could not. Then Lingo told them to cut down trees and make a field. They tried to cut down theanjan14trees, but their hands were blisteredand they could not go on. Lingo had been asleep. He woke up and saw they had only cut down one or two trees. He took the axe and cut down many trees, and fenced a field and made a gate to it. Black soil appeared. It began to rain, and rained without ceasing for three days. All the rivers and streams were filled. The field became green with rice, and it grew up. There were sixteen score ofnīlgaior blue-bull. They had two leaders, an old bull and his nephew. The young bull saw the rice of Lingo’s field and wished to eat it. The uncle told him not to eat of the field of Lingo or all thenīlgaiwould be killed. But the young bull did not heed, and took off all thenīlgaito eat the rice. When they got to the field they could find no entrance, so they jumped the fence, which was five cubits high. They ate all the rice from off the field and ran away. The young bull told them as they ran to put their feet on leaves and stones and boughs and grass, and not on the ground, so that they might not be tracked. Lingo woke up and went to see his field, and found all the rice eaten. He knew thenīlgaihad done it, and showed the brothers how to track them by the few marks which they had by accident made on the ground. They did so, and surrounded thenīlgaiand killed them all with their bows and arrows except the old uncle, from whom Lingo’s arrow rebounded harmlessly on account of his innocence, and one young doe. From these two thenīlgairace was preserved. Then Lingo told the Gonds to make fire and roast the deer as follows:He said, I will show you something; see if anywhere in yourWaistbands there is a flint; if so, take it out and make fire.But the matches did not ignite. As they were doing this, a watch of the night passed.They threw down the matches, and said to Lingo, Thou art a Saint;Show us where our fire is, and why it does not come out.Lingo said: Three koss (six miles) hence is Rikad Gawādi the giant.There is fire in his field; where smoke shall appear, go there,Come not back without bringing fire. Thus said Lingo.They said, We have never seen the place, where shall we go?Ye have never seen where this fire is? Lingo said;I will discharge an arrow thither.Go in the direction of the arrow; there you will get fire.He applied the arrow, and having pulled the bow, he discharged one:It crashed on, breaking twigs and making its passage clear.Having cut through the high grass, it made its way and reached the old man’s place (above mentioned).The arrow dropped close to the fire of the old man, who had daughters.The arrow was near the door. As soon as they saw it, the daughters came and took it up,And kept it. They asked their father: When will you give us in marriage?Thus said the seven sisters, the daughters of the old man.I will marry you as I think best for you;Remain as you are. So said the old man, the Rikad Gawādi.Lingo said, Hear, O brethren! I shot an arrow, it made its way.Go there, and you will see fire; bring thence the fire.Each said to the other, I will not go; but (at last) the youngest went.He descried the fire, and went to it; then beheld he an old man looking like the trunk of a tree.He saw from afar the old man’s field, around which a hedge was made.The old man kept only one way to it, and fastened a screen to the entrance, and had a fire in the centre of the field.He placed logs of the Mahua and Anjun and Sāj trees on the fire,Teak faggots he gathered, and enkindled flame.The fire blazed up, and warmed by the heat of it, in deep sleep lay the Rikad Gawādi.Thus the old man like a giant did appear. When the young Gond beheld him, he shivered;His heart leaped; and he was much afraid in his mind, and said:If the old man were to rise he will see me, and I shall be eaten up;I will steal away the fire and carry it off, then my life will be safe.He went near the fire secretly, and took a brand oftenduwood tree.When he was lifting it up a spark flew and fell on the hip of the old man.That spark was as large as a pot; the giant was blistered; he awoke alarmed.And said: I am hungry, and I cannot get food to eat anywhere; I feel a desire for flesh;Like a tender cucumber hast thou come to me. So said the old man to the Gond,Who began to fly. The old man followed him. The Gond then threw away the brand which he had stolen.He ran onward, and was not caught. Then the old man, being tired, turned back.Thence he returned to his field, and came near the fire and sat, and said, What nonsense is this?A tender prey had come within my reach;I said I will cut it up as soon as I can, but it escaped from my hand!Let it go; it will come again, then I will catch it. It has gone now.Then what happened? the Gond returned and came to his brethren.And said to them: Hear, O brethren, I went for fire, as you sent me, to that field; I beheld an old man like a giant.With hands stretched out and feet lifted up. I ran. I thus survived with difficulty.The brethren said to Lingo, We will not go. Lingo said, Sit ye here.O brethren, what sort of a person is this giant? I will go and see him.So saying, Lingo went away and reached a river.He thence arose and went onward. As he looked, he saw in front three gourds.Then he saw a bamboo stick, which he took up.When the river was floodedIt washed away a gourd tree, and its seed fell, and each stem produced bottle-gourds.He inserted a bamboo stick in the hollow of the gourd and made a guitar.He plucked two hairs from his head and strung it.He held a bow and fixed eleven keys to that one stick, and played on it.Lingo was much pleased in his mind.Holding it in his hand, he walked in the direction of the old man’s field.He approached the fire where Rikad Gawādi was sleeping.The giant seemed like a log lying close to the fire; his teeth were hideously visible;His mouth was gaping. Lingo looked at the old man while sleeping.His eyes were shut. Lingo said, This is not a good time to carry off the old man while he is asleep.In front he looked, and turned round and saw a treeOf the pīpal sort standing erect; he beheld its branches with wonder, and looked for a fit place to mount upon.It appeared a very good tree; so he climbed it, and ascended to the top of it to sit.As he sat the cock crew. Lingo said, It is daybreak;Meanwhile the old man must be rising. Therefore Lingo took the guitar in his hand,And held it; he gave a stroke, and it sounded well; from it he drew one hundred tunes.It sounded well, as if he was singing with his voice.Thus (as it were) a song was heard.Trees and hills were silent at its sound. The music loudly entered intoThe old man’s ears; he rose in haste, and sat up quickly; lifted up his eyes,And desired to hear (more). He looked hither and thither, but could not make out whence the sound came.The old man said: Whence has a creature come here to-day to sing like the maina bird?He saw a tree, but nothing appeared to him as he looked underneath it.He did not look up; he looked at the thickets and ravines, butSaw nothing. He came to the road, and near to the fire in the midst of his field and stood.Sometimes sitting, and sometimes standing, jumping, and rolling, he began to dance.The music sounded as the day dawned. His old woman came out in the morning and began to look out.She heard in the direction of the field a melodious music playing.When she arrived near the edge of her field, she heard music in her ears.That old woman called her husband to her.With stretched hands, and lifted feet, and with his neck bent down, he danced.Thus he danced. The old woman looked towards her husband, and said, My old man, my husband,Surely, that music is very melodious. I will dance, said the old woman.Having made the fold of her dress loose, she quickly began to dance near the hedge.9. Death and resurrection of Lingo.Then Lingo disclosed himself to the giant and became friendly with him. The giant apologised for having tried to eat his brother, and called Lingo his nephew. Lingo invited him to come and feast on the flesh of the sixteen scores ofnīlgai. The giant called his seven daughters and offered them all to Lingo in marriage. The daughters produced the arrow which they had treasured up as portending a husband. Lingo said he was not marrying himself, but he would take them home as wives for his brothers. So they all went back to the cave and Lingo assigned two of the daughters each to the three elder brothers and one to the youngest. Then the brothers, to show their gratitude, said that they would go and hunt in the forest and bring meat and fruit and Lingo should lie in a swing and be rocked by their seven wives. But while the wives were swinging Lingo and his eyes were shut, they wished to sport with him as their husbands’ younger brother. So saying they pulled his hands and feet till he woke up. Then he reproached them and called them his mothers and sisters, but they cared nothing and began to embrace him. Then Lingo was filled with wrath and leapt up, and seeing a rice-pestle near he seized it and beat them all with it soundly. Then the women went to their houses and wept and resolved to be revenged on Lingo. So when the brothers came home they told their husbands that while they were swinging Lingo he had tried to seduce them all from their virtue, and they were resolved to go home and stay no longer in Kachikopa with such a man about the place. Then the brothers were exceedingly angry with Lingo, who they thought had deceived them with a pretence of virtue in refusing a wife, and they resolved to kill him. So they enticed him into the forest with a story of a great animal which had put them to flight and asked him to kill it, and there they shot him to death with their arrows and gouged out his eyes and played ball with them.But the god Bhagwān became aware that Lingo was not praying to him as usual, and sent the crow Kageshwar to look for him. The crow came and reported that Lingo was dead, and the god sent him back with nectar to sprinkle it over the body and bring it to life again, which was done.10. He releases the Gonds shut up in the cave and constitutes the tribe.Lingo then thought he had had enough of the four brothers, so he determined to go and find the other sixteen score Gonds who were imprisoned somewhere as the brothers had told him. The manner of his doing this may be told in Captain Forsyth’s version:15And our Lingo redivivusWandered on across the mountains,Wandered sadly through the forestTill the darkening of the evening,Wandered on until the night fell.Screamed the panther in the forest,Growled the bear upon the mountain,And our Lingo then bethought himOf their cannibal propensities.Saw at hand the tree Niruda,Clambered up into its branches.Darkness fell upon the forest,Bears their heads wagged, yelled the jackalKolyal, the King of Jackals.Sounded loud their dreadful voicesIn the forest-shade primeval.Then the Jungle-Cock Gugotee,Mull the Peacock, Kurs the Wild Deer,Terror-stricken, screeched and shuddered,In that forest-shade primeval.But the moon arose at midnight,Poured her flood of silver radiance,Lighted all the forest arches,Through their gloomy branches slanting;Fell on Lingo, pondering deeplyOn his sixteen scores of Koitūrs.Then thought Lingo, I will ask herFor my sixteen scores of Koitūrs.‘Tell me, O Moon!’ said Lingo,‘Tell, O Brightener of the darkness!Where my sixteen scores are hidden.’But the Moon sailed onwards, upwards,And her cold and glancing moonbeamsSaid, ‘Your Gonds, I have not seen them.’And the Stars came forth and twinkledTwinkling eyes above the forest.Lingo said, “O Stars that twinkle!Eyes that look into the darkness,Tell me where my sixteen scores are.”But the cold Stars twinkling ever,Said, ‘Your Gonds, we have not seen them.’Broke the morning, the sky reddened,Faded out the star of morning,Rose the Sun above the forest,Brilliant Sun, the Lord of morning,And our Lingo quick descended,Quickly ran he to the eastward,Fell before the Lord of Morning,Gave the Great Sun salutation—‘Tell, O Sun!’ he said, ‘DiscoverWhere my sixteen scores of Gonds are.’But the Lord of Day reply made—“Hear, O Lingo, I a PilgrimWander onwards, through four watchesServing God, I have seen nothingOf your sixteen scores of Koitūrs.”Then our Lingo wandered onwardsThrough the arches of the forest;Wandered on until before himSaw the grotto of a hermit,Old and sage, the Black Kumāit,He the very wise and knowing,He the greatest of Magicians,Born in days that are forgotten,In the unremembered ages,Salutation gave and asked him—‘Tell, O Hermit! Great Kumāit!Where my sixteen scores of Gonds are.Then replied the Black Magician,Spake disdainfully in this wise—“Lingo, hear, your Gonds are assesEating cats, and mice, and bandicoots,Eating pigs, and cows, and buffaloes;Filthy wretches! wherefore ask me?If you wish it I will tell you.Our great Mahādeva caught them,And has shut them up securelyIn a cave within the bowelsOf his mountain Dewalgiri,With a stone of sixteen cubits,And his bulldog fierce Basmāsur;Serve them right, too, I consider,Filthy, casteless, stinking wretches!”And the Hermit to his grottoBack returned, and deeply ponderedOn the days that are forgotten,On the unremembered ages.But our Lingo wandered onwards,Fasting, praying, doing penance;Laid him on a bed of prickles,Thorns long and sharp and piercing.Fasting lay he devotee-like,Hand not lifting, foot not lifting,Eye not opening, nothing seeing.Twelve months long thus lay and fasted,Till his flesh was dry and withered,And the bones began to show through.Then the great god MahādevaFelt his seat begin to tremble,Felt his golden stool, all shakingFrom the penance of our Lingo.Felt, and wondered who on earthThis devotee was that was fastingTill his golden stool was shaking.Stepped he down from Dewalgiri,Came and saw that bed of pricklesWhere our Lingo lay unmoving.Asked him what his little game was,Why his golden stool was shaking.Answered Lingo, “Mighty Ruler!Nothing less will stop that shakingThan my sixteen scores of KoitūrsRendered up all safe and hurtlessFrom your cave in Dewalgiri.”Then the Great God, much disgusted,Offered all he had to Lingo,Offered kingdom, name, and riches,Offered anything he wished for,‘Only leave your stinking KoitūrsWell shut up in Dewalgiri.’But our Lingo all refusingWould have nothing but his Koitūrs;Gave a turn to run the thorns aLittle deeper in his midriff.Winced the Great God: “Very well, then,Take your Gonds—but first a favour.By the shore of the Black WaterLives a bird they call Black Bindo,Much I wish to see his young ones,Little Bindos from the sea-shore;For an offering bring these Bindos,Then your Gonds take from my mountain.”Then our Lingo rose and wandered,Wandered onwards through the forest,Till he reached the sounding sea-shore,Reached the brink of the Black Water,Found the Bingo birds were absentFrom their nest upon the sea-shore,Absent hunting in the forest,Hunting elephants prodigious,Which they killed and took their brains out,Cracked their skulls, and brought their brains toFeed their callow little Bindos,Wailing sadly by the sea-shore.Seven times a fearful serpent,Bhawarnāg the horrid serpent,Serpent born in ocean’s caverns,Coming forth from the Black Water,Had devoured the little Bindos—Broods of callow little BindosWailing sadly by the sea-shore—In the absence of their parents.Eighth this brood was. Stood our Lingo,Stood he pondering beside them—“If I take these little wretchesIn the absence of their parentsThey will call me thief and robber.No! I’ll wait till they come back here.”Then he laid him down and slumberedBy the little wailing Bindos.As he slept the dreadful serpent,Rising, came from the Black Water,Came to eat the callow Bindos,In the absence of their parents.Came he trunk-like from the waters,Came with fearful jaws distended,Huge and horrid, like a basketFor the winnowing of corn.Rose a hood of vast dimensionsO’er his fierce and dreadful visage.Shrieked the Bindos young and callow,Gave a cry of lamentation;Rose our Lingo; saw the monster;Drew an arrow from his quiver,Shot it swift into his stomach,Sharp and cutting in the stomach,Then another and another;Cleft him into seven pieces,Wriggled all the seven pieces,Wriggled backward to the water.But our Lingo, swift advancing,Seized the headpiece in his arms,Knocked the brains out on a boulder;Laid it down beside the Bindos,Callow, wailing, little Bindos.On it laid him, like a pillow,And began again to slumber.Soon returned the parent BindosFrom their hunting in the forest;Bringing brains and eyes of camelsAnd of elephants prodigious,For their little callow BindosWailing sadly by the sea-shore.But the Bindos young and callowBrains of camels would not swallow;Said—“A pretty set of parentsYou are truly! thus to leave usSadly wailing by the sea-shoreTo be eaten by the serpent—Bhawarnāg the dreadful serpent—Came he up from the Black Water,Came to eat us little Bindos,When this very valiant LingoShot an arrow in his stomach,Cut him into seven pieces—Give to Lingo brains of camels,Eyes of elephants prodigious.”Then the fond paternal BindoSaw the head-piece of the serpentUnder Lingo’s head a pillow,And he said, ‘O valiant Lingo,Ask whatever you may wish for.’Then he asked the little BindosFor an offering to the Great God,And the fond paternal Bindo,Much disgusted first refusing,Soon consented; said he’d go tooWith the fond maternal Bindo—Take them all upon his shoulders,And fly straight to Dewalgiri.Then he spread his mighty pinions,Took his Bindos up on one sideAnd our Lingo on the other.Thus they soared away togetherFrom the shores of the Black Water,And the fond maternal Bindo,O’er them hovering, spread an awningWith her broad and mighty pinionsO’er her offspring and our Lingo.By the forests and the mountainsSix months’ journey was it thitherTo the mountain Dewalgiri.Half the day was scarcely overEre this convoy from the sea-shoreLighted safe on Dewalgiri;Touched the knocker to the gatewayOf the Great God, Mahādeva.And the messenger NārāyanAnswering, went and told his master—“Lo, this very valiant Lingo!Here he is with all the Bindos,The Black Bindos from the sea-shore.”Then the Great God, much disgusted,Driven quite into a corner,Took our Lingo to the cavern,Sent Basmāsur to his kennel,Held his nose, and moved away theMighty stone of sixteen cubits;Called those sixteen scores of Gonds outMade them over to their Lingo.And they said, “O Father Lingo!What a bad time we’ve had of it,Not a thing to fill our belliesIn this horrid gloomy dungeon.”But our Lingo gave them dinner,Gave them rice and flour of millet,And they went off to the river,Had a drink, and cooked and ate it.The next episode is taken from a slightly different local version:And while they were cooking their food at the river a great flood came up, but all the Gonds crossed safely except the four gods, Tekām, Markām, Pusām and Telengām.16These were delayed because they had cooked their food withghīwhich they had looted from the Hindu deities. Then they stood on the bank and cried out,O God of the crossing,O Boundary God!Should you be here,Come take us across.Hearing this, the tortoise and crocodile came up to them, and offered to take them across the river. So Markām and Tekām sat on the back of the crocodile and Pusām and Telengām on the back of the tortoise, and before starting the gods made the crocodile and tortoise swear that they would not eat or drown them in the sea. But when theygot to the middle of the river the tortoise and crocodile began to sink, with the idea that they would drown the Gonds and feed their young with them. Then the Gonds cried out, and the Raigīdhni or vulture heard them. This bird appears to be the same as the Bindo, as it fed its young with elephants. The Raigīdhni flew to the Gonds and took them up on its back and flew ashore with them. And in its anger it picked out the tongue of the crocodile and crushed the neck of the tortoise. And this is why the crocodile is still tongueless and the tortoise has a broken neck, which is sometimes inside and sometimes outside its shell. Both animals also have the marks of string on their backs where the Gond gods tied their necks together when they were ferried across. Thus all the Gonds were happily reunited and Lingo took them into the forest, and they founded a town there, which grew and prospered. And Lingo divided all the Gonds into clans and made the oldest man a Pardhān or priest and founded the rule of exogamy. He also made the Gond gods, subsequently described,17and worshipped them with offerings of a calf and liquor, and danced before them. He also prescribed the ceremonies of marriage which are still observed, and after all this was done Lingo went to the gods.Gonds on a journeyGonds on a journey

(a)Origin and History1. Numbers and distribution.Gond.—The principal tribe of the Dravidian family, and perhaps the most important of the non-Aryan or forest tribes in India. In 1911 the Gonds were three million strong, and they are increasing rapidly. The Kolis of western India count half a million persons more than the Gonds, and if the four related tribes Kol, Munda, Ho, and Santāl were taken together, they would be stronger by about the same amount. But if historical importance be considered as well as numbers, the first place should be awarded to the Gonds. Of the whole caste the Central Provinces contain 2,300,000 persons, Central India, and Bihār and Orissa about 235,000 persons each, and they are returned in small numbers from Assam, Madras and Hyderābād. The 50,000 Gonds in Assam are no doubt immigrant labourers on the tea-gardens.2. Gondwāna.In the Central Provinces the Gonds occupy two main tracts. The first is the wide belt of broken hill and forest country in the centre of the Province, which forms the Satpūra plateau, and is mainly comprised in the Chhindwārā, Betūl, Seoni and Mandla Districts, with portions of several others adjoining them. And the second is the still wider and more inaccessible mass of hill ranges extending south of the Chhattīsgarh plain, and south-west down to the Godāvari, which includes portions of the three Chhattīsgarh Districts, the Bastar and Kanker States, and a great part of Chānda. In Mandla the Gonds form nearly half the population, and in Bastar about two-thirds. There is, however, no District or State of the Province which does not contain some Gonds, and it is both on account of their numbers and the fact that Gond dynasties possessed a great part of its area that the territory of the Central Provinces was formerly known as Gondwāna, or the country of the Gonds.1The existing importance of the Central Provinces dates from recent years, for so late as 1853 it was stated before the Royal Asiatic Society that “at present the Gondwāna highlandsand jungles comprise such a large tract of unexplored country that they form quite an oasis in our maps.” So much of this lately unexplored country as is British territory is now fairly well served by railways, traversed almost throughout by good roads, and provided with village schools at distances of five to ten miles apart, even in the wilder tracts.Gond women grinding cornGond women grinding corn3. Derivation of name and origin of the Gonds.The derivation of the word Gond is uncertain. It is the name given to the tribe by the Hindus or Muhammadans, as their own name for themselves is Koitūr or Koi. General Cunningham considered that the name Gond probably came from Gauda, the classical term for part of the United Provinces and Bengal. A Benāres inscription relating to one of the Chedi kings of Tripura or Tewar (near Jubbulpore) states that he was of the Haihaya tribe, who lived on the borders of the Nerbudda in the district of the Western Gauda in the Province of Mālwa. Three or four other inscriptions also refer to the kings of Gauda in the same locality. Gauda, however, was properly and commonly used as the name of part of Bengal. There is no evidence beyond a few doubtful inscriptions of its having ever been applied to any part of the Central Provinces. The principal passage in which General Cunningham identifies Gauda with the Central Provinces is that in which the king of Gauda came to the assistance of the ruler of Mālwa against the king of Kanauj, elder brother of the great Harsha Vardhana, and slew the latter king inA.D.605. But Mr. V. A. Smith holds that Gauda in this passage refers to Bengal and not to the Central Provinces;2and General Cunningham’s argument on the locality of Gauda is thus rendered extremely dubious, and with it his derivation of the name Gond. In fact it seems highly improbable that the name of a large tribe should have been taken from a term so little used and known in this special application. Though in theImperial Gazetteer3the present writer reproduced General Cunningham’s derivation of the term Gond, it was there characterised as speculative, and in the light of the above remarks now seems highly improbable. Mr. Hislop considered that the name Gond was a form of Kond, as he spelt the name ofthe Khond tribe. He pointed out thatkandgare interchangeable. Thus Gotalghar, the empty house where the village young men sleep, comes from Kotal, a led horse, andghar, a house. Similarly, Koikopāl, the name of a Gond subtribe who tend cattle, is from Koi or Gond, andgopal, a cowherd. The name by which the Gonds call themselves is Koi or Koitūr, while the Khonds call themselves Ku, which word Sir G. Grierson considers to be probably related to the Gond name Koi. Further, he states that the Telugu people call the Khonds, Gond or Kod (Kor). General Cunningham points out that the word Gond in the Central Provinces is frequently or, he says, usually pronounced Gaur, which is practically the same sound asgod, and with the change ofGtoKwould become Kod. Thus the two names Gond and Kod, by which the Telugu people know the Khonds, are practically the same as the names Gond and God of the Gonds in the Central Provinces, though Sir G. Grierson does not mention the change ofgtokin his account of either language. It seems highly probable that the designation Gond was given to the tribe by the Telugus. The Gonds speak a Dravidian language of the same family as Tamil, Canarese and Telugu, and therefore it is likely that they come from the south into the Central Provinces. Their route may have been up the Godāvari river into Chānda; from thence up the Indravati into Bastar and the hills south and east of the Chhattīsgarh plain; and up the Wardha and Wainganga to the Districts of the Satpūra Plateau. In Chānda, where a Gond dynasty reigned for some centuries, they would be in contact with the Telugus, and here they may have got their name of Gond, and carried it with them into the north and east of the Province. As already seen, the Khonds are called Gond by the Telugus, and Kandh by the Uriyas. The Khonds apparently came up more towards the east into Ganjam and Kālāhandi. Here the name of Gond or Kod, given them by the Telugus, may have been modified into Kandh by the Uriyas, and from the two names came the English corruption of Khond. The Khond and Gondi languages are now dissimilar. Still they present certain points of resemblance, and though Sir G. Grierson does not discuss their connection, it appears from his highlyinteresting genealogical tree of the Dravidian languages that Khond or Kui and Gondi are closely connected. These two languages, and no others, occupy an intermediate position between the two great branches sprung from the original Dravidian language, one of which is mainly represented by Telugu and the other by Tamil, Canarese and Malayālam.4Gondi and Khond are shown in the centre as the connecting link between the two great branches. Gondi is more nearly related to Tamil and Khond to Telugu. On the Telugu side, moreover, Khond approaches most closely to Kolāmi, which is a member of the Telugu branch. The Kolāms are a tribe of Wardha and Berār, sometimes considered an offshoot of the Gonds; at any rate, it seems probable that they came from southern India by the same route as the Gonds. Thus the Khond language is intermediate between Gondi and the Kolāmi dialect of Wardha and Berār, though the Kolāms live west of the Gonds and the Khonds east. And a fairly close relationship between the three languages appears to be established. Hence the linguistic evidence appears to afford strong support to the view that the Khonds and Gonds may originally have been one tribe. Further, Mr. Hislop points out that a word for god,pen, is common to the Gonds and Khonds; and the Khonds have a god called Bura Pen, who might be the same as Bura Deo, the great god of the Gonds. Mr. Hislop found Kodo Pen and Pharsi Pen as Gond gods,5while Pen or Pennu is the regular word for god among the Khonds. This evidence seems to establish a probability that the Gonds and Khonds were originally one tribe in the south of India, and that they obtained separate names and languages since they left their original home for the north. The fact that both of them speak languages of the Dravidian family, whose home is in southern India, makes it probable that the two tribes originally belonged there, and migrated north into the Central Provinces and Orissa. This hypothesis is supported by the traditions of the Gonds.4. History of the Gonds.As stated in the article on Kol, it is known that Rājpūt dynasties were ruling in various parts of the Central Provincesfrom about the sixth to the twelfth centuries. They then disappear, and there is a blank till the fourteenth century or later, when Gond kingdoms are found established at Kherla in Betūl, at Deogarh in Chhīndwara, at Garha-Mandla,6including the Jubbulpore country, and at Chānda, fourteen miles from Bhāndak. It seems clear, then, that the Hindu dynasties were subverted by the Gonds after the Muhammadan invasions of northern India had weakened or destroyed the central powers of the Hindus, and prevented any assistance being afforded to the outlying settlements. There is some reason to suppose that the immigration of the Gonds into the Central Provinces took place after the establishment of these Hindu kingdoms, and not before, as is commonly held.7But the point must at present be considered doubtful. There is no reason however to doubt that the Gonds came from the south through Chānda and Bastar. During the fourteenth century and afterwards the Gonds established dynasties at the places already mentioned in the Central Provinces. For two or three centuries the greater part of the Province was governed by Gond kings. Of their method of government in Narsinghpur, Sleeman said: “Under these Gond Rājas the country seems for the most part to have been distributed among feudatory chiefs, bound to attend upon the prince at his capital with a stipulated number of troops, to be employed wherever their services might be required, but to furnish little or no revenue in money. These chiefs were Gonds, and the countries they held for the support of their families and the payment of their troops and retinue little more than wild jungles. The Gonds seem not to have been at home in open country, and as from the sixteenth century a peaceable penetration of Hindu cultivators into the best lands of the Province assumed large dimensions, the Gonds gradually retired to the hill ranges on the borders of the plains.” The headquarters of each dynasty at Mandla, Garha, Kherla, Deogarh and Chānda seem to have been located in a position strengthened for defence either by a hill or a great river, and adjacent to an especially fertile plain tract, whoseproduce served for the maintenance of the ruler’s household and headquarters establishment. Often the site was on other sides bordered by dense forest which would afford a retreat to the occupants in case it fell to an enemy. Strong and spacious forts were built, with masonry tanks and wells inside them to provide water, but whether these buildings were solely the work of the Gonds or constructed with the assistance of Hindu or Muhammadan artificers is uncertain. But the Hindu immigrants found Gond government tolerant and beneficent. Under the easy eventless sway of these princes the rich country over which they ruled prospered, its flocks and herds increased, and the treasury filled. So far back as the fifteenth century we read in Firishta that the king of Kherla, who, if not a Gond himself, was a king of the Gonds, sumptuously entertained the Bāhmani king and made him rich offerings, among which were many diamonds, rubies and pearls. Of the Rāni Dūrgavati of Garha-Mandla, Sleeman said: “Of all the sovereigns of this dynasty she lives most in the page of history and in the grateful recollections of the people. She built the great reservoir which lies close to Jubbulpore, and is called after her Rāni Talao or Queen’s pond; and many other highly useful works were formed by her about Garha.” When the castle of Chaurāgarh was sacked by one of Akbar’s generals in 1564, the booty found, according to Firishta, comprised, independently of jewels, images of gold and silver and other valuables, no fewer than a hundred jars of gold coin and a thousand elephants. Of the Chānda rulers the Settlement officer who has recorded their history wrote that, “They left, if we forget the last few years, a well-governed and contented kingdom, adorned with admirable works of engineering skill and prosperous to a point which no aftertime has reached. They have left their mark behind them in royal tombs, lakes and palaces, but most of all in the seven miles of battlemented stone wall, too wide now for the shrunk city of Chānda within it, which stands on the very border-line between the forest and the plain, having in front the rich valley of the Wardha river, and behind and up to the city walls deep forest extending to the east.” According to local tradition the great wall of Chānda and other buildings,such as the tombs of the Gond kings and the palace at Junona, were built by immigrant Telugu masons of the Kāpu or Munurwār castes. Another excellent rule of the Gond kings was to give to any one who made a tank a grant of land free of revenue of the land lying beneath it. A large number of small irrigation tanks were constructed under this inducement in the Wainganga valley, and still remain. But the Gond states had no strength for defence, as was shown when in the eighteenth century Marātha chiefs, having acquired some knowledge of the art of war and military training by their long fighting against the Mughals, cast covetous eyes on Gondwāna. The loose tribal system, so easy in time of peace, entirely failed to knit together the strength of the people when united action was most required, and the plain country fell before the Marātha armies almost without a struggle. In the strongholds, however, of the hilly ranges which hem in every part of Gondwāna the chiefs for long continued to maintain an unequal resistance, and to revenge their own wrongs by indiscriminate rapine and slaughter. In such cases the Marātha plan was to continue pillaging and harassing the Gonds until they obtained an acknowledgment of their supremacy and the promise, at least, of an annual tribute. Under this treatment the hill Gonds soon lost every vestige of civilisation, and became the cruel, treacherous savages depicted by travellers of this period. They regularly plundered and murdered stragglers and small parties passing through the hills, while from their strongholds, built on the most inaccessible spurs of the Satpūras, they would make a dash into the rich plains of Berār and the Nerbudda valley, and after looting and killing all night, return straight across country to their jungle fortresses, guided by the light of a bonfire on some commanding peak.8With the pacification of the country and the introduction of a strong and equable system of government by the British, these wild marauders soon settled down and became the timid and inoffensive labourers which they now are.Palace of the Gond kings of Garha-Mandla at RāmnagarPalace of the Gond kings of Garha-Mandla at Rāmnagar5. Mythica traditions. Story of Lingo.Mr. Hislop took down from a Pardhān priest a Gond myth of the creation of the world and the origin of theGonds, and their liberation from a cave, in which they had been shut up by Siva, through the divine hero Lingo. General Cunningham said that the exact position of the cave was not known, but it would seem to have been somewhere in the Himalayas, as the name Dhawalgiri, which means a white mountain, is mentioned. The cave, according to ordinary Gond tradition, was situated in Kachikopa Lohāgarh or the Iron Valley in the Red Hill. It seems clear from the story itself that its author was desirous of connecting the Gonds with Hindu mythology, and as Siva’s heaven is in the Himalayas, the name Dhawalgiri, where he located the cave, may refer to them. It is also said that the cave was at the source of the Jumna. But in Mr. Hislop’s version the cave where all the Gonds except four were shut up is not in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, as the Gonds commonly say; but only the four Gonds who escaped wandered to this latter place and dwelt there. And the story does not show that Kachikopa Lohāgarh was on Mount Dhawalgiri or the Himalayas, where it places the cave in which the Gonds were shut up, or anywhere near them. On the contrary, it would be quite consonant with Mr. Hislop’s version if Kachikopa Lohāgarh were in the Central Provinces. It may be surmised that in the original Gond legend their ancestors really were shut up in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, but not by the god Siva. Very possibly the story began with them in the cave in the Iron Valley in the Red Hill. But the Hindu who clearly composed Mr. Hislop’s version wished to introduce the god Siva as a principal actor, and he therefore removed the site of the cave to the Himalayas. This appears probable from the story itself, in which, in its present form, Kachikopa Lohāgarh plays no real part, and only appears because it was in the original tradition and has to be retained.9But the Gonds think that their ancestors were actually shut up in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, and one tradition puts the site at Pachmarhi, whose striking hill scenery and red soil cleft by many deep and inaccessible ravines would render it a likely place for the incident. Another version locates Kachikopa Lohāgarh at Dārekasain Bhandāra, where there is a place known as Kachagarh or the iron fort. But Pachmarhi is perhaps the more probable, as it has some deep caves, which have always been looked upon as sacred places. The point is of some interest, because this legend of the cave being in the Himalayas is adduced as a Gond tradition that their ancestors came from the north, and hence as supporting the theory of the immigration of the Dravidians through the north-west of India. But if the view now suggested is correct, the story of the cave being in the Himalayas is not a genuine Gond tradition at all, but a Hindu interpolation. The only other ground known to the writer for asserting that the Gonds believed their ancestors to have come from the north is that they bury their dead with the feet to the north. There are other obvious Hindu accretions in the legend, as the saintly Brāhmanic character of Lingo and his overcoming the gods through fasting and self-torture, and also the fact that Siva shut up the Gonds in the cave because he was offended by their dirty habits and bad smell. But the legend still contains a considerable quantity of true Gond tradition, and though somewhat tedious, it seems necessary to give an abridgment of Mr. Hislop’s account, with reproduction of selected passages. Captain Forsyth also made a modernised poetical version,10from which one extract is taken. Certain variations from another form of the legend obtained in Bastar are included.6. Legend of the creation.In the beginning there was water everywhere, and God was born in a lotus-leaf and lived alone. One day he rubbed his arm and from the rubbing made a crow, which sat on his shoulder; he also made a crab, which swam out over the waters. God then ordered the crow to fly over the world and bring some earth. The crow flew about and could find no earth, but it saw the crab, which was supporting itself with one leg resting on the bottom of the sea. The crow was very tired and perched on the crab’s back, which was soft so that the crow’s feet made marks on it, which are still visible on the bodies of all crabs at present. The crow asked the crab where any earth could be found. The crab said that if God would make its body hard it would findsome earth. God said he would make part of the crab’s body hard, and he made its back hard, as it still remains. The crab then dived to the bottom of the sea, where it found Kenchna, the earth-worm. It caught hold of Kenchna by the neck with its claws and the mark thus made is still to be seen on the earth-worm’s neck. Then the earth-worm brought up earth out of its mouth and the crab brought this to God, and God scattered it over the sea and patches of land appeared. God then walked over the earth and a boil came on his hand, and out of it Mahādeo and Pārvati were born.7. Creation of the Gonds and their imprisonment by Mahādeo.From Mahādeo’s urine numerous vegetables began to spring up. Pārvati ate of these and became pregnant and gave birth to eighteen threshing-floors11of Brāhman gods and twelve threshing-floors of Gond gods. All the Gonds were scattered over the jungle. They behaved like Gonds and not like good Hindus, with lamentable results, as follows:12Hither and thither all the Gonds were scattered in the jungle.Places, hills, and valleys were filled with these Gonds.Even trees had their Gonds. How did the Gonds conduct themselves?Whatever came across them they must needs kill and eat it;They made no distinction. If they saw a jackal they killedAnd ate it; no distinction was observed; they respected not antelope, sāmbhar and the like.They made no distinction in eating a sow, a quail, a pigeon,A crow, a kite, an adjutant, a vulture,A lizard, a frog, a beetle, a cow, a calf, a he- and she-buffalo,Rats, bandicoots, squirrels—all these they killed and ate.So began the Gonds to do. They devoured raw and ripe things;They did not bathe for six months together;They did not wash their faces properly, even on dunghills they would fall down and remain.Such were the Gonds born in the beginning. A smell was spread over the jungleWhen the Gonds were thus disorderly behaved; they became disagreeable to Mahādeva,Who said: “The caste of the Gonds is very bad;I will not preserve them; they will ruin my hill Dhawalgiri.”Mahādeo then determined to get rid of the Gonds. With this view he invited them all to a meeting. When they satdown Mahādeo made a squirrel from the rubbings of his body and let it loose in the middle of the Gonds. All the Gonds at once got up and began to chase it, hoping for a meal. They seized sticks and stones and clods of earth, and their unkempt hair flew in the wind. The squirrel dodged about and ran away, and finally, directed by Mahādeo, ran into a large cave with all the Gonds after it. Mahādeo then rolled a large stone to the mouth of the cave and shut up all the Gonds in it. Only four remained outside, and they fled away to Kachikopa Lohāgarh, or the Iron Cave in the Red Hill, and lived there. Meanwhile Pārvati perceived that the smell of the Gonds, which had pleased her, had vanished from Dhawalgiri. She desired it to be restored and commenced a devotion. For six months she fasted and practised austerities. Bhagwān (God) was swinging in a swing. He was disturbed by Pārvati’s devotion. He sent Nārāyan (the sun) to see who was fasting. Nārāyan came and found Pārvati and asked her what she wanted. She said that she missed her Gonds and wanted them back. Nārāyan told Bhagwān, who promised that they should be given back.8. The birth and history of Lingo.The yellow flowers of the tree Pahindi were growing on Dhawalgiri. Bhagwān sent thunder and lightning, and the flower conceived. First fell from it a heap of turmeric or saffron. In the morning the sun came out, the flower burst open, and Lingo was born. Lingo was a perfect child. He had a diamond on his navel and a sandalwood mark on his forehead. He fell from the flower into the heap of turmeric. He played in the turmeric and slept in a swing. He became nine years old. He said there was no one there like him, and he would go where he could find his fellows. He climbed a needle-like hill,13and from afar off he saw Kachikopa Lohāgarh and the four Gonds. He came to them. They saw he was like them, and asked him to be their brother. They ate only animals. Lingo asked them to find for him an animal without a liver, and they searched all through the forest and could not. Then Lingo told them to cut down trees and make a field. They tried to cut down theanjan14trees, but their hands were blisteredand they could not go on. Lingo had been asleep. He woke up and saw they had only cut down one or two trees. He took the axe and cut down many trees, and fenced a field and made a gate to it. Black soil appeared. It began to rain, and rained without ceasing for three days. All the rivers and streams were filled. The field became green with rice, and it grew up. There were sixteen score ofnīlgaior blue-bull. They had two leaders, an old bull and his nephew. The young bull saw the rice of Lingo’s field and wished to eat it. The uncle told him not to eat of the field of Lingo or all thenīlgaiwould be killed. But the young bull did not heed, and took off all thenīlgaito eat the rice. When they got to the field they could find no entrance, so they jumped the fence, which was five cubits high. They ate all the rice from off the field and ran away. The young bull told them as they ran to put their feet on leaves and stones and boughs and grass, and not on the ground, so that they might not be tracked. Lingo woke up and went to see his field, and found all the rice eaten. He knew thenīlgaihad done it, and showed the brothers how to track them by the few marks which they had by accident made on the ground. They did so, and surrounded thenīlgaiand killed them all with their bows and arrows except the old uncle, from whom Lingo’s arrow rebounded harmlessly on account of his innocence, and one young doe. From these two thenīlgairace was preserved. Then Lingo told the Gonds to make fire and roast the deer as follows:He said, I will show you something; see if anywhere in yourWaistbands there is a flint; if so, take it out and make fire.But the matches did not ignite. As they were doing this, a watch of the night passed.They threw down the matches, and said to Lingo, Thou art a Saint;Show us where our fire is, and why it does not come out.Lingo said: Three koss (six miles) hence is Rikad Gawādi the giant.There is fire in his field; where smoke shall appear, go there,Come not back without bringing fire. Thus said Lingo.They said, We have never seen the place, where shall we go?Ye have never seen where this fire is? Lingo said;I will discharge an arrow thither.Go in the direction of the arrow; there you will get fire.He applied the arrow, and having pulled the bow, he discharged one:It crashed on, breaking twigs and making its passage clear.Having cut through the high grass, it made its way and reached the old man’s place (above mentioned).The arrow dropped close to the fire of the old man, who had daughters.The arrow was near the door. As soon as they saw it, the daughters came and took it up,And kept it. They asked their father: When will you give us in marriage?Thus said the seven sisters, the daughters of the old man.I will marry you as I think best for you;Remain as you are. So said the old man, the Rikad Gawādi.Lingo said, Hear, O brethren! I shot an arrow, it made its way.Go there, and you will see fire; bring thence the fire.Each said to the other, I will not go; but (at last) the youngest went.He descried the fire, and went to it; then beheld he an old man looking like the trunk of a tree.He saw from afar the old man’s field, around which a hedge was made.The old man kept only one way to it, and fastened a screen to the entrance, and had a fire in the centre of the field.He placed logs of the Mahua and Anjun and Sāj trees on the fire,Teak faggots he gathered, and enkindled flame.The fire blazed up, and warmed by the heat of it, in deep sleep lay the Rikad Gawādi.Thus the old man like a giant did appear. When the young Gond beheld him, he shivered;His heart leaped; and he was much afraid in his mind, and said:If the old man were to rise he will see me, and I shall be eaten up;I will steal away the fire and carry it off, then my life will be safe.He went near the fire secretly, and took a brand oftenduwood tree.When he was lifting it up a spark flew and fell on the hip of the old man.That spark was as large as a pot; the giant was blistered; he awoke alarmed.And said: I am hungry, and I cannot get food to eat anywhere; I feel a desire for flesh;Like a tender cucumber hast thou come to me. So said the old man to the Gond,Who began to fly. The old man followed him. The Gond then threw away the brand which he had stolen.He ran onward, and was not caught. Then the old man, being tired, turned back.Thence he returned to his field, and came near the fire and sat, and said, What nonsense is this?A tender prey had come within my reach;I said I will cut it up as soon as I can, but it escaped from my hand!Let it go; it will come again, then I will catch it. It has gone now.Then what happened? the Gond returned and came to his brethren.And said to them: Hear, O brethren, I went for fire, as you sent me, to that field; I beheld an old man like a giant.With hands stretched out and feet lifted up. I ran. I thus survived with difficulty.The brethren said to Lingo, We will not go. Lingo said, Sit ye here.O brethren, what sort of a person is this giant? I will go and see him.So saying, Lingo went away and reached a river.He thence arose and went onward. As he looked, he saw in front three gourds.Then he saw a bamboo stick, which he took up.When the river was floodedIt washed away a gourd tree, and its seed fell, and each stem produced bottle-gourds.He inserted a bamboo stick in the hollow of the gourd and made a guitar.He plucked two hairs from his head and strung it.He held a bow and fixed eleven keys to that one stick, and played on it.Lingo was much pleased in his mind.Holding it in his hand, he walked in the direction of the old man’s field.He approached the fire where Rikad Gawādi was sleeping.The giant seemed like a log lying close to the fire; his teeth were hideously visible;His mouth was gaping. Lingo looked at the old man while sleeping.His eyes were shut. Lingo said, This is not a good time to carry off the old man while he is asleep.In front he looked, and turned round and saw a treeOf the pīpal sort standing erect; he beheld its branches with wonder, and looked for a fit place to mount upon.It appeared a very good tree; so he climbed it, and ascended to the top of it to sit.As he sat the cock crew. Lingo said, It is daybreak;Meanwhile the old man must be rising. Therefore Lingo took the guitar in his hand,And held it; he gave a stroke, and it sounded well; from it he drew one hundred tunes.It sounded well, as if he was singing with his voice.Thus (as it were) a song was heard.Trees and hills were silent at its sound. The music loudly entered intoThe old man’s ears; he rose in haste, and sat up quickly; lifted up his eyes,And desired to hear (more). He looked hither and thither, but could not make out whence the sound came.The old man said: Whence has a creature come here to-day to sing like the maina bird?He saw a tree, but nothing appeared to him as he looked underneath it.He did not look up; he looked at the thickets and ravines, butSaw nothing. He came to the road, and near to the fire in the midst of his field and stood.Sometimes sitting, and sometimes standing, jumping, and rolling, he began to dance.The music sounded as the day dawned. His old woman came out in the morning and began to look out.She heard in the direction of the field a melodious music playing.When she arrived near the edge of her field, she heard music in her ears.That old woman called her husband to her.With stretched hands, and lifted feet, and with his neck bent down, he danced.Thus he danced. The old woman looked towards her husband, and said, My old man, my husband,Surely, that music is very melodious. I will dance, said the old woman.Having made the fold of her dress loose, she quickly began to dance near the hedge.9. Death and resurrection of Lingo.Then Lingo disclosed himself to the giant and became friendly with him. The giant apologised for having tried to eat his brother, and called Lingo his nephew. Lingo invited him to come and feast on the flesh of the sixteen scores ofnīlgai. The giant called his seven daughters and offered them all to Lingo in marriage. The daughters produced the arrow which they had treasured up as portending a husband. Lingo said he was not marrying himself, but he would take them home as wives for his brothers. So they all went back to the cave and Lingo assigned two of the daughters each to the three elder brothers and one to the youngest. Then the brothers, to show their gratitude, said that they would go and hunt in the forest and bring meat and fruit and Lingo should lie in a swing and be rocked by their seven wives. But while the wives were swinging Lingo and his eyes were shut, they wished to sport with him as their husbands’ younger brother. So saying they pulled his hands and feet till he woke up. Then he reproached them and called them his mothers and sisters, but they cared nothing and began to embrace him. Then Lingo was filled with wrath and leapt up, and seeing a rice-pestle near he seized it and beat them all with it soundly. Then the women went to their houses and wept and resolved to be revenged on Lingo. So when the brothers came home they told their husbands that while they were swinging Lingo he had tried to seduce them all from their virtue, and they were resolved to go home and stay no longer in Kachikopa with such a man about the place. Then the brothers were exceedingly angry with Lingo, who they thought had deceived them with a pretence of virtue in refusing a wife, and they resolved to kill him. So they enticed him into the forest with a story of a great animal which had put them to flight and asked him to kill it, and there they shot him to death with their arrows and gouged out his eyes and played ball with them.But the god Bhagwān became aware that Lingo was not praying to him as usual, and sent the crow Kageshwar to look for him. The crow came and reported that Lingo was dead, and the god sent him back with nectar to sprinkle it over the body and bring it to life again, which was done.10. He releases the Gonds shut up in the cave and constitutes the tribe.Lingo then thought he had had enough of the four brothers, so he determined to go and find the other sixteen score Gonds who were imprisoned somewhere as the brothers had told him. The manner of his doing this may be told in Captain Forsyth’s version:15And our Lingo redivivusWandered on across the mountains,Wandered sadly through the forestTill the darkening of the evening,Wandered on until the night fell.Screamed the panther in the forest,Growled the bear upon the mountain,And our Lingo then bethought himOf their cannibal propensities.Saw at hand the tree Niruda,Clambered up into its branches.Darkness fell upon the forest,Bears their heads wagged, yelled the jackalKolyal, the King of Jackals.Sounded loud their dreadful voicesIn the forest-shade primeval.Then the Jungle-Cock Gugotee,Mull the Peacock, Kurs the Wild Deer,Terror-stricken, screeched and shuddered,In that forest-shade primeval.But the moon arose at midnight,Poured her flood of silver radiance,Lighted all the forest arches,Through their gloomy branches slanting;Fell on Lingo, pondering deeplyOn his sixteen scores of Koitūrs.Then thought Lingo, I will ask herFor my sixteen scores of Koitūrs.‘Tell me, O Moon!’ said Lingo,‘Tell, O Brightener of the darkness!Where my sixteen scores are hidden.’But the Moon sailed onwards, upwards,And her cold and glancing moonbeamsSaid, ‘Your Gonds, I have not seen them.’And the Stars came forth and twinkledTwinkling eyes above the forest.Lingo said, “O Stars that twinkle!Eyes that look into the darkness,Tell me where my sixteen scores are.”But the cold Stars twinkling ever,Said, ‘Your Gonds, we have not seen them.’Broke the morning, the sky reddened,Faded out the star of morning,Rose the Sun above the forest,Brilliant Sun, the Lord of morning,And our Lingo quick descended,Quickly ran he to the eastward,Fell before the Lord of Morning,Gave the Great Sun salutation—‘Tell, O Sun!’ he said, ‘DiscoverWhere my sixteen scores of Gonds are.’But the Lord of Day reply made—“Hear, O Lingo, I a PilgrimWander onwards, through four watchesServing God, I have seen nothingOf your sixteen scores of Koitūrs.”Then our Lingo wandered onwardsThrough the arches of the forest;Wandered on until before himSaw the grotto of a hermit,Old and sage, the Black Kumāit,He the very wise and knowing,He the greatest of Magicians,Born in days that are forgotten,In the unremembered ages,Salutation gave and asked him—‘Tell, O Hermit! Great Kumāit!Where my sixteen scores of Gonds are.Then replied the Black Magician,Spake disdainfully in this wise—“Lingo, hear, your Gonds are assesEating cats, and mice, and bandicoots,Eating pigs, and cows, and buffaloes;Filthy wretches! wherefore ask me?If you wish it I will tell you.Our great Mahādeva caught them,And has shut them up securelyIn a cave within the bowelsOf his mountain Dewalgiri,With a stone of sixteen cubits,And his bulldog fierce Basmāsur;Serve them right, too, I consider,Filthy, casteless, stinking wretches!”And the Hermit to his grottoBack returned, and deeply ponderedOn the days that are forgotten,On the unremembered ages.But our Lingo wandered onwards,Fasting, praying, doing penance;Laid him on a bed of prickles,Thorns long and sharp and piercing.Fasting lay he devotee-like,Hand not lifting, foot not lifting,Eye not opening, nothing seeing.Twelve months long thus lay and fasted,Till his flesh was dry and withered,And the bones began to show through.Then the great god MahādevaFelt his seat begin to tremble,Felt his golden stool, all shakingFrom the penance of our Lingo.Felt, and wondered who on earthThis devotee was that was fastingTill his golden stool was shaking.Stepped he down from Dewalgiri,Came and saw that bed of pricklesWhere our Lingo lay unmoving.Asked him what his little game was,Why his golden stool was shaking.Answered Lingo, “Mighty Ruler!Nothing less will stop that shakingThan my sixteen scores of KoitūrsRendered up all safe and hurtlessFrom your cave in Dewalgiri.”Then the Great God, much disgusted,Offered all he had to Lingo,Offered kingdom, name, and riches,Offered anything he wished for,‘Only leave your stinking KoitūrsWell shut up in Dewalgiri.’But our Lingo all refusingWould have nothing but his Koitūrs;Gave a turn to run the thorns aLittle deeper in his midriff.Winced the Great God: “Very well, then,Take your Gonds—but first a favour.By the shore of the Black WaterLives a bird they call Black Bindo,Much I wish to see his young ones,Little Bindos from the sea-shore;For an offering bring these Bindos,Then your Gonds take from my mountain.”Then our Lingo rose and wandered,Wandered onwards through the forest,Till he reached the sounding sea-shore,Reached the brink of the Black Water,Found the Bingo birds were absentFrom their nest upon the sea-shore,Absent hunting in the forest,Hunting elephants prodigious,Which they killed and took their brains out,Cracked their skulls, and brought their brains toFeed their callow little Bindos,Wailing sadly by the sea-shore.Seven times a fearful serpent,Bhawarnāg the horrid serpent,Serpent born in ocean’s caverns,Coming forth from the Black Water,Had devoured the little Bindos—Broods of callow little BindosWailing sadly by the sea-shore—In the absence of their parents.Eighth this brood was. Stood our Lingo,Stood he pondering beside them—“If I take these little wretchesIn the absence of their parentsThey will call me thief and robber.No! I’ll wait till they come back here.”Then he laid him down and slumberedBy the little wailing Bindos.As he slept the dreadful serpent,Rising, came from the Black Water,Came to eat the callow Bindos,In the absence of their parents.Came he trunk-like from the waters,Came with fearful jaws distended,Huge and horrid, like a basketFor the winnowing of corn.Rose a hood of vast dimensionsO’er his fierce and dreadful visage.Shrieked the Bindos young and callow,Gave a cry of lamentation;Rose our Lingo; saw the monster;Drew an arrow from his quiver,Shot it swift into his stomach,Sharp and cutting in the stomach,Then another and another;Cleft him into seven pieces,Wriggled all the seven pieces,Wriggled backward to the water.But our Lingo, swift advancing,Seized the headpiece in his arms,Knocked the brains out on a boulder;Laid it down beside the Bindos,Callow, wailing, little Bindos.On it laid him, like a pillow,And began again to slumber.Soon returned the parent BindosFrom their hunting in the forest;Bringing brains and eyes of camelsAnd of elephants prodigious,For their little callow BindosWailing sadly by the sea-shore.But the Bindos young and callowBrains of camels would not swallow;Said—“A pretty set of parentsYou are truly! thus to leave usSadly wailing by the sea-shoreTo be eaten by the serpent—Bhawarnāg the dreadful serpent—Came he up from the Black Water,Came to eat us little Bindos,When this very valiant LingoShot an arrow in his stomach,Cut him into seven pieces—Give to Lingo brains of camels,Eyes of elephants prodigious.”Then the fond paternal BindoSaw the head-piece of the serpentUnder Lingo’s head a pillow,And he said, ‘O valiant Lingo,Ask whatever you may wish for.’Then he asked the little BindosFor an offering to the Great God,And the fond paternal Bindo,Much disgusted first refusing,Soon consented; said he’d go tooWith the fond maternal Bindo—Take them all upon his shoulders,And fly straight to Dewalgiri.Then he spread his mighty pinions,Took his Bindos up on one sideAnd our Lingo on the other.Thus they soared away togetherFrom the shores of the Black Water,And the fond maternal Bindo,O’er them hovering, spread an awningWith her broad and mighty pinionsO’er her offspring and our Lingo.By the forests and the mountainsSix months’ journey was it thitherTo the mountain Dewalgiri.Half the day was scarcely overEre this convoy from the sea-shoreLighted safe on Dewalgiri;Touched the knocker to the gatewayOf the Great God, Mahādeva.And the messenger NārāyanAnswering, went and told his master—“Lo, this very valiant Lingo!Here he is with all the Bindos,The Black Bindos from the sea-shore.”Then the Great God, much disgusted,Driven quite into a corner,Took our Lingo to the cavern,Sent Basmāsur to his kennel,Held his nose, and moved away theMighty stone of sixteen cubits;Called those sixteen scores of Gonds outMade them over to their Lingo.And they said, “O Father Lingo!What a bad time we’ve had of it,Not a thing to fill our belliesIn this horrid gloomy dungeon.”But our Lingo gave them dinner,Gave them rice and flour of millet,And they went off to the river,Had a drink, and cooked and ate it.The next episode is taken from a slightly different local version:And while they were cooking their food at the river a great flood came up, but all the Gonds crossed safely except the four gods, Tekām, Markām, Pusām and Telengām.16These were delayed because they had cooked their food withghīwhich they had looted from the Hindu deities. Then they stood on the bank and cried out,O God of the crossing,O Boundary God!Should you be here,Come take us across.Hearing this, the tortoise and crocodile came up to them, and offered to take them across the river. So Markām and Tekām sat on the back of the crocodile and Pusām and Telengām on the back of the tortoise, and before starting the gods made the crocodile and tortoise swear that they would not eat or drown them in the sea. But when theygot to the middle of the river the tortoise and crocodile began to sink, with the idea that they would drown the Gonds and feed their young with them. Then the Gonds cried out, and the Raigīdhni or vulture heard them. This bird appears to be the same as the Bindo, as it fed its young with elephants. The Raigīdhni flew to the Gonds and took them up on its back and flew ashore with them. And in its anger it picked out the tongue of the crocodile and crushed the neck of the tortoise. And this is why the crocodile is still tongueless and the tortoise has a broken neck, which is sometimes inside and sometimes outside its shell. Both animals also have the marks of string on their backs where the Gond gods tied their necks together when they were ferried across. Thus all the Gonds were happily reunited and Lingo took them into the forest, and they founded a town there, which grew and prospered. And Lingo divided all the Gonds into clans and made the oldest man a Pardhān or priest and founded the rule of exogamy. He also made the Gond gods, subsequently described,17and worshipped them with offerings of a calf and liquor, and danced before them. He also prescribed the ceremonies of marriage which are still observed, and after all this was done Lingo went to the gods.Gonds on a journeyGonds on a journey

(a)Origin and History1. Numbers and distribution.Gond.—The principal tribe of the Dravidian family, and perhaps the most important of the non-Aryan or forest tribes in India. In 1911 the Gonds were three million strong, and they are increasing rapidly. The Kolis of western India count half a million persons more than the Gonds, and if the four related tribes Kol, Munda, Ho, and Santāl were taken together, they would be stronger by about the same amount. But if historical importance be considered as well as numbers, the first place should be awarded to the Gonds. Of the whole caste the Central Provinces contain 2,300,000 persons, Central India, and Bihār and Orissa about 235,000 persons each, and they are returned in small numbers from Assam, Madras and Hyderābād. The 50,000 Gonds in Assam are no doubt immigrant labourers on the tea-gardens.2. Gondwāna.In the Central Provinces the Gonds occupy two main tracts. The first is the wide belt of broken hill and forest country in the centre of the Province, which forms the Satpūra plateau, and is mainly comprised in the Chhindwārā, Betūl, Seoni and Mandla Districts, with portions of several others adjoining them. And the second is the still wider and more inaccessible mass of hill ranges extending south of the Chhattīsgarh plain, and south-west down to the Godāvari, which includes portions of the three Chhattīsgarh Districts, the Bastar and Kanker States, and a great part of Chānda. In Mandla the Gonds form nearly half the population, and in Bastar about two-thirds. There is, however, no District or State of the Province which does not contain some Gonds, and it is both on account of their numbers and the fact that Gond dynasties possessed a great part of its area that the territory of the Central Provinces was formerly known as Gondwāna, or the country of the Gonds.1The existing importance of the Central Provinces dates from recent years, for so late as 1853 it was stated before the Royal Asiatic Society that “at present the Gondwāna highlandsand jungles comprise such a large tract of unexplored country that they form quite an oasis in our maps.” So much of this lately unexplored country as is British territory is now fairly well served by railways, traversed almost throughout by good roads, and provided with village schools at distances of five to ten miles apart, even in the wilder tracts.Gond women grinding cornGond women grinding corn3. Derivation of name and origin of the Gonds.The derivation of the word Gond is uncertain. It is the name given to the tribe by the Hindus or Muhammadans, as their own name for themselves is Koitūr or Koi. General Cunningham considered that the name Gond probably came from Gauda, the classical term for part of the United Provinces and Bengal. A Benāres inscription relating to one of the Chedi kings of Tripura or Tewar (near Jubbulpore) states that he was of the Haihaya tribe, who lived on the borders of the Nerbudda in the district of the Western Gauda in the Province of Mālwa. Three or four other inscriptions also refer to the kings of Gauda in the same locality. Gauda, however, was properly and commonly used as the name of part of Bengal. There is no evidence beyond a few doubtful inscriptions of its having ever been applied to any part of the Central Provinces. The principal passage in which General Cunningham identifies Gauda with the Central Provinces is that in which the king of Gauda came to the assistance of the ruler of Mālwa against the king of Kanauj, elder brother of the great Harsha Vardhana, and slew the latter king inA.D.605. But Mr. V. A. Smith holds that Gauda in this passage refers to Bengal and not to the Central Provinces;2and General Cunningham’s argument on the locality of Gauda is thus rendered extremely dubious, and with it his derivation of the name Gond. In fact it seems highly improbable that the name of a large tribe should have been taken from a term so little used and known in this special application. Though in theImperial Gazetteer3the present writer reproduced General Cunningham’s derivation of the term Gond, it was there characterised as speculative, and in the light of the above remarks now seems highly improbable. Mr. Hislop considered that the name Gond was a form of Kond, as he spelt the name ofthe Khond tribe. He pointed out thatkandgare interchangeable. Thus Gotalghar, the empty house where the village young men sleep, comes from Kotal, a led horse, andghar, a house. Similarly, Koikopāl, the name of a Gond subtribe who tend cattle, is from Koi or Gond, andgopal, a cowherd. The name by which the Gonds call themselves is Koi or Koitūr, while the Khonds call themselves Ku, which word Sir G. Grierson considers to be probably related to the Gond name Koi. Further, he states that the Telugu people call the Khonds, Gond or Kod (Kor). General Cunningham points out that the word Gond in the Central Provinces is frequently or, he says, usually pronounced Gaur, which is practically the same sound asgod, and with the change ofGtoKwould become Kod. Thus the two names Gond and Kod, by which the Telugu people know the Khonds, are practically the same as the names Gond and God of the Gonds in the Central Provinces, though Sir G. Grierson does not mention the change ofgtokin his account of either language. It seems highly probable that the designation Gond was given to the tribe by the Telugus. The Gonds speak a Dravidian language of the same family as Tamil, Canarese and Telugu, and therefore it is likely that they come from the south into the Central Provinces. Their route may have been up the Godāvari river into Chānda; from thence up the Indravati into Bastar and the hills south and east of the Chhattīsgarh plain; and up the Wardha and Wainganga to the Districts of the Satpūra Plateau. In Chānda, where a Gond dynasty reigned for some centuries, they would be in contact with the Telugus, and here they may have got their name of Gond, and carried it with them into the north and east of the Province. As already seen, the Khonds are called Gond by the Telugus, and Kandh by the Uriyas. The Khonds apparently came up more towards the east into Ganjam and Kālāhandi. Here the name of Gond or Kod, given them by the Telugus, may have been modified into Kandh by the Uriyas, and from the two names came the English corruption of Khond. The Khond and Gondi languages are now dissimilar. Still they present certain points of resemblance, and though Sir G. Grierson does not discuss their connection, it appears from his highlyinteresting genealogical tree of the Dravidian languages that Khond or Kui and Gondi are closely connected. These two languages, and no others, occupy an intermediate position between the two great branches sprung from the original Dravidian language, one of which is mainly represented by Telugu and the other by Tamil, Canarese and Malayālam.4Gondi and Khond are shown in the centre as the connecting link between the two great branches. Gondi is more nearly related to Tamil and Khond to Telugu. On the Telugu side, moreover, Khond approaches most closely to Kolāmi, which is a member of the Telugu branch. The Kolāms are a tribe of Wardha and Berār, sometimes considered an offshoot of the Gonds; at any rate, it seems probable that they came from southern India by the same route as the Gonds. Thus the Khond language is intermediate between Gondi and the Kolāmi dialect of Wardha and Berār, though the Kolāms live west of the Gonds and the Khonds east. And a fairly close relationship between the three languages appears to be established. Hence the linguistic evidence appears to afford strong support to the view that the Khonds and Gonds may originally have been one tribe. Further, Mr. Hislop points out that a word for god,pen, is common to the Gonds and Khonds; and the Khonds have a god called Bura Pen, who might be the same as Bura Deo, the great god of the Gonds. Mr. Hislop found Kodo Pen and Pharsi Pen as Gond gods,5while Pen or Pennu is the regular word for god among the Khonds. This evidence seems to establish a probability that the Gonds and Khonds were originally one tribe in the south of India, and that they obtained separate names and languages since they left their original home for the north. The fact that both of them speak languages of the Dravidian family, whose home is in southern India, makes it probable that the two tribes originally belonged there, and migrated north into the Central Provinces and Orissa. This hypothesis is supported by the traditions of the Gonds.4. History of the Gonds.As stated in the article on Kol, it is known that Rājpūt dynasties were ruling in various parts of the Central Provincesfrom about the sixth to the twelfth centuries. They then disappear, and there is a blank till the fourteenth century or later, when Gond kingdoms are found established at Kherla in Betūl, at Deogarh in Chhīndwara, at Garha-Mandla,6including the Jubbulpore country, and at Chānda, fourteen miles from Bhāndak. It seems clear, then, that the Hindu dynasties were subverted by the Gonds after the Muhammadan invasions of northern India had weakened or destroyed the central powers of the Hindus, and prevented any assistance being afforded to the outlying settlements. There is some reason to suppose that the immigration of the Gonds into the Central Provinces took place after the establishment of these Hindu kingdoms, and not before, as is commonly held.7But the point must at present be considered doubtful. There is no reason however to doubt that the Gonds came from the south through Chānda and Bastar. During the fourteenth century and afterwards the Gonds established dynasties at the places already mentioned in the Central Provinces. For two or three centuries the greater part of the Province was governed by Gond kings. Of their method of government in Narsinghpur, Sleeman said: “Under these Gond Rājas the country seems for the most part to have been distributed among feudatory chiefs, bound to attend upon the prince at his capital with a stipulated number of troops, to be employed wherever their services might be required, but to furnish little or no revenue in money. These chiefs were Gonds, and the countries they held for the support of their families and the payment of their troops and retinue little more than wild jungles. The Gonds seem not to have been at home in open country, and as from the sixteenth century a peaceable penetration of Hindu cultivators into the best lands of the Province assumed large dimensions, the Gonds gradually retired to the hill ranges on the borders of the plains.” The headquarters of each dynasty at Mandla, Garha, Kherla, Deogarh and Chānda seem to have been located in a position strengthened for defence either by a hill or a great river, and adjacent to an especially fertile plain tract, whoseproduce served for the maintenance of the ruler’s household and headquarters establishment. Often the site was on other sides bordered by dense forest which would afford a retreat to the occupants in case it fell to an enemy. Strong and spacious forts were built, with masonry tanks and wells inside them to provide water, but whether these buildings were solely the work of the Gonds or constructed with the assistance of Hindu or Muhammadan artificers is uncertain. But the Hindu immigrants found Gond government tolerant and beneficent. Under the easy eventless sway of these princes the rich country over which they ruled prospered, its flocks and herds increased, and the treasury filled. So far back as the fifteenth century we read in Firishta that the king of Kherla, who, if not a Gond himself, was a king of the Gonds, sumptuously entertained the Bāhmani king and made him rich offerings, among which were many diamonds, rubies and pearls. Of the Rāni Dūrgavati of Garha-Mandla, Sleeman said: “Of all the sovereigns of this dynasty she lives most in the page of history and in the grateful recollections of the people. She built the great reservoir which lies close to Jubbulpore, and is called after her Rāni Talao or Queen’s pond; and many other highly useful works were formed by her about Garha.” When the castle of Chaurāgarh was sacked by one of Akbar’s generals in 1564, the booty found, according to Firishta, comprised, independently of jewels, images of gold and silver and other valuables, no fewer than a hundred jars of gold coin and a thousand elephants. Of the Chānda rulers the Settlement officer who has recorded their history wrote that, “They left, if we forget the last few years, a well-governed and contented kingdom, adorned with admirable works of engineering skill and prosperous to a point which no aftertime has reached. They have left their mark behind them in royal tombs, lakes and palaces, but most of all in the seven miles of battlemented stone wall, too wide now for the shrunk city of Chānda within it, which stands on the very border-line between the forest and the plain, having in front the rich valley of the Wardha river, and behind and up to the city walls deep forest extending to the east.” According to local tradition the great wall of Chānda and other buildings,such as the tombs of the Gond kings and the palace at Junona, were built by immigrant Telugu masons of the Kāpu or Munurwār castes. Another excellent rule of the Gond kings was to give to any one who made a tank a grant of land free of revenue of the land lying beneath it. A large number of small irrigation tanks were constructed under this inducement in the Wainganga valley, and still remain. But the Gond states had no strength for defence, as was shown when in the eighteenth century Marātha chiefs, having acquired some knowledge of the art of war and military training by their long fighting against the Mughals, cast covetous eyes on Gondwāna. The loose tribal system, so easy in time of peace, entirely failed to knit together the strength of the people when united action was most required, and the plain country fell before the Marātha armies almost without a struggle. In the strongholds, however, of the hilly ranges which hem in every part of Gondwāna the chiefs for long continued to maintain an unequal resistance, and to revenge their own wrongs by indiscriminate rapine and slaughter. In such cases the Marātha plan was to continue pillaging and harassing the Gonds until they obtained an acknowledgment of their supremacy and the promise, at least, of an annual tribute. Under this treatment the hill Gonds soon lost every vestige of civilisation, and became the cruel, treacherous savages depicted by travellers of this period. They regularly plundered and murdered stragglers and small parties passing through the hills, while from their strongholds, built on the most inaccessible spurs of the Satpūras, they would make a dash into the rich plains of Berār and the Nerbudda valley, and after looting and killing all night, return straight across country to their jungle fortresses, guided by the light of a bonfire on some commanding peak.8With the pacification of the country and the introduction of a strong and equable system of government by the British, these wild marauders soon settled down and became the timid and inoffensive labourers which they now are.Palace of the Gond kings of Garha-Mandla at RāmnagarPalace of the Gond kings of Garha-Mandla at Rāmnagar5. Mythica traditions. Story of Lingo.Mr. Hislop took down from a Pardhān priest a Gond myth of the creation of the world and the origin of theGonds, and their liberation from a cave, in which they had been shut up by Siva, through the divine hero Lingo. General Cunningham said that the exact position of the cave was not known, but it would seem to have been somewhere in the Himalayas, as the name Dhawalgiri, which means a white mountain, is mentioned. The cave, according to ordinary Gond tradition, was situated in Kachikopa Lohāgarh or the Iron Valley in the Red Hill. It seems clear from the story itself that its author was desirous of connecting the Gonds with Hindu mythology, and as Siva’s heaven is in the Himalayas, the name Dhawalgiri, where he located the cave, may refer to them. It is also said that the cave was at the source of the Jumna. But in Mr. Hislop’s version the cave where all the Gonds except four were shut up is not in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, as the Gonds commonly say; but only the four Gonds who escaped wandered to this latter place and dwelt there. And the story does not show that Kachikopa Lohāgarh was on Mount Dhawalgiri or the Himalayas, where it places the cave in which the Gonds were shut up, or anywhere near them. On the contrary, it would be quite consonant with Mr. Hislop’s version if Kachikopa Lohāgarh were in the Central Provinces. It may be surmised that in the original Gond legend their ancestors really were shut up in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, but not by the god Siva. Very possibly the story began with them in the cave in the Iron Valley in the Red Hill. But the Hindu who clearly composed Mr. Hislop’s version wished to introduce the god Siva as a principal actor, and he therefore removed the site of the cave to the Himalayas. This appears probable from the story itself, in which, in its present form, Kachikopa Lohāgarh plays no real part, and only appears because it was in the original tradition and has to be retained.9But the Gonds think that their ancestors were actually shut up in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, and one tradition puts the site at Pachmarhi, whose striking hill scenery and red soil cleft by many deep and inaccessible ravines would render it a likely place for the incident. Another version locates Kachikopa Lohāgarh at Dārekasain Bhandāra, where there is a place known as Kachagarh or the iron fort. But Pachmarhi is perhaps the more probable, as it has some deep caves, which have always been looked upon as sacred places. The point is of some interest, because this legend of the cave being in the Himalayas is adduced as a Gond tradition that their ancestors came from the north, and hence as supporting the theory of the immigration of the Dravidians through the north-west of India. But if the view now suggested is correct, the story of the cave being in the Himalayas is not a genuine Gond tradition at all, but a Hindu interpolation. The only other ground known to the writer for asserting that the Gonds believed their ancestors to have come from the north is that they bury their dead with the feet to the north. There are other obvious Hindu accretions in the legend, as the saintly Brāhmanic character of Lingo and his overcoming the gods through fasting and self-torture, and also the fact that Siva shut up the Gonds in the cave because he was offended by their dirty habits and bad smell. But the legend still contains a considerable quantity of true Gond tradition, and though somewhat tedious, it seems necessary to give an abridgment of Mr. Hislop’s account, with reproduction of selected passages. Captain Forsyth also made a modernised poetical version,10from which one extract is taken. Certain variations from another form of the legend obtained in Bastar are included.6. Legend of the creation.In the beginning there was water everywhere, and God was born in a lotus-leaf and lived alone. One day he rubbed his arm and from the rubbing made a crow, which sat on his shoulder; he also made a crab, which swam out over the waters. God then ordered the crow to fly over the world and bring some earth. The crow flew about and could find no earth, but it saw the crab, which was supporting itself with one leg resting on the bottom of the sea. The crow was very tired and perched on the crab’s back, which was soft so that the crow’s feet made marks on it, which are still visible on the bodies of all crabs at present. The crow asked the crab where any earth could be found. The crab said that if God would make its body hard it would findsome earth. God said he would make part of the crab’s body hard, and he made its back hard, as it still remains. The crab then dived to the bottom of the sea, where it found Kenchna, the earth-worm. It caught hold of Kenchna by the neck with its claws and the mark thus made is still to be seen on the earth-worm’s neck. Then the earth-worm brought up earth out of its mouth and the crab brought this to God, and God scattered it over the sea and patches of land appeared. God then walked over the earth and a boil came on his hand, and out of it Mahādeo and Pārvati were born.7. Creation of the Gonds and their imprisonment by Mahādeo.From Mahādeo’s urine numerous vegetables began to spring up. Pārvati ate of these and became pregnant and gave birth to eighteen threshing-floors11of Brāhman gods and twelve threshing-floors of Gond gods. All the Gonds were scattered over the jungle. They behaved like Gonds and not like good Hindus, with lamentable results, as follows:12Hither and thither all the Gonds were scattered in the jungle.Places, hills, and valleys were filled with these Gonds.Even trees had their Gonds. How did the Gonds conduct themselves?Whatever came across them they must needs kill and eat it;They made no distinction. If they saw a jackal they killedAnd ate it; no distinction was observed; they respected not antelope, sāmbhar and the like.They made no distinction in eating a sow, a quail, a pigeon,A crow, a kite, an adjutant, a vulture,A lizard, a frog, a beetle, a cow, a calf, a he- and she-buffalo,Rats, bandicoots, squirrels—all these they killed and ate.So began the Gonds to do. They devoured raw and ripe things;They did not bathe for six months together;They did not wash their faces properly, even on dunghills they would fall down and remain.Such were the Gonds born in the beginning. A smell was spread over the jungleWhen the Gonds were thus disorderly behaved; they became disagreeable to Mahādeva,Who said: “The caste of the Gonds is very bad;I will not preserve them; they will ruin my hill Dhawalgiri.”Mahādeo then determined to get rid of the Gonds. With this view he invited them all to a meeting. When they satdown Mahādeo made a squirrel from the rubbings of his body and let it loose in the middle of the Gonds. All the Gonds at once got up and began to chase it, hoping for a meal. They seized sticks and stones and clods of earth, and their unkempt hair flew in the wind. The squirrel dodged about and ran away, and finally, directed by Mahādeo, ran into a large cave with all the Gonds after it. Mahādeo then rolled a large stone to the mouth of the cave and shut up all the Gonds in it. Only four remained outside, and they fled away to Kachikopa Lohāgarh, or the Iron Cave in the Red Hill, and lived there. Meanwhile Pārvati perceived that the smell of the Gonds, which had pleased her, had vanished from Dhawalgiri. She desired it to be restored and commenced a devotion. For six months she fasted and practised austerities. Bhagwān (God) was swinging in a swing. He was disturbed by Pārvati’s devotion. He sent Nārāyan (the sun) to see who was fasting. Nārāyan came and found Pārvati and asked her what she wanted. She said that she missed her Gonds and wanted them back. Nārāyan told Bhagwān, who promised that they should be given back.8. The birth and history of Lingo.The yellow flowers of the tree Pahindi were growing on Dhawalgiri. Bhagwān sent thunder and lightning, and the flower conceived. First fell from it a heap of turmeric or saffron. In the morning the sun came out, the flower burst open, and Lingo was born. Lingo was a perfect child. He had a diamond on his navel and a sandalwood mark on his forehead. He fell from the flower into the heap of turmeric. He played in the turmeric and slept in a swing. He became nine years old. He said there was no one there like him, and he would go where he could find his fellows. He climbed a needle-like hill,13and from afar off he saw Kachikopa Lohāgarh and the four Gonds. He came to them. They saw he was like them, and asked him to be their brother. They ate only animals. Lingo asked them to find for him an animal without a liver, and they searched all through the forest and could not. Then Lingo told them to cut down trees and make a field. They tried to cut down theanjan14trees, but their hands were blisteredand they could not go on. Lingo had been asleep. He woke up and saw they had only cut down one or two trees. He took the axe and cut down many trees, and fenced a field and made a gate to it. Black soil appeared. It began to rain, and rained without ceasing for three days. All the rivers and streams were filled. The field became green with rice, and it grew up. There were sixteen score ofnīlgaior blue-bull. They had two leaders, an old bull and his nephew. The young bull saw the rice of Lingo’s field and wished to eat it. The uncle told him not to eat of the field of Lingo or all thenīlgaiwould be killed. But the young bull did not heed, and took off all thenīlgaito eat the rice. When they got to the field they could find no entrance, so they jumped the fence, which was five cubits high. They ate all the rice from off the field and ran away. The young bull told them as they ran to put their feet on leaves and stones and boughs and grass, and not on the ground, so that they might not be tracked. Lingo woke up and went to see his field, and found all the rice eaten. He knew thenīlgaihad done it, and showed the brothers how to track them by the few marks which they had by accident made on the ground. They did so, and surrounded thenīlgaiand killed them all with their bows and arrows except the old uncle, from whom Lingo’s arrow rebounded harmlessly on account of his innocence, and one young doe. From these two thenīlgairace was preserved. Then Lingo told the Gonds to make fire and roast the deer as follows:He said, I will show you something; see if anywhere in yourWaistbands there is a flint; if so, take it out and make fire.But the matches did not ignite. As they were doing this, a watch of the night passed.They threw down the matches, and said to Lingo, Thou art a Saint;Show us where our fire is, and why it does not come out.Lingo said: Three koss (six miles) hence is Rikad Gawādi the giant.There is fire in his field; where smoke shall appear, go there,Come not back without bringing fire. Thus said Lingo.They said, We have never seen the place, where shall we go?Ye have never seen where this fire is? Lingo said;I will discharge an arrow thither.Go in the direction of the arrow; there you will get fire.He applied the arrow, and having pulled the bow, he discharged one:It crashed on, breaking twigs and making its passage clear.Having cut through the high grass, it made its way and reached the old man’s place (above mentioned).The arrow dropped close to the fire of the old man, who had daughters.The arrow was near the door. As soon as they saw it, the daughters came and took it up,And kept it. They asked their father: When will you give us in marriage?Thus said the seven sisters, the daughters of the old man.I will marry you as I think best for you;Remain as you are. So said the old man, the Rikad Gawādi.Lingo said, Hear, O brethren! I shot an arrow, it made its way.Go there, and you will see fire; bring thence the fire.Each said to the other, I will not go; but (at last) the youngest went.He descried the fire, and went to it; then beheld he an old man looking like the trunk of a tree.He saw from afar the old man’s field, around which a hedge was made.The old man kept only one way to it, and fastened a screen to the entrance, and had a fire in the centre of the field.He placed logs of the Mahua and Anjun and Sāj trees on the fire,Teak faggots he gathered, and enkindled flame.The fire blazed up, and warmed by the heat of it, in deep sleep lay the Rikad Gawādi.Thus the old man like a giant did appear. When the young Gond beheld him, he shivered;His heart leaped; and he was much afraid in his mind, and said:If the old man were to rise he will see me, and I shall be eaten up;I will steal away the fire and carry it off, then my life will be safe.He went near the fire secretly, and took a brand oftenduwood tree.When he was lifting it up a spark flew and fell on the hip of the old man.That spark was as large as a pot; the giant was blistered; he awoke alarmed.And said: I am hungry, and I cannot get food to eat anywhere; I feel a desire for flesh;Like a tender cucumber hast thou come to me. So said the old man to the Gond,Who began to fly. The old man followed him. The Gond then threw away the brand which he had stolen.He ran onward, and was not caught. Then the old man, being tired, turned back.Thence he returned to his field, and came near the fire and sat, and said, What nonsense is this?A tender prey had come within my reach;I said I will cut it up as soon as I can, but it escaped from my hand!Let it go; it will come again, then I will catch it. It has gone now.Then what happened? the Gond returned and came to his brethren.And said to them: Hear, O brethren, I went for fire, as you sent me, to that field; I beheld an old man like a giant.With hands stretched out and feet lifted up. I ran. I thus survived with difficulty.The brethren said to Lingo, We will not go. Lingo said, Sit ye here.O brethren, what sort of a person is this giant? I will go and see him.So saying, Lingo went away and reached a river.He thence arose and went onward. As he looked, he saw in front three gourds.Then he saw a bamboo stick, which he took up.When the river was floodedIt washed away a gourd tree, and its seed fell, and each stem produced bottle-gourds.He inserted a bamboo stick in the hollow of the gourd and made a guitar.He plucked two hairs from his head and strung it.He held a bow and fixed eleven keys to that one stick, and played on it.Lingo was much pleased in his mind.Holding it in his hand, he walked in the direction of the old man’s field.He approached the fire where Rikad Gawādi was sleeping.The giant seemed like a log lying close to the fire; his teeth were hideously visible;His mouth was gaping. Lingo looked at the old man while sleeping.His eyes were shut. Lingo said, This is not a good time to carry off the old man while he is asleep.In front he looked, and turned round and saw a treeOf the pīpal sort standing erect; he beheld its branches with wonder, and looked for a fit place to mount upon.It appeared a very good tree; so he climbed it, and ascended to the top of it to sit.As he sat the cock crew. Lingo said, It is daybreak;Meanwhile the old man must be rising. Therefore Lingo took the guitar in his hand,And held it; he gave a stroke, and it sounded well; from it he drew one hundred tunes.It sounded well, as if he was singing with his voice.Thus (as it were) a song was heard.Trees and hills were silent at its sound. The music loudly entered intoThe old man’s ears; he rose in haste, and sat up quickly; lifted up his eyes,And desired to hear (more). He looked hither and thither, but could not make out whence the sound came.The old man said: Whence has a creature come here to-day to sing like the maina bird?He saw a tree, but nothing appeared to him as he looked underneath it.He did not look up; he looked at the thickets and ravines, butSaw nothing. He came to the road, and near to the fire in the midst of his field and stood.Sometimes sitting, and sometimes standing, jumping, and rolling, he began to dance.The music sounded as the day dawned. His old woman came out in the morning and began to look out.She heard in the direction of the field a melodious music playing.When she arrived near the edge of her field, she heard music in her ears.That old woman called her husband to her.With stretched hands, and lifted feet, and with his neck bent down, he danced.Thus he danced. The old woman looked towards her husband, and said, My old man, my husband,Surely, that music is very melodious. I will dance, said the old woman.Having made the fold of her dress loose, she quickly began to dance near the hedge.9. Death and resurrection of Lingo.Then Lingo disclosed himself to the giant and became friendly with him. The giant apologised for having tried to eat his brother, and called Lingo his nephew. Lingo invited him to come and feast on the flesh of the sixteen scores ofnīlgai. The giant called his seven daughters and offered them all to Lingo in marriage. The daughters produced the arrow which they had treasured up as portending a husband. Lingo said he was not marrying himself, but he would take them home as wives for his brothers. So they all went back to the cave and Lingo assigned two of the daughters each to the three elder brothers and one to the youngest. Then the brothers, to show their gratitude, said that they would go and hunt in the forest and bring meat and fruit and Lingo should lie in a swing and be rocked by their seven wives. But while the wives were swinging Lingo and his eyes were shut, they wished to sport with him as their husbands’ younger brother. So saying they pulled his hands and feet till he woke up. Then he reproached them and called them his mothers and sisters, but they cared nothing and began to embrace him. Then Lingo was filled with wrath and leapt up, and seeing a rice-pestle near he seized it and beat them all with it soundly. Then the women went to their houses and wept and resolved to be revenged on Lingo. So when the brothers came home they told their husbands that while they were swinging Lingo he had tried to seduce them all from their virtue, and they were resolved to go home and stay no longer in Kachikopa with such a man about the place. Then the brothers were exceedingly angry with Lingo, who they thought had deceived them with a pretence of virtue in refusing a wife, and they resolved to kill him. So they enticed him into the forest with a story of a great animal which had put them to flight and asked him to kill it, and there they shot him to death with their arrows and gouged out his eyes and played ball with them.But the god Bhagwān became aware that Lingo was not praying to him as usual, and sent the crow Kageshwar to look for him. The crow came and reported that Lingo was dead, and the god sent him back with nectar to sprinkle it over the body and bring it to life again, which was done.10. He releases the Gonds shut up in the cave and constitutes the tribe.Lingo then thought he had had enough of the four brothers, so he determined to go and find the other sixteen score Gonds who were imprisoned somewhere as the brothers had told him. The manner of his doing this may be told in Captain Forsyth’s version:15And our Lingo redivivusWandered on across the mountains,Wandered sadly through the forestTill the darkening of the evening,Wandered on until the night fell.Screamed the panther in the forest,Growled the bear upon the mountain,And our Lingo then bethought himOf their cannibal propensities.Saw at hand the tree Niruda,Clambered up into its branches.Darkness fell upon the forest,Bears their heads wagged, yelled the jackalKolyal, the King of Jackals.Sounded loud their dreadful voicesIn the forest-shade primeval.Then the Jungle-Cock Gugotee,Mull the Peacock, Kurs the Wild Deer,Terror-stricken, screeched and shuddered,In that forest-shade primeval.But the moon arose at midnight,Poured her flood of silver radiance,Lighted all the forest arches,Through their gloomy branches slanting;Fell on Lingo, pondering deeplyOn his sixteen scores of Koitūrs.Then thought Lingo, I will ask herFor my sixteen scores of Koitūrs.‘Tell me, O Moon!’ said Lingo,‘Tell, O Brightener of the darkness!Where my sixteen scores are hidden.’But the Moon sailed onwards, upwards,And her cold and glancing moonbeamsSaid, ‘Your Gonds, I have not seen them.’And the Stars came forth and twinkledTwinkling eyes above the forest.Lingo said, “O Stars that twinkle!Eyes that look into the darkness,Tell me where my sixteen scores are.”But the cold Stars twinkling ever,Said, ‘Your Gonds, we have not seen them.’Broke the morning, the sky reddened,Faded out the star of morning,Rose the Sun above the forest,Brilliant Sun, the Lord of morning,And our Lingo quick descended,Quickly ran he to the eastward,Fell before the Lord of Morning,Gave the Great Sun salutation—‘Tell, O Sun!’ he said, ‘DiscoverWhere my sixteen scores of Gonds are.’But the Lord of Day reply made—“Hear, O Lingo, I a PilgrimWander onwards, through four watchesServing God, I have seen nothingOf your sixteen scores of Koitūrs.”Then our Lingo wandered onwardsThrough the arches of the forest;Wandered on until before himSaw the grotto of a hermit,Old and sage, the Black Kumāit,He the very wise and knowing,He the greatest of Magicians,Born in days that are forgotten,In the unremembered ages,Salutation gave and asked him—‘Tell, O Hermit! Great Kumāit!Where my sixteen scores of Gonds are.Then replied the Black Magician,Spake disdainfully in this wise—“Lingo, hear, your Gonds are assesEating cats, and mice, and bandicoots,Eating pigs, and cows, and buffaloes;Filthy wretches! wherefore ask me?If you wish it I will tell you.Our great Mahādeva caught them,And has shut them up securelyIn a cave within the bowelsOf his mountain Dewalgiri,With a stone of sixteen cubits,And his bulldog fierce Basmāsur;Serve them right, too, I consider,Filthy, casteless, stinking wretches!”And the Hermit to his grottoBack returned, and deeply ponderedOn the days that are forgotten,On the unremembered ages.But our Lingo wandered onwards,Fasting, praying, doing penance;Laid him on a bed of prickles,Thorns long and sharp and piercing.Fasting lay he devotee-like,Hand not lifting, foot not lifting,Eye not opening, nothing seeing.Twelve months long thus lay and fasted,Till his flesh was dry and withered,And the bones began to show through.Then the great god MahādevaFelt his seat begin to tremble,Felt his golden stool, all shakingFrom the penance of our Lingo.Felt, and wondered who on earthThis devotee was that was fastingTill his golden stool was shaking.Stepped he down from Dewalgiri,Came and saw that bed of pricklesWhere our Lingo lay unmoving.Asked him what his little game was,Why his golden stool was shaking.Answered Lingo, “Mighty Ruler!Nothing less will stop that shakingThan my sixteen scores of KoitūrsRendered up all safe and hurtlessFrom your cave in Dewalgiri.”Then the Great God, much disgusted,Offered all he had to Lingo,Offered kingdom, name, and riches,Offered anything he wished for,‘Only leave your stinking KoitūrsWell shut up in Dewalgiri.’But our Lingo all refusingWould have nothing but his Koitūrs;Gave a turn to run the thorns aLittle deeper in his midriff.Winced the Great God: “Very well, then,Take your Gonds—but first a favour.By the shore of the Black WaterLives a bird they call Black Bindo,Much I wish to see his young ones,Little Bindos from the sea-shore;For an offering bring these Bindos,Then your Gonds take from my mountain.”Then our Lingo rose and wandered,Wandered onwards through the forest,Till he reached the sounding sea-shore,Reached the brink of the Black Water,Found the Bingo birds were absentFrom their nest upon the sea-shore,Absent hunting in the forest,Hunting elephants prodigious,Which they killed and took their brains out,Cracked their skulls, and brought their brains toFeed their callow little Bindos,Wailing sadly by the sea-shore.Seven times a fearful serpent,Bhawarnāg the horrid serpent,Serpent born in ocean’s caverns,Coming forth from the Black Water,Had devoured the little Bindos—Broods of callow little BindosWailing sadly by the sea-shore—In the absence of their parents.Eighth this brood was. Stood our Lingo,Stood he pondering beside them—“If I take these little wretchesIn the absence of their parentsThey will call me thief and robber.No! I’ll wait till they come back here.”Then he laid him down and slumberedBy the little wailing Bindos.As he slept the dreadful serpent,Rising, came from the Black Water,Came to eat the callow Bindos,In the absence of their parents.Came he trunk-like from the waters,Came with fearful jaws distended,Huge and horrid, like a basketFor the winnowing of corn.Rose a hood of vast dimensionsO’er his fierce and dreadful visage.Shrieked the Bindos young and callow,Gave a cry of lamentation;Rose our Lingo; saw the monster;Drew an arrow from his quiver,Shot it swift into his stomach,Sharp and cutting in the stomach,Then another and another;Cleft him into seven pieces,Wriggled all the seven pieces,Wriggled backward to the water.But our Lingo, swift advancing,Seized the headpiece in his arms,Knocked the brains out on a boulder;Laid it down beside the Bindos,Callow, wailing, little Bindos.On it laid him, like a pillow,And began again to slumber.Soon returned the parent BindosFrom their hunting in the forest;Bringing brains and eyes of camelsAnd of elephants prodigious,For their little callow BindosWailing sadly by the sea-shore.But the Bindos young and callowBrains of camels would not swallow;Said—“A pretty set of parentsYou are truly! thus to leave usSadly wailing by the sea-shoreTo be eaten by the serpent—Bhawarnāg the dreadful serpent—Came he up from the Black Water,Came to eat us little Bindos,When this very valiant LingoShot an arrow in his stomach,Cut him into seven pieces—Give to Lingo brains of camels,Eyes of elephants prodigious.”Then the fond paternal BindoSaw the head-piece of the serpentUnder Lingo’s head a pillow,And he said, ‘O valiant Lingo,Ask whatever you may wish for.’Then he asked the little BindosFor an offering to the Great God,And the fond paternal Bindo,Much disgusted first refusing,Soon consented; said he’d go tooWith the fond maternal Bindo—Take them all upon his shoulders,And fly straight to Dewalgiri.Then he spread his mighty pinions,Took his Bindos up on one sideAnd our Lingo on the other.Thus they soared away togetherFrom the shores of the Black Water,And the fond maternal Bindo,O’er them hovering, spread an awningWith her broad and mighty pinionsO’er her offspring and our Lingo.By the forests and the mountainsSix months’ journey was it thitherTo the mountain Dewalgiri.Half the day was scarcely overEre this convoy from the sea-shoreLighted safe on Dewalgiri;Touched the knocker to the gatewayOf the Great God, Mahādeva.And the messenger NārāyanAnswering, went and told his master—“Lo, this very valiant Lingo!Here he is with all the Bindos,The Black Bindos from the sea-shore.”Then the Great God, much disgusted,Driven quite into a corner,Took our Lingo to the cavern,Sent Basmāsur to his kennel,Held his nose, and moved away theMighty stone of sixteen cubits;Called those sixteen scores of Gonds outMade them over to their Lingo.And they said, “O Father Lingo!What a bad time we’ve had of it,Not a thing to fill our belliesIn this horrid gloomy dungeon.”But our Lingo gave them dinner,Gave them rice and flour of millet,And they went off to the river,Had a drink, and cooked and ate it.The next episode is taken from a slightly different local version:And while they were cooking their food at the river a great flood came up, but all the Gonds crossed safely except the four gods, Tekām, Markām, Pusām and Telengām.16These were delayed because they had cooked their food withghīwhich they had looted from the Hindu deities. Then they stood on the bank and cried out,O God of the crossing,O Boundary God!Should you be here,Come take us across.Hearing this, the tortoise and crocodile came up to them, and offered to take them across the river. So Markām and Tekām sat on the back of the crocodile and Pusām and Telengām on the back of the tortoise, and before starting the gods made the crocodile and tortoise swear that they would not eat or drown them in the sea. But when theygot to the middle of the river the tortoise and crocodile began to sink, with the idea that they would drown the Gonds and feed their young with them. Then the Gonds cried out, and the Raigīdhni or vulture heard them. This bird appears to be the same as the Bindo, as it fed its young with elephants. The Raigīdhni flew to the Gonds and took them up on its back and flew ashore with them. And in its anger it picked out the tongue of the crocodile and crushed the neck of the tortoise. And this is why the crocodile is still tongueless and the tortoise has a broken neck, which is sometimes inside and sometimes outside its shell. Both animals also have the marks of string on their backs where the Gond gods tied their necks together when they were ferried across. Thus all the Gonds were happily reunited and Lingo took them into the forest, and they founded a town there, which grew and prospered. And Lingo divided all the Gonds into clans and made the oldest man a Pardhān or priest and founded the rule of exogamy. He also made the Gond gods, subsequently described,17and worshipped them with offerings of a calf and liquor, and danced before them. He also prescribed the ceremonies of marriage which are still observed, and after all this was done Lingo went to the gods.Gonds on a journeyGonds on a journey

(a)Origin and History1. Numbers and distribution.Gond.—The principal tribe of the Dravidian family, and perhaps the most important of the non-Aryan or forest tribes in India. In 1911 the Gonds were three million strong, and they are increasing rapidly. The Kolis of western India count half a million persons more than the Gonds, and if the four related tribes Kol, Munda, Ho, and Santāl were taken together, they would be stronger by about the same amount. But if historical importance be considered as well as numbers, the first place should be awarded to the Gonds. Of the whole caste the Central Provinces contain 2,300,000 persons, Central India, and Bihār and Orissa about 235,000 persons each, and they are returned in small numbers from Assam, Madras and Hyderābād. The 50,000 Gonds in Assam are no doubt immigrant labourers on the tea-gardens.2. Gondwāna.In the Central Provinces the Gonds occupy two main tracts. The first is the wide belt of broken hill and forest country in the centre of the Province, which forms the Satpūra plateau, and is mainly comprised in the Chhindwārā, Betūl, Seoni and Mandla Districts, with portions of several others adjoining them. And the second is the still wider and more inaccessible mass of hill ranges extending south of the Chhattīsgarh plain, and south-west down to the Godāvari, which includes portions of the three Chhattīsgarh Districts, the Bastar and Kanker States, and a great part of Chānda. In Mandla the Gonds form nearly half the population, and in Bastar about two-thirds. There is, however, no District or State of the Province which does not contain some Gonds, and it is both on account of their numbers and the fact that Gond dynasties possessed a great part of its area that the territory of the Central Provinces was formerly known as Gondwāna, or the country of the Gonds.1The existing importance of the Central Provinces dates from recent years, for so late as 1853 it was stated before the Royal Asiatic Society that “at present the Gondwāna highlandsand jungles comprise such a large tract of unexplored country that they form quite an oasis in our maps.” So much of this lately unexplored country as is British territory is now fairly well served by railways, traversed almost throughout by good roads, and provided with village schools at distances of five to ten miles apart, even in the wilder tracts.Gond women grinding cornGond women grinding corn3. Derivation of name and origin of the Gonds.The derivation of the word Gond is uncertain. It is the name given to the tribe by the Hindus or Muhammadans, as their own name for themselves is Koitūr or Koi. General Cunningham considered that the name Gond probably came from Gauda, the classical term for part of the United Provinces and Bengal. A Benāres inscription relating to one of the Chedi kings of Tripura or Tewar (near Jubbulpore) states that he was of the Haihaya tribe, who lived on the borders of the Nerbudda in the district of the Western Gauda in the Province of Mālwa. Three or four other inscriptions also refer to the kings of Gauda in the same locality. Gauda, however, was properly and commonly used as the name of part of Bengal. There is no evidence beyond a few doubtful inscriptions of its having ever been applied to any part of the Central Provinces. The principal passage in which General Cunningham identifies Gauda with the Central Provinces is that in which the king of Gauda came to the assistance of the ruler of Mālwa against the king of Kanauj, elder brother of the great Harsha Vardhana, and slew the latter king inA.D.605. But Mr. V. A. Smith holds that Gauda in this passage refers to Bengal and not to the Central Provinces;2and General Cunningham’s argument on the locality of Gauda is thus rendered extremely dubious, and with it his derivation of the name Gond. In fact it seems highly improbable that the name of a large tribe should have been taken from a term so little used and known in this special application. Though in theImperial Gazetteer3the present writer reproduced General Cunningham’s derivation of the term Gond, it was there characterised as speculative, and in the light of the above remarks now seems highly improbable. Mr. Hislop considered that the name Gond was a form of Kond, as he spelt the name ofthe Khond tribe. He pointed out thatkandgare interchangeable. Thus Gotalghar, the empty house where the village young men sleep, comes from Kotal, a led horse, andghar, a house. Similarly, Koikopāl, the name of a Gond subtribe who tend cattle, is from Koi or Gond, andgopal, a cowherd. The name by which the Gonds call themselves is Koi or Koitūr, while the Khonds call themselves Ku, which word Sir G. Grierson considers to be probably related to the Gond name Koi. Further, he states that the Telugu people call the Khonds, Gond or Kod (Kor). General Cunningham points out that the word Gond in the Central Provinces is frequently or, he says, usually pronounced Gaur, which is practically the same sound asgod, and with the change ofGtoKwould become Kod. Thus the two names Gond and Kod, by which the Telugu people know the Khonds, are practically the same as the names Gond and God of the Gonds in the Central Provinces, though Sir G. Grierson does not mention the change ofgtokin his account of either language. It seems highly probable that the designation Gond was given to the tribe by the Telugus. The Gonds speak a Dravidian language of the same family as Tamil, Canarese and Telugu, and therefore it is likely that they come from the south into the Central Provinces. Their route may have been up the Godāvari river into Chānda; from thence up the Indravati into Bastar and the hills south and east of the Chhattīsgarh plain; and up the Wardha and Wainganga to the Districts of the Satpūra Plateau. In Chānda, where a Gond dynasty reigned for some centuries, they would be in contact with the Telugus, and here they may have got their name of Gond, and carried it with them into the north and east of the Province. As already seen, the Khonds are called Gond by the Telugus, and Kandh by the Uriyas. The Khonds apparently came up more towards the east into Ganjam and Kālāhandi. Here the name of Gond or Kod, given them by the Telugus, may have been modified into Kandh by the Uriyas, and from the two names came the English corruption of Khond. The Khond and Gondi languages are now dissimilar. Still they present certain points of resemblance, and though Sir G. Grierson does not discuss their connection, it appears from his highlyinteresting genealogical tree of the Dravidian languages that Khond or Kui and Gondi are closely connected. These two languages, and no others, occupy an intermediate position between the two great branches sprung from the original Dravidian language, one of which is mainly represented by Telugu and the other by Tamil, Canarese and Malayālam.4Gondi and Khond are shown in the centre as the connecting link between the two great branches. Gondi is more nearly related to Tamil and Khond to Telugu. On the Telugu side, moreover, Khond approaches most closely to Kolāmi, which is a member of the Telugu branch. The Kolāms are a tribe of Wardha and Berār, sometimes considered an offshoot of the Gonds; at any rate, it seems probable that they came from southern India by the same route as the Gonds. Thus the Khond language is intermediate between Gondi and the Kolāmi dialect of Wardha and Berār, though the Kolāms live west of the Gonds and the Khonds east. And a fairly close relationship between the three languages appears to be established. Hence the linguistic evidence appears to afford strong support to the view that the Khonds and Gonds may originally have been one tribe. Further, Mr. Hislop points out that a word for god,pen, is common to the Gonds and Khonds; and the Khonds have a god called Bura Pen, who might be the same as Bura Deo, the great god of the Gonds. Mr. Hislop found Kodo Pen and Pharsi Pen as Gond gods,5while Pen or Pennu is the regular word for god among the Khonds. This evidence seems to establish a probability that the Gonds and Khonds were originally one tribe in the south of India, and that they obtained separate names and languages since they left their original home for the north. The fact that both of them speak languages of the Dravidian family, whose home is in southern India, makes it probable that the two tribes originally belonged there, and migrated north into the Central Provinces and Orissa. This hypothesis is supported by the traditions of the Gonds.4. History of the Gonds.As stated in the article on Kol, it is known that Rājpūt dynasties were ruling in various parts of the Central Provincesfrom about the sixth to the twelfth centuries. They then disappear, and there is a blank till the fourteenth century or later, when Gond kingdoms are found established at Kherla in Betūl, at Deogarh in Chhīndwara, at Garha-Mandla,6including the Jubbulpore country, and at Chānda, fourteen miles from Bhāndak. It seems clear, then, that the Hindu dynasties were subverted by the Gonds after the Muhammadan invasions of northern India had weakened or destroyed the central powers of the Hindus, and prevented any assistance being afforded to the outlying settlements. There is some reason to suppose that the immigration of the Gonds into the Central Provinces took place after the establishment of these Hindu kingdoms, and not before, as is commonly held.7But the point must at present be considered doubtful. There is no reason however to doubt that the Gonds came from the south through Chānda and Bastar. During the fourteenth century and afterwards the Gonds established dynasties at the places already mentioned in the Central Provinces. For two or three centuries the greater part of the Province was governed by Gond kings. Of their method of government in Narsinghpur, Sleeman said: “Under these Gond Rājas the country seems for the most part to have been distributed among feudatory chiefs, bound to attend upon the prince at his capital with a stipulated number of troops, to be employed wherever their services might be required, but to furnish little or no revenue in money. These chiefs were Gonds, and the countries they held for the support of their families and the payment of their troops and retinue little more than wild jungles. The Gonds seem not to have been at home in open country, and as from the sixteenth century a peaceable penetration of Hindu cultivators into the best lands of the Province assumed large dimensions, the Gonds gradually retired to the hill ranges on the borders of the plains.” The headquarters of each dynasty at Mandla, Garha, Kherla, Deogarh and Chānda seem to have been located in a position strengthened for defence either by a hill or a great river, and adjacent to an especially fertile plain tract, whoseproduce served for the maintenance of the ruler’s household and headquarters establishment. Often the site was on other sides bordered by dense forest which would afford a retreat to the occupants in case it fell to an enemy. Strong and spacious forts were built, with masonry tanks and wells inside them to provide water, but whether these buildings were solely the work of the Gonds or constructed with the assistance of Hindu or Muhammadan artificers is uncertain. But the Hindu immigrants found Gond government tolerant and beneficent. Under the easy eventless sway of these princes the rich country over which they ruled prospered, its flocks and herds increased, and the treasury filled. So far back as the fifteenth century we read in Firishta that the king of Kherla, who, if not a Gond himself, was a king of the Gonds, sumptuously entertained the Bāhmani king and made him rich offerings, among which were many diamonds, rubies and pearls. Of the Rāni Dūrgavati of Garha-Mandla, Sleeman said: “Of all the sovereigns of this dynasty she lives most in the page of history and in the grateful recollections of the people. She built the great reservoir which lies close to Jubbulpore, and is called after her Rāni Talao or Queen’s pond; and many other highly useful works were formed by her about Garha.” When the castle of Chaurāgarh was sacked by one of Akbar’s generals in 1564, the booty found, according to Firishta, comprised, independently of jewels, images of gold and silver and other valuables, no fewer than a hundred jars of gold coin and a thousand elephants. Of the Chānda rulers the Settlement officer who has recorded their history wrote that, “They left, if we forget the last few years, a well-governed and contented kingdom, adorned with admirable works of engineering skill and prosperous to a point which no aftertime has reached. They have left their mark behind them in royal tombs, lakes and palaces, but most of all in the seven miles of battlemented stone wall, too wide now for the shrunk city of Chānda within it, which stands on the very border-line between the forest and the plain, having in front the rich valley of the Wardha river, and behind and up to the city walls deep forest extending to the east.” According to local tradition the great wall of Chānda and other buildings,such as the tombs of the Gond kings and the palace at Junona, were built by immigrant Telugu masons of the Kāpu or Munurwār castes. Another excellent rule of the Gond kings was to give to any one who made a tank a grant of land free of revenue of the land lying beneath it. A large number of small irrigation tanks were constructed under this inducement in the Wainganga valley, and still remain. But the Gond states had no strength for defence, as was shown when in the eighteenth century Marātha chiefs, having acquired some knowledge of the art of war and military training by their long fighting against the Mughals, cast covetous eyes on Gondwāna. The loose tribal system, so easy in time of peace, entirely failed to knit together the strength of the people when united action was most required, and the plain country fell before the Marātha armies almost without a struggle. In the strongholds, however, of the hilly ranges which hem in every part of Gondwāna the chiefs for long continued to maintain an unequal resistance, and to revenge their own wrongs by indiscriminate rapine and slaughter. In such cases the Marātha plan was to continue pillaging and harassing the Gonds until they obtained an acknowledgment of their supremacy and the promise, at least, of an annual tribute. Under this treatment the hill Gonds soon lost every vestige of civilisation, and became the cruel, treacherous savages depicted by travellers of this period. They regularly plundered and murdered stragglers and small parties passing through the hills, while from their strongholds, built on the most inaccessible spurs of the Satpūras, they would make a dash into the rich plains of Berār and the Nerbudda valley, and after looting and killing all night, return straight across country to their jungle fortresses, guided by the light of a bonfire on some commanding peak.8With the pacification of the country and the introduction of a strong and equable system of government by the British, these wild marauders soon settled down and became the timid and inoffensive labourers which they now are.Palace of the Gond kings of Garha-Mandla at RāmnagarPalace of the Gond kings of Garha-Mandla at Rāmnagar5. Mythica traditions. Story of Lingo.Mr. Hislop took down from a Pardhān priest a Gond myth of the creation of the world and the origin of theGonds, and their liberation from a cave, in which they had been shut up by Siva, through the divine hero Lingo. General Cunningham said that the exact position of the cave was not known, but it would seem to have been somewhere in the Himalayas, as the name Dhawalgiri, which means a white mountain, is mentioned. The cave, according to ordinary Gond tradition, was situated in Kachikopa Lohāgarh or the Iron Valley in the Red Hill. It seems clear from the story itself that its author was desirous of connecting the Gonds with Hindu mythology, and as Siva’s heaven is in the Himalayas, the name Dhawalgiri, where he located the cave, may refer to them. It is also said that the cave was at the source of the Jumna. But in Mr. Hislop’s version the cave where all the Gonds except four were shut up is not in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, as the Gonds commonly say; but only the four Gonds who escaped wandered to this latter place and dwelt there. And the story does not show that Kachikopa Lohāgarh was on Mount Dhawalgiri or the Himalayas, where it places the cave in which the Gonds were shut up, or anywhere near them. On the contrary, it would be quite consonant with Mr. Hislop’s version if Kachikopa Lohāgarh were in the Central Provinces. It may be surmised that in the original Gond legend their ancestors really were shut up in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, but not by the god Siva. Very possibly the story began with them in the cave in the Iron Valley in the Red Hill. But the Hindu who clearly composed Mr. Hislop’s version wished to introduce the god Siva as a principal actor, and he therefore removed the site of the cave to the Himalayas. This appears probable from the story itself, in which, in its present form, Kachikopa Lohāgarh plays no real part, and only appears because it was in the original tradition and has to be retained.9But the Gonds think that their ancestors were actually shut up in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, and one tradition puts the site at Pachmarhi, whose striking hill scenery and red soil cleft by many deep and inaccessible ravines would render it a likely place for the incident. Another version locates Kachikopa Lohāgarh at Dārekasain Bhandāra, where there is a place known as Kachagarh or the iron fort. But Pachmarhi is perhaps the more probable, as it has some deep caves, which have always been looked upon as sacred places. The point is of some interest, because this legend of the cave being in the Himalayas is adduced as a Gond tradition that their ancestors came from the north, and hence as supporting the theory of the immigration of the Dravidians through the north-west of India. But if the view now suggested is correct, the story of the cave being in the Himalayas is not a genuine Gond tradition at all, but a Hindu interpolation. The only other ground known to the writer for asserting that the Gonds believed their ancestors to have come from the north is that they bury their dead with the feet to the north. There are other obvious Hindu accretions in the legend, as the saintly Brāhmanic character of Lingo and his overcoming the gods through fasting and self-torture, and also the fact that Siva shut up the Gonds in the cave because he was offended by their dirty habits and bad smell. But the legend still contains a considerable quantity of true Gond tradition, and though somewhat tedious, it seems necessary to give an abridgment of Mr. Hislop’s account, with reproduction of selected passages. Captain Forsyth also made a modernised poetical version,10from which one extract is taken. Certain variations from another form of the legend obtained in Bastar are included.6. Legend of the creation.In the beginning there was water everywhere, and God was born in a lotus-leaf and lived alone. One day he rubbed his arm and from the rubbing made a crow, which sat on his shoulder; he also made a crab, which swam out over the waters. God then ordered the crow to fly over the world and bring some earth. The crow flew about and could find no earth, but it saw the crab, which was supporting itself with one leg resting on the bottom of the sea. The crow was very tired and perched on the crab’s back, which was soft so that the crow’s feet made marks on it, which are still visible on the bodies of all crabs at present. The crow asked the crab where any earth could be found. The crab said that if God would make its body hard it would findsome earth. God said he would make part of the crab’s body hard, and he made its back hard, as it still remains. The crab then dived to the bottom of the sea, where it found Kenchna, the earth-worm. It caught hold of Kenchna by the neck with its claws and the mark thus made is still to be seen on the earth-worm’s neck. Then the earth-worm brought up earth out of its mouth and the crab brought this to God, and God scattered it over the sea and patches of land appeared. God then walked over the earth and a boil came on his hand, and out of it Mahādeo and Pārvati were born.7. Creation of the Gonds and their imprisonment by Mahādeo.From Mahādeo’s urine numerous vegetables began to spring up. Pārvati ate of these and became pregnant and gave birth to eighteen threshing-floors11of Brāhman gods and twelve threshing-floors of Gond gods. All the Gonds were scattered over the jungle. They behaved like Gonds and not like good Hindus, with lamentable results, as follows:12Hither and thither all the Gonds were scattered in the jungle.Places, hills, and valleys were filled with these Gonds.Even trees had their Gonds. How did the Gonds conduct themselves?Whatever came across them they must needs kill and eat it;They made no distinction. If they saw a jackal they killedAnd ate it; no distinction was observed; they respected not antelope, sāmbhar and the like.They made no distinction in eating a sow, a quail, a pigeon,A crow, a kite, an adjutant, a vulture,A lizard, a frog, a beetle, a cow, a calf, a he- and she-buffalo,Rats, bandicoots, squirrels—all these they killed and ate.So began the Gonds to do. They devoured raw and ripe things;They did not bathe for six months together;They did not wash their faces properly, even on dunghills they would fall down and remain.Such were the Gonds born in the beginning. A smell was spread over the jungleWhen the Gonds were thus disorderly behaved; they became disagreeable to Mahādeva,Who said: “The caste of the Gonds is very bad;I will not preserve them; they will ruin my hill Dhawalgiri.”Mahādeo then determined to get rid of the Gonds. With this view he invited them all to a meeting. When they satdown Mahādeo made a squirrel from the rubbings of his body and let it loose in the middle of the Gonds. All the Gonds at once got up and began to chase it, hoping for a meal. They seized sticks and stones and clods of earth, and their unkempt hair flew in the wind. The squirrel dodged about and ran away, and finally, directed by Mahādeo, ran into a large cave with all the Gonds after it. Mahādeo then rolled a large stone to the mouth of the cave and shut up all the Gonds in it. Only four remained outside, and they fled away to Kachikopa Lohāgarh, or the Iron Cave in the Red Hill, and lived there. Meanwhile Pārvati perceived that the smell of the Gonds, which had pleased her, had vanished from Dhawalgiri. She desired it to be restored and commenced a devotion. For six months she fasted and practised austerities. Bhagwān (God) was swinging in a swing. He was disturbed by Pārvati’s devotion. He sent Nārāyan (the sun) to see who was fasting. Nārāyan came and found Pārvati and asked her what she wanted. She said that she missed her Gonds and wanted them back. Nārāyan told Bhagwān, who promised that they should be given back.8. The birth and history of Lingo.The yellow flowers of the tree Pahindi were growing on Dhawalgiri. Bhagwān sent thunder and lightning, and the flower conceived. First fell from it a heap of turmeric or saffron. In the morning the sun came out, the flower burst open, and Lingo was born. Lingo was a perfect child. He had a diamond on his navel and a sandalwood mark on his forehead. He fell from the flower into the heap of turmeric. He played in the turmeric and slept in a swing. He became nine years old. He said there was no one there like him, and he would go where he could find his fellows. He climbed a needle-like hill,13and from afar off he saw Kachikopa Lohāgarh and the four Gonds. He came to them. They saw he was like them, and asked him to be their brother. They ate only animals. Lingo asked them to find for him an animal without a liver, and they searched all through the forest and could not. Then Lingo told them to cut down trees and make a field. They tried to cut down theanjan14trees, but their hands were blisteredand they could not go on. Lingo had been asleep. He woke up and saw they had only cut down one or two trees. He took the axe and cut down many trees, and fenced a field and made a gate to it. Black soil appeared. It began to rain, and rained without ceasing for three days. All the rivers and streams were filled. The field became green with rice, and it grew up. There were sixteen score ofnīlgaior blue-bull. They had two leaders, an old bull and his nephew. The young bull saw the rice of Lingo’s field and wished to eat it. The uncle told him not to eat of the field of Lingo or all thenīlgaiwould be killed. But the young bull did not heed, and took off all thenīlgaito eat the rice. When they got to the field they could find no entrance, so they jumped the fence, which was five cubits high. They ate all the rice from off the field and ran away. The young bull told them as they ran to put their feet on leaves and stones and boughs and grass, and not on the ground, so that they might not be tracked. Lingo woke up and went to see his field, and found all the rice eaten. He knew thenīlgaihad done it, and showed the brothers how to track them by the few marks which they had by accident made on the ground. They did so, and surrounded thenīlgaiand killed them all with their bows and arrows except the old uncle, from whom Lingo’s arrow rebounded harmlessly on account of his innocence, and one young doe. From these two thenīlgairace was preserved. Then Lingo told the Gonds to make fire and roast the deer as follows:He said, I will show you something; see if anywhere in yourWaistbands there is a flint; if so, take it out and make fire.But the matches did not ignite. As they were doing this, a watch of the night passed.They threw down the matches, and said to Lingo, Thou art a Saint;Show us where our fire is, and why it does not come out.Lingo said: Three koss (six miles) hence is Rikad Gawādi the giant.There is fire in his field; where smoke shall appear, go there,Come not back without bringing fire. Thus said Lingo.They said, We have never seen the place, where shall we go?Ye have never seen where this fire is? Lingo said;I will discharge an arrow thither.Go in the direction of the arrow; there you will get fire.He applied the arrow, and having pulled the bow, he discharged one:It crashed on, breaking twigs and making its passage clear.Having cut through the high grass, it made its way and reached the old man’s place (above mentioned).The arrow dropped close to the fire of the old man, who had daughters.The arrow was near the door. As soon as they saw it, the daughters came and took it up,And kept it. They asked their father: When will you give us in marriage?Thus said the seven sisters, the daughters of the old man.I will marry you as I think best for you;Remain as you are. So said the old man, the Rikad Gawādi.Lingo said, Hear, O brethren! I shot an arrow, it made its way.Go there, and you will see fire; bring thence the fire.Each said to the other, I will not go; but (at last) the youngest went.He descried the fire, and went to it; then beheld he an old man looking like the trunk of a tree.He saw from afar the old man’s field, around which a hedge was made.The old man kept only one way to it, and fastened a screen to the entrance, and had a fire in the centre of the field.He placed logs of the Mahua and Anjun and Sāj trees on the fire,Teak faggots he gathered, and enkindled flame.The fire blazed up, and warmed by the heat of it, in deep sleep lay the Rikad Gawādi.Thus the old man like a giant did appear. When the young Gond beheld him, he shivered;His heart leaped; and he was much afraid in his mind, and said:If the old man were to rise he will see me, and I shall be eaten up;I will steal away the fire and carry it off, then my life will be safe.He went near the fire secretly, and took a brand oftenduwood tree.When he was lifting it up a spark flew and fell on the hip of the old man.That spark was as large as a pot; the giant was blistered; he awoke alarmed.And said: I am hungry, and I cannot get food to eat anywhere; I feel a desire for flesh;Like a tender cucumber hast thou come to me. So said the old man to the Gond,Who began to fly. The old man followed him. The Gond then threw away the brand which he had stolen.He ran onward, and was not caught. Then the old man, being tired, turned back.Thence he returned to his field, and came near the fire and sat, and said, What nonsense is this?A tender prey had come within my reach;I said I will cut it up as soon as I can, but it escaped from my hand!Let it go; it will come again, then I will catch it. It has gone now.Then what happened? the Gond returned and came to his brethren.And said to them: Hear, O brethren, I went for fire, as you sent me, to that field; I beheld an old man like a giant.With hands stretched out and feet lifted up. I ran. I thus survived with difficulty.The brethren said to Lingo, We will not go. Lingo said, Sit ye here.O brethren, what sort of a person is this giant? I will go and see him.So saying, Lingo went away and reached a river.He thence arose and went onward. As he looked, he saw in front three gourds.Then he saw a bamboo stick, which he took up.When the river was floodedIt washed away a gourd tree, and its seed fell, and each stem produced bottle-gourds.He inserted a bamboo stick in the hollow of the gourd and made a guitar.He plucked two hairs from his head and strung it.He held a bow and fixed eleven keys to that one stick, and played on it.Lingo was much pleased in his mind.Holding it in his hand, he walked in the direction of the old man’s field.He approached the fire where Rikad Gawādi was sleeping.The giant seemed like a log lying close to the fire; his teeth were hideously visible;His mouth was gaping. Lingo looked at the old man while sleeping.His eyes were shut. Lingo said, This is not a good time to carry off the old man while he is asleep.In front he looked, and turned round and saw a treeOf the pīpal sort standing erect; he beheld its branches with wonder, and looked for a fit place to mount upon.It appeared a very good tree; so he climbed it, and ascended to the top of it to sit.As he sat the cock crew. Lingo said, It is daybreak;Meanwhile the old man must be rising. Therefore Lingo took the guitar in his hand,And held it; he gave a stroke, and it sounded well; from it he drew one hundred tunes.It sounded well, as if he was singing with his voice.Thus (as it were) a song was heard.Trees and hills were silent at its sound. The music loudly entered intoThe old man’s ears; he rose in haste, and sat up quickly; lifted up his eyes,And desired to hear (more). He looked hither and thither, but could not make out whence the sound came.The old man said: Whence has a creature come here to-day to sing like the maina bird?He saw a tree, but nothing appeared to him as he looked underneath it.He did not look up; he looked at the thickets and ravines, butSaw nothing. He came to the road, and near to the fire in the midst of his field and stood.Sometimes sitting, and sometimes standing, jumping, and rolling, he began to dance.The music sounded as the day dawned. His old woman came out in the morning and began to look out.She heard in the direction of the field a melodious music playing.When she arrived near the edge of her field, she heard music in her ears.That old woman called her husband to her.With stretched hands, and lifted feet, and with his neck bent down, he danced.Thus he danced. The old woman looked towards her husband, and said, My old man, my husband,Surely, that music is very melodious. I will dance, said the old woman.Having made the fold of her dress loose, she quickly began to dance near the hedge.9. Death and resurrection of Lingo.Then Lingo disclosed himself to the giant and became friendly with him. The giant apologised for having tried to eat his brother, and called Lingo his nephew. Lingo invited him to come and feast on the flesh of the sixteen scores ofnīlgai. The giant called his seven daughters and offered them all to Lingo in marriage. The daughters produced the arrow which they had treasured up as portending a husband. Lingo said he was not marrying himself, but he would take them home as wives for his brothers. So they all went back to the cave and Lingo assigned two of the daughters each to the three elder brothers and one to the youngest. Then the brothers, to show their gratitude, said that they would go and hunt in the forest and bring meat and fruit and Lingo should lie in a swing and be rocked by their seven wives. But while the wives were swinging Lingo and his eyes were shut, they wished to sport with him as their husbands’ younger brother. So saying they pulled his hands and feet till he woke up. Then he reproached them and called them his mothers and sisters, but they cared nothing and began to embrace him. Then Lingo was filled with wrath and leapt up, and seeing a rice-pestle near he seized it and beat them all with it soundly. Then the women went to their houses and wept and resolved to be revenged on Lingo. So when the brothers came home they told their husbands that while they were swinging Lingo he had tried to seduce them all from their virtue, and they were resolved to go home and stay no longer in Kachikopa with such a man about the place. Then the brothers were exceedingly angry with Lingo, who they thought had deceived them with a pretence of virtue in refusing a wife, and they resolved to kill him. So they enticed him into the forest with a story of a great animal which had put them to flight and asked him to kill it, and there they shot him to death with their arrows and gouged out his eyes and played ball with them.But the god Bhagwān became aware that Lingo was not praying to him as usual, and sent the crow Kageshwar to look for him. The crow came and reported that Lingo was dead, and the god sent him back with nectar to sprinkle it over the body and bring it to life again, which was done.10. He releases the Gonds shut up in the cave and constitutes the tribe.Lingo then thought he had had enough of the four brothers, so he determined to go and find the other sixteen score Gonds who were imprisoned somewhere as the brothers had told him. The manner of his doing this may be told in Captain Forsyth’s version:15And our Lingo redivivusWandered on across the mountains,Wandered sadly through the forestTill the darkening of the evening,Wandered on until the night fell.Screamed the panther in the forest,Growled the bear upon the mountain,And our Lingo then bethought himOf their cannibal propensities.Saw at hand the tree Niruda,Clambered up into its branches.Darkness fell upon the forest,Bears their heads wagged, yelled the jackalKolyal, the King of Jackals.Sounded loud their dreadful voicesIn the forest-shade primeval.Then the Jungle-Cock Gugotee,Mull the Peacock, Kurs the Wild Deer,Terror-stricken, screeched and shuddered,In that forest-shade primeval.But the moon arose at midnight,Poured her flood of silver radiance,Lighted all the forest arches,Through their gloomy branches slanting;Fell on Lingo, pondering deeplyOn his sixteen scores of Koitūrs.Then thought Lingo, I will ask herFor my sixteen scores of Koitūrs.‘Tell me, O Moon!’ said Lingo,‘Tell, O Brightener of the darkness!Where my sixteen scores are hidden.’But the Moon sailed onwards, upwards,And her cold and glancing moonbeamsSaid, ‘Your Gonds, I have not seen them.’And the Stars came forth and twinkledTwinkling eyes above the forest.Lingo said, “O Stars that twinkle!Eyes that look into the darkness,Tell me where my sixteen scores are.”But the cold Stars twinkling ever,Said, ‘Your Gonds, we have not seen them.’Broke the morning, the sky reddened,Faded out the star of morning,Rose the Sun above the forest,Brilliant Sun, the Lord of morning,And our Lingo quick descended,Quickly ran he to the eastward,Fell before the Lord of Morning,Gave the Great Sun salutation—‘Tell, O Sun!’ he said, ‘DiscoverWhere my sixteen scores of Gonds are.’But the Lord of Day reply made—“Hear, O Lingo, I a PilgrimWander onwards, through four watchesServing God, I have seen nothingOf your sixteen scores of Koitūrs.”Then our Lingo wandered onwardsThrough the arches of the forest;Wandered on until before himSaw the grotto of a hermit,Old and sage, the Black Kumāit,He the very wise and knowing,He the greatest of Magicians,Born in days that are forgotten,In the unremembered ages,Salutation gave and asked him—‘Tell, O Hermit! Great Kumāit!Where my sixteen scores of Gonds are.Then replied the Black Magician,Spake disdainfully in this wise—“Lingo, hear, your Gonds are assesEating cats, and mice, and bandicoots,Eating pigs, and cows, and buffaloes;Filthy wretches! wherefore ask me?If you wish it I will tell you.Our great Mahādeva caught them,And has shut them up securelyIn a cave within the bowelsOf his mountain Dewalgiri,With a stone of sixteen cubits,And his bulldog fierce Basmāsur;Serve them right, too, I consider,Filthy, casteless, stinking wretches!”And the Hermit to his grottoBack returned, and deeply ponderedOn the days that are forgotten,On the unremembered ages.But our Lingo wandered onwards,Fasting, praying, doing penance;Laid him on a bed of prickles,Thorns long and sharp and piercing.Fasting lay he devotee-like,Hand not lifting, foot not lifting,Eye not opening, nothing seeing.Twelve months long thus lay and fasted,Till his flesh was dry and withered,And the bones began to show through.Then the great god MahādevaFelt his seat begin to tremble,Felt his golden stool, all shakingFrom the penance of our Lingo.Felt, and wondered who on earthThis devotee was that was fastingTill his golden stool was shaking.Stepped he down from Dewalgiri,Came and saw that bed of pricklesWhere our Lingo lay unmoving.Asked him what his little game was,Why his golden stool was shaking.Answered Lingo, “Mighty Ruler!Nothing less will stop that shakingThan my sixteen scores of KoitūrsRendered up all safe and hurtlessFrom your cave in Dewalgiri.”Then the Great God, much disgusted,Offered all he had to Lingo,Offered kingdom, name, and riches,Offered anything he wished for,‘Only leave your stinking KoitūrsWell shut up in Dewalgiri.’But our Lingo all refusingWould have nothing but his Koitūrs;Gave a turn to run the thorns aLittle deeper in his midriff.Winced the Great God: “Very well, then,Take your Gonds—but first a favour.By the shore of the Black WaterLives a bird they call Black Bindo,Much I wish to see his young ones,Little Bindos from the sea-shore;For an offering bring these Bindos,Then your Gonds take from my mountain.”Then our Lingo rose and wandered,Wandered onwards through the forest,Till he reached the sounding sea-shore,Reached the brink of the Black Water,Found the Bingo birds were absentFrom their nest upon the sea-shore,Absent hunting in the forest,Hunting elephants prodigious,Which they killed and took their brains out,Cracked their skulls, and brought their brains toFeed their callow little Bindos,Wailing sadly by the sea-shore.Seven times a fearful serpent,Bhawarnāg the horrid serpent,Serpent born in ocean’s caverns,Coming forth from the Black Water,Had devoured the little Bindos—Broods of callow little BindosWailing sadly by the sea-shore—In the absence of their parents.Eighth this brood was. Stood our Lingo,Stood he pondering beside them—“If I take these little wretchesIn the absence of their parentsThey will call me thief and robber.No! I’ll wait till they come back here.”Then he laid him down and slumberedBy the little wailing Bindos.As he slept the dreadful serpent,Rising, came from the Black Water,Came to eat the callow Bindos,In the absence of their parents.Came he trunk-like from the waters,Came with fearful jaws distended,Huge and horrid, like a basketFor the winnowing of corn.Rose a hood of vast dimensionsO’er his fierce and dreadful visage.Shrieked the Bindos young and callow,Gave a cry of lamentation;Rose our Lingo; saw the monster;Drew an arrow from his quiver,Shot it swift into his stomach,Sharp and cutting in the stomach,Then another and another;Cleft him into seven pieces,Wriggled all the seven pieces,Wriggled backward to the water.But our Lingo, swift advancing,Seized the headpiece in his arms,Knocked the brains out on a boulder;Laid it down beside the Bindos,Callow, wailing, little Bindos.On it laid him, like a pillow,And began again to slumber.Soon returned the parent BindosFrom their hunting in the forest;Bringing brains and eyes of camelsAnd of elephants prodigious,For their little callow BindosWailing sadly by the sea-shore.But the Bindos young and callowBrains of camels would not swallow;Said—“A pretty set of parentsYou are truly! thus to leave usSadly wailing by the sea-shoreTo be eaten by the serpent—Bhawarnāg the dreadful serpent—Came he up from the Black Water,Came to eat us little Bindos,When this very valiant LingoShot an arrow in his stomach,Cut him into seven pieces—Give to Lingo brains of camels,Eyes of elephants prodigious.”Then the fond paternal BindoSaw the head-piece of the serpentUnder Lingo’s head a pillow,And he said, ‘O valiant Lingo,Ask whatever you may wish for.’Then he asked the little BindosFor an offering to the Great God,And the fond paternal Bindo,Much disgusted first refusing,Soon consented; said he’d go tooWith the fond maternal Bindo—Take them all upon his shoulders,And fly straight to Dewalgiri.Then he spread his mighty pinions,Took his Bindos up on one sideAnd our Lingo on the other.Thus they soared away togetherFrom the shores of the Black Water,And the fond maternal Bindo,O’er them hovering, spread an awningWith her broad and mighty pinionsO’er her offspring and our Lingo.By the forests and the mountainsSix months’ journey was it thitherTo the mountain Dewalgiri.Half the day was scarcely overEre this convoy from the sea-shoreLighted safe on Dewalgiri;Touched the knocker to the gatewayOf the Great God, Mahādeva.And the messenger NārāyanAnswering, went and told his master—“Lo, this very valiant Lingo!Here he is with all the Bindos,The Black Bindos from the sea-shore.”Then the Great God, much disgusted,Driven quite into a corner,Took our Lingo to the cavern,Sent Basmāsur to his kennel,Held his nose, and moved away theMighty stone of sixteen cubits;Called those sixteen scores of Gonds outMade them over to their Lingo.And they said, “O Father Lingo!What a bad time we’ve had of it,Not a thing to fill our belliesIn this horrid gloomy dungeon.”But our Lingo gave them dinner,Gave them rice and flour of millet,And they went off to the river,Had a drink, and cooked and ate it.The next episode is taken from a slightly different local version:And while they were cooking their food at the river a great flood came up, but all the Gonds crossed safely except the four gods, Tekām, Markām, Pusām and Telengām.16These were delayed because they had cooked their food withghīwhich they had looted from the Hindu deities. Then they stood on the bank and cried out,O God of the crossing,O Boundary God!Should you be here,Come take us across.Hearing this, the tortoise and crocodile came up to them, and offered to take them across the river. So Markām and Tekām sat on the back of the crocodile and Pusām and Telengām on the back of the tortoise, and before starting the gods made the crocodile and tortoise swear that they would not eat or drown them in the sea. But when theygot to the middle of the river the tortoise and crocodile began to sink, with the idea that they would drown the Gonds and feed their young with them. Then the Gonds cried out, and the Raigīdhni or vulture heard them. This bird appears to be the same as the Bindo, as it fed its young with elephants. The Raigīdhni flew to the Gonds and took them up on its back and flew ashore with them. And in its anger it picked out the tongue of the crocodile and crushed the neck of the tortoise. And this is why the crocodile is still tongueless and the tortoise has a broken neck, which is sometimes inside and sometimes outside its shell. Both animals also have the marks of string on their backs where the Gond gods tied their necks together when they were ferried across. Thus all the Gonds were happily reunited and Lingo took them into the forest, and they founded a town there, which grew and prospered. And Lingo divided all the Gonds into clans and made the oldest man a Pardhān or priest and founded the rule of exogamy. He also made the Gond gods, subsequently described,17and worshipped them with offerings of a calf and liquor, and danced before them. He also prescribed the ceremonies of marriage which are still observed, and after all this was done Lingo went to the gods.Gonds on a journeyGonds on a journey

(a)Origin and History1. Numbers and distribution.Gond.—The principal tribe of the Dravidian family, and perhaps the most important of the non-Aryan or forest tribes in India. In 1911 the Gonds were three million strong, and they are increasing rapidly. The Kolis of western India count half a million persons more than the Gonds, and if the four related tribes Kol, Munda, Ho, and Santāl were taken together, they would be stronger by about the same amount. But if historical importance be considered as well as numbers, the first place should be awarded to the Gonds. Of the whole caste the Central Provinces contain 2,300,000 persons, Central India, and Bihār and Orissa about 235,000 persons each, and they are returned in small numbers from Assam, Madras and Hyderābād. The 50,000 Gonds in Assam are no doubt immigrant labourers on the tea-gardens.2. Gondwāna.In the Central Provinces the Gonds occupy two main tracts. The first is the wide belt of broken hill and forest country in the centre of the Province, which forms the Satpūra plateau, and is mainly comprised in the Chhindwārā, Betūl, Seoni and Mandla Districts, with portions of several others adjoining them. And the second is the still wider and more inaccessible mass of hill ranges extending south of the Chhattīsgarh plain, and south-west down to the Godāvari, which includes portions of the three Chhattīsgarh Districts, the Bastar and Kanker States, and a great part of Chānda. In Mandla the Gonds form nearly half the population, and in Bastar about two-thirds. There is, however, no District or State of the Province which does not contain some Gonds, and it is both on account of their numbers and the fact that Gond dynasties possessed a great part of its area that the territory of the Central Provinces was formerly known as Gondwāna, or the country of the Gonds.1The existing importance of the Central Provinces dates from recent years, for so late as 1853 it was stated before the Royal Asiatic Society that “at present the Gondwāna highlandsand jungles comprise such a large tract of unexplored country that they form quite an oasis in our maps.” So much of this lately unexplored country as is British territory is now fairly well served by railways, traversed almost throughout by good roads, and provided with village schools at distances of five to ten miles apart, even in the wilder tracts.Gond women grinding cornGond women grinding corn3. Derivation of name and origin of the Gonds.The derivation of the word Gond is uncertain. It is the name given to the tribe by the Hindus or Muhammadans, as their own name for themselves is Koitūr or Koi. General Cunningham considered that the name Gond probably came from Gauda, the classical term for part of the United Provinces and Bengal. A Benāres inscription relating to one of the Chedi kings of Tripura or Tewar (near Jubbulpore) states that he was of the Haihaya tribe, who lived on the borders of the Nerbudda in the district of the Western Gauda in the Province of Mālwa. Three or four other inscriptions also refer to the kings of Gauda in the same locality. Gauda, however, was properly and commonly used as the name of part of Bengal. There is no evidence beyond a few doubtful inscriptions of its having ever been applied to any part of the Central Provinces. The principal passage in which General Cunningham identifies Gauda with the Central Provinces is that in which the king of Gauda came to the assistance of the ruler of Mālwa against the king of Kanauj, elder brother of the great Harsha Vardhana, and slew the latter king inA.D.605. But Mr. V. A. Smith holds that Gauda in this passage refers to Bengal and not to the Central Provinces;2and General Cunningham’s argument on the locality of Gauda is thus rendered extremely dubious, and with it his derivation of the name Gond. In fact it seems highly improbable that the name of a large tribe should have been taken from a term so little used and known in this special application. Though in theImperial Gazetteer3the present writer reproduced General Cunningham’s derivation of the term Gond, it was there characterised as speculative, and in the light of the above remarks now seems highly improbable. Mr. Hislop considered that the name Gond was a form of Kond, as he spelt the name ofthe Khond tribe. He pointed out thatkandgare interchangeable. Thus Gotalghar, the empty house where the village young men sleep, comes from Kotal, a led horse, andghar, a house. Similarly, Koikopāl, the name of a Gond subtribe who tend cattle, is from Koi or Gond, andgopal, a cowherd. The name by which the Gonds call themselves is Koi or Koitūr, while the Khonds call themselves Ku, which word Sir G. Grierson considers to be probably related to the Gond name Koi. Further, he states that the Telugu people call the Khonds, Gond or Kod (Kor). General Cunningham points out that the word Gond in the Central Provinces is frequently or, he says, usually pronounced Gaur, which is practically the same sound asgod, and with the change ofGtoKwould become Kod. Thus the two names Gond and Kod, by which the Telugu people know the Khonds, are practically the same as the names Gond and God of the Gonds in the Central Provinces, though Sir G. Grierson does not mention the change ofgtokin his account of either language. It seems highly probable that the designation Gond was given to the tribe by the Telugus. The Gonds speak a Dravidian language of the same family as Tamil, Canarese and Telugu, and therefore it is likely that they come from the south into the Central Provinces. Their route may have been up the Godāvari river into Chānda; from thence up the Indravati into Bastar and the hills south and east of the Chhattīsgarh plain; and up the Wardha and Wainganga to the Districts of the Satpūra Plateau. In Chānda, where a Gond dynasty reigned for some centuries, they would be in contact with the Telugus, and here they may have got their name of Gond, and carried it with them into the north and east of the Province. As already seen, the Khonds are called Gond by the Telugus, and Kandh by the Uriyas. The Khonds apparently came up more towards the east into Ganjam and Kālāhandi. Here the name of Gond or Kod, given them by the Telugus, may have been modified into Kandh by the Uriyas, and from the two names came the English corruption of Khond. The Khond and Gondi languages are now dissimilar. Still they present certain points of resemblance, and though Sir G. Grierson does not discuss their connection, it appears from his highlyinteresting genealogical tree of the Dravidian languages that Khond or Kui and Gondi are closely connected. These two languages, and no others, occupy an intermediate position between the two great branches sprung from the original Dravidian language, one of which is mainly represented by Telugu and the other by Tamil, Canarese and Malayālam.4Gondi and Khond are shown in the centre as the connecting link between the two great branches. Gondi is more nearly related to Tamil and Khond to Telugu. On the Telugu side, moreover, Khond approaches most closely to Kolāmi, which is a member of the Telugu branch. The Kolāms are a tribe of Wardha and Berār, sometimes considered an offshoot of the Gonds; at any rate, it seems probable that they came from southern India by the same route as the Gonds. Thus the Khond language is intermediate between Gondi and the Kolāmi dialect of Wardha and Berār, though the Kolāms live west of the Gonds and the Khonds east. And a fairly close relationship between the three languages appears to be established. Hence the linguistic evidence appears to afford strong support to the view that the Khonds and Gonds may originally have been one tribe. Further, Mr. Hislop points out that a word for god,pen, is common to the Gonds and Khonds; and the Khonds have a god called Bura Pen, who might be the same as Bura Deo, the great god of the Gonds. Mr. Hislop found Kodo Pen and Pharsi Pen as Gond gods,5while Pen or Pennu is the regular word for god among the Khonds. This evidence seems to establish a probability that the Gonds and Khonds were originally one tribe in the south of India, and that they obtained separate names and languages since they left their original home for the north. The fact that both of them speak languages of the Dravidian family, whose home is in southern India, makes it probable that the two tribes originally belonged there, and migrated north into the Central Provinces and Orissa. This hypothesis is supported by the traditions of the Gonds.4. History of the Gonds.As stated in the article on Kol, it is known that Rājpūt dynasties were ruling in various parts of the Central Provincesfrom about the sixth to the twelfth centuries. They then disappear, and there is a blank till the fourteenth century or later, when Gond kingdoms are found established at Kherla in Betūl, at Deogarh in Chhīndwara, at Garha-Mandla,6including the Jubbulpore country, and at Chānda, fourteen miles from Bhāndak. It seems clear, then, that the Hindu dynasties were subverted by the Gonds after the Muhammadan invasions of northern India had weakened or destroyed the central powers of the Hindus, and prevented any assistance being afforded to the outlying settlements. There is some reason to suppose that the immigration of the Gonds into the Central Provinces took place after the establishment of these Hindu kingdoms, and not before, as is commonly held.7But the point must at present be considered doubtful. There is no reason however to doubt that the Gonds came from the south through Chānda and Bastar. During the fourteenth century and afterwards the Gonds established dynasties at the places already mentioned in the Central Provinces. For two or three centuries the greater part of the Province was governed by Gond kings. Of their method of government in Narsinghpur, Sleeman said: “Under these Gond Rājas the country seems for the most part to have been distributed among feudatory chiefs, bound to attend upon the prince at his capital with a stipulated number of troops, to be employed wherever their services might be required, but to furnish little or no revenue in money. These chiefs were Gonds, and the countries they held for the support of their families and the payment of their troops and retinue little more than wild jungles. The Gonds seem not to have been at home in open country, and as from the sixteenth century a peaceable penetration of Hindu cultivators into the best lands of the Province assumed large dimensions, the Gonds gradually retired to the hill ranges on the borders of the plains.” The headquarters of each dynasty at Mandla, Garha, Kherla, Deogarh and Chānda seem to have been located in a position strengthened for defence either by a hill or a great river, and adjacent to an especially fertile plain tract, whoseproduce served for the maintenance of the ruler’s household and headquarters establishment. Often the site was on other sides bordered by dense forest which would afford a retreat to the occupants in case it fell to an enemy. Strong and spacious forts were built, with masonry tanks and wells inside them to provide water, but whether these buildings were solely the work of the Gonds or constructed with the assistance of Hindu or Muhammadan artificers is uncertain. But the Hindu immigrants found Gond government tolerant and beneficent. Under the easy eventless sway of these princes the rich country over which they ruled prospered, its flocks and herds increased, and the treasury filled. So far back as the fifteenth century we read in Firishta that the king of Kherla, who, if not a Gond himself, was a king of the Gonds, sumptuously entertained the Bāhmani king and made him rich offerings, among which were many diamonds, rubies and pearls. Of the Rāni Dūrgavati of Garha-Mandla, Sleeman said: “Of all the sovereigns of this dynasty she lives most in the page of history and in the grateful recollections of the people. She built the great reservoir which lies close to Jubbulpore, and is called after her Rāni Talao or Queen’s pond; and many other highly useful works were formed by her about Garha.” When the castle of Chaurāgarh was sacked by one of Akbar’s generals in 1564, the booty found, according to Firishta, comprised, independently of jewels, images of gold and silver and other valuables, no fewer than a hundred jars of gold coin and a thousand elephants. Of the Chānda rulers the Settlement officer who has recorded their history wrote that, “They left, if we forget the last few years, a well-governed and contented kingdom, adorned with admirable works of engineering skill and prosperous to a point which no aftertime has reached. They have left their mark behind them in royal tombs, lakes and palaces, but most of all in the seven miles of battlemented stone wall, too wide now for the shrunk city of Chānda within it, which stands on the very border-line between the forest and the plain, having in front the rich valley of the Wardha river, and behind and up to the city walls deep forest extending to the east.” According to local tradition the great wall of Chānda and other buildings,such as the tombs of the Gond kings and the palace at Junona, were built by immigrant Telugu masons of the Kāpu or Munurwār castes. Another excellent rule of the Gond kings was to give to any one who made a tank a grant of land free of revenue of the land lying beneath it. A large number of small irrigation tanks were constructed under this inducement in the Wainganga valley, and still remain. But the Gond states had no strength for defence, as was shown when in the eighteenth century Marātha chiefs, having acquired some knowledge of the art of war and military training by their long fighting against the Mughals, cast covetous eyes on Gondwāna. The loose tribal system, so easy in time of peace, entirely failed to knit together the strength of the people when united action was most required, and the plain country fell before the Marātha armies almost without a struggle. In the strongholds, however, of the hilly ranges which hem in every part of Gondwāna the chiefs for long continued to maintain an unequal resistance, and to revenge their own wrongs by indiscriminate rapine and slaughter. In such cases the Marātha plan was to continue pillaging and harassing the Gonds until they obtained an acknowledgment of their supremacy and the promise, at least, of an annual tribute. Under this treatment the hill Gonds soon lost every vestige of civilisation, and became the cruel, treacherous savages depicted by travellers of this period. They regularly plundered and murdered stragglers and small parties passing through the hills, while from their strongholds, built on the most inaccessible spurs of the Satpūras, they would make a dash into the rich plains of Berār and the Nerbudda valley, and after looting and killing all night, return straight across country to their jungle fortresses, guided by the light of a bonfire on some commanding peak.8With the pacification of the country and the introduction of a strong and equable system of government by the British, these wild marauders soon settled down and became the timid and inoffensive labourers which they now are.Palace of the Gond kings of Garha-Mandla at RāmnagarPalace of the Gond kings of Garha-Mandla at Rāmnagar5. Mythica traditions. Story of Lingo.Mr. Hislop took down from a Pardhān priest a Gond myth of the creation of the world and the origin of theGonds, and their liberation from a cave, in which they had been shut up by Siva, through the divine hero Lingo. General Cunningham said that the exact position of the cave was not known, but it would seem to have been somewhere in the Himalayas, as the name Dhawalgiri, which means a white mountain, is mentioned. The cave, according to ordinary Gond tradition, was situated in Kachikopa Lohāgarh or the Iron Valley in the Red Hill. It seems clear from the story itself that its author was desirous of connecting the Gonds with Hindu mythology, and as Siva’s heaven is in the Himalayas, the name Dhawalgiri, where he located the cave, may refer to them. It is also said that the cave was at the source of the Jumna. But in Mr. Hislop’s version the cave where all the Gonds except four were shut up is not in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, as the Gonds commonly say; but only the four Gonds who escaped wandered to this latter place and dwelt there. And the story does not show that Kachikopa Lohāgarh was on Mount Dhawalgiri or the Himalayas, where it places the cave in which the Gonds were shut up, or anywhere near them. On the contrary, it would be quite consonant with Mr. Hislop’s version if Kachikopa Lohāgarh were in the Central Provinces. It may be surmised that in the original Gond legend their ancestors really were shut up in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, but not by the god Siva. Very possibly the story began with them in the cave in the Iron Valley in the Red Hill. But the Hindu who clearly composed Mr. Hislop’s version wished to introduce the god Siva as a principal actor, and he therefore removed the site of the cave to the Himalayas. This appears probable from the story itself, in which, in its present form, Kachikopa Lohāgarh plays no real part, and only appears because it was in the original tradition and has to be retained.9But the Gonds think that their ancestors were actually shut up in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, and one tradition puts the site at Pachmarhi, whose striking hill scenery and red soil cleft by many deep and inaccessible ravines would render it a likely place for the incident. Another version locates Kachikopa Lohāgarh at Dārekasain Bhandāra, where there is a place known as Kachagarh or the iron fort. But Pachmarhi is perhaps the more probable, as it has some deep caves, which have always been looked upon as sacred places. The point is of some interest, because this legend of the cave being in the Himalayas is adduced as a Gond tradition that their ancestors came from the north, and hence as supporting the theory of the immigration of the Dravidians through the north-west of India. But if the view now suggested is correct, the story of the cave being in the Himalayas is not a genuine Gond tradition at all, but a Hindu interpolation. The only other ground known to the writer for asserting that the Gonds believed their ancestors to have come from the north is that they bury their dead with the feet to the north. There are other obvious Hindu accretions in the legend, as the saintly Brāhmanic character of Lingo and his overcoming the gods through fasting and self-torture, and also the fact that Siva shut up the Gonds in the cave because he was offended by their dirty habits and bad smell. But the legend still contains a considerable quantity of true Gond tradition, and though somewhat tedious, it seems necessary to give an abridgment of Mr. Hislop’s account, with reproduction of selected passages. Captain Forsyth also made a modernised poetical version,10from which one extract is taken. Certain variations from another form of the legend obtained in Bastar are included.6. Legend of the creation.In the beginning there was water everywhere, and God was born in a lotus-leaf and lived alone. One day he rubbed his arm and from the rubbing made a crow, which sat on his shoulder; he also made a crab, which swam out over the waters. God then ordered the crow to fly over the world and bring some earth. The crow flew about and could find no earth, but it saw the crab, which was supporting itself with one leg resting on the bottom of the sea. The crow was very tired and perched on the crab’s back, which was soft so that the crow’s feet made marks on it, which are still visible on the bodies of all crabs at present. The crow asked the crab where any earth could be found. The crab said that if God would make its body hard it would findsome earth. God said he would make part of the crab’s body hard, and he made its back hard, as it still remains. The crab then dived to the bottom of the sea, where it found Kenchna, the earth-worm. It caught hold of Kenchna by the neck with its claws and the mark thus made is still to be seen on the earth-worm’s neck. Then the earth-worm brought up earth out of its mouth and the crab brought this to God, and God scattered it over the sea and patches of land appeared. God then walked over the earth and a boil came on his hand, and out of it Mahādeo and Pārvati were born.7. Creation of the Gonds and their imprisonment by Mahādeo.From Mahādeo’s urine numerous vegetables began to spring up. Pārvati ate of these and became pregnant and gave birth to eighteen threshing-floors11of Brāhman gods and twelve threshing-floors of Gond gods. All the Gonds were scattered over the jungle. They behaved like Gonds and not like good Hindus, with lamentable results, as follows:12Hither and thither all the Gonds were scattered in the jungle.Places, hills, and valleys were filled with these Gonds.Even trees had their Gonds. How did the Gonds conduct themselves?Whatever came across them they must needs kill and eat it;They made no distinction. If they saw a jackal they killedAnd ate it; no distinction was observed; they respected not antelope, sāmbhar and the like.They made no distinction in eating a sow, a quail, a pigeon,A crow, a kite, an adjutant, a vulture,A lizard, a frog, a beetle, a cow, a calf, a he- and she-buffalo,Rats, bandicoots, squirrels—all these they killed and ate.So began the Gonds to do. They devoured raw and ripe things;They did not bathe for six months together;They did not wash their faces properly, even on dunghills they would fall down and remain.Such were the Gonds born in the beginning. A smell was spread over the jungleWhen the Gonds were thus disorderly behaved; they became disagreeable to Mahādeva,Who said: “The caste of the Gonds is very bad;I will not preserve them; they will ruin my hill Dhawalgiri.”Mahādeo then determined to get rid of the Gonds. With this view he invited them all to a meeting. When they satdown Mahādeo made a squirrel from the rubbings of his body and let it loose in the middle of the Gonds. All the Gonds at once got up and began to chase it, hoping for a meal. They seized sticks and stones and clods of earth, and their unkempt hair flew in the wind. The squirrel dodged about and ran away, and finally, directed by Mahādeo, ran into a large cave with all the Gonds after it. Mahādeo then rolled a large stone to the mouth of the cave and shut up all the Gonds in it. Only four remained outside, and they fled away to Kachikopa Lohāgarh, or the Iron Cave in the Red Hill, and lived there. Meanwhile Pārvati perceived that the smell of the Gonds, which had pleased her, had vanished from Dhawalgiri. She desired it to be restored and commenced a devotion. For six months she fasted and practised austerities. Bhagwān (God) was swinging in a swing. He was disturbed by Pārvati’s devotion. He sent Nārāyan (the sun) to see who was fasting. Nārāyan came and found Pārvati and asked her what she wanted. She said that she missed her Gonds and wanted them back. Nārāyan told Bhagwān, who promised that they should be given back.8. The birth and history of Lingo.The yellow flowers of the tree Pahindi were growing on Dhawalgiri. Bhagwān sent thunder and lightning, and the flower conceived. First fell from it a heap of turmeric or saffron. In the morning the sun came out, the flower burst open, and Lingo was born. Lingo was a perfect child. He had a diamond on his navel and a sandalwood mark on his forehead. He fell from the flower into the heap of turmeric. He played in the turmeric and slept in a swing. He became nine years old. He said there was no one there like him, and he would go where he could find his fellows. He climbed a needle-like hill,13and from afar off he saw Kachikopa Lohāgarh and the four Gonds. He came to them. They saw he was like them, and asked him to be their brother. They ate only animals. Lingo asked them to find for him an animal without a liver, and they searched all through the forest and could not. Then Lingo told them to cut down trees and make a field. They tried to cut down theanjan14trees, but their hands were blisteredand they could not go on. Lingo had been asleep. He woke up and saw they had only cut down one or two trees. He took the axe and cut down many trees, and fenced a field and made a gate to it. Black soil appeared. It began to rain, and rained without ceasing for three days. All the rivers and streams were filled. The field became green with rice, and it grew up. There were sixteen score ofnīlgaior blue-bull. They had two leaders, an old bull and his nephew. The young bull saw the rice of Lingo’s field and wished to eat it. The uncle told him not to eat of the field of Lingo or all thenīlgaiwould be killed. But the young bull did not heed, and took off all thenīlgaito eat the rice. When they got to the field they could find no entrance, so they jumped the fence, which was five cubits high. They ate all the rice from off the field and ran away. The young bull told them as they ran to put their feet on leaves and stones and boughs and grass, and not on the ground, so that they might not be tracked. Lingo woke up and went to see his field, and found all the rice eaten. He knew thenīlgaihad done it, and showed the brothers how to track them by the few marks which they had by accident made on the ground. They did so, and surrounded thenīlgaiand killed them all with their bows and arrows except the old uncle, from whom Lingo’s arrow rebounded harmlessly on account of his innocence, and one young doe. From these two thenīlgairace was preserved. Then Lingo told the Gonds to make fire and roast the deer as follows:He said, I will show you something; see if anywhere in yourWaistbands there is a flint; if so, take it out and make fire.But the matches did not ignite. As they were doing this, a watch of the night passed.They threw down the matches, and said to Lingo, Thou art a Saint;Show us where our fire is, and why it does not come out.Lingo said: Three koss (six miles) hence is Rikad Gawādi the giant.There is fire in his field; where smoke shall appear, go there,Come not back without bringing fire. Thus said Lingo.They said, We have never seen the place, where shall we go?Ye have never seen where this fire is? Lingo said;I will discharge an arrow thither.Go in the direction of the arrow; there you will get fire.He applied the arrow, and having pulled the bow, he discharged one:It crashed on, breaking twigs and making its passage clear.Having cut through the high grass, it made its way and reached the old man’s place (above mentioned).The arrow dropped close to the fire of the old man, who had daughters.The arrow was near the door. As soon as they saw it, the daughters came and took it up,And kept it. They asked their father: When will you give us in marriage?Thus said the seven sisters, the daughters of the old man.I will marry you as I think best for you;Remain as you are. So said the old man, the Rikad Gawādi.Lingo said, Hear, O brethren! I shot an arrow, it made its way.Go there, and you will see fire; bring thence the fire.Each said to the other, I will not go; but (at last) the youngest went.He descried the fire, and went to it; then beheld he an old man looking like the trunk of a tree.He saw from afar the old man’s field, around which a hedge was made.The old man kept only one way to it, and fastened a screen to the entrance, and had a fire in the centre of the field.He placed logs of the Mahua and Anjun and Sāj trees on the fire,Teak faggots he gathered, and enkindled flame.The fire blazed up, and warmed by the heat of it, in deep sleep lay the Rikad Gawādi.Thus the old man like a giant did appear. When the young Gond beheld him, he shivered;His heart leaped; and he was much afraid in his mind, and said:If the old man were to rise he will see me, and I shall be eaten up;I will steal away the fire and carry it off, then my life will be safe.He went near the fire secretly, and took a brand oftenduwood tree.When he was lifting it up a spark flew and fell on the hip of the old man.That spark was as large as a pot; the giant was blistered; he awoke alarmed.And said: I am hungry, and I cannot get food to eat anywhere; I feel a desire for flesh;Like a tender cucumber hast thou come to me. So said the old man to the Gond,Who began to fly. The old man followed him. The Gond then threw away the brand which he had stolen.He ran onward, and was not caught. Then the old man, being tired, turned back.Thence he returned to his field, and came near the fire and sat, and said, What nonsense is this?A tender prey had come within my reach;I said I will cut it up as soon as I can, but it escaped from my hand!Let it go; it will come again, then I will catch it. It has gone now.Then what happened? the Gond returned and came to his brethren.And said to them: Hear, O brethren, I went for fire, as you sent me, to that field; I beheld an old man like a giant.With hands stretched out and feet lifted up. I ran. I thus survived with difficulty.The brethren said to Lingo, We will not go. Lingo said, Sit ye here.O brethren, what sort of a person is this giant? I will go and see him.So saying, Lingo went away and reached a river.He thence arose and went onward. As he looked, he saw in front three gourds.Then he saw a bamboo stick, which he took up.When the river was floodedIt washed away a gourd tree, and its seed fell, and each stem produced bottle-gourds.He inserted a bamboo stick in the hollow of the gourd and made a guitar.He plucked two hairs from his head and strung it.He held a bow and fixed eleven keys to that one stick, and played on it.Lingo was much pleased in his mind.Holding it in his hand, he walked in the direction of the old man’s field.He approached the fire where Rikad Gawādi was sleeping.The giant seemed like a log lying close to the fire; his teeth were hideously visible;His mouth was gaping. Lingo looked at the old man while sleeping.His eyes were shut. Lingo said, This is not a good time to carry off the old man while he is asleep.In front he looked, and turned round and saw a treeOf the pīpal sort standing erect; he beheld its branches with wonder, and looked for a fit place to mount upon.It appeared a very good tree; so he climbed it, and ascended to the top of it to sit.As he sat the cock crew. Lingo said, It is daybreak;Meanwhile the old man must be rising. Therefore Lingo took the guitar in his hand,And held it; he gave a stroke, and it sounded well; from it he drew one hundred tunes.It sounded well, as if he was singing with his voice.Thus (as it were) a song was heard.Trees and hills were silent at its sound. The music loudly entered intoThe old man’s ears; he rose in haste, and sat up quickly; lifted up his eyes,And desired to hear (more). He looked hither and thither, but could not make out whence the sound came.The old man said: Whence has a creature come here to-day to sing like the maina bird?He saw a tree, but nothing appeared to him as he looked underneath it.He did not look up; he looked at the thickets and ravines, butSaw nothing. He came to the road, and near to the fire in the midst of his field and stood.Sometimes sitting, and sometimes standing, jumping, and rolling, he began to dance.The music sounded as the day dawned. His old woman came out in the morning and began to look out.She heard in the direction of the field a melodious music playing.When she arrived near the edge of her field, she heard music in her ears.That old woman called her husband to her.With stretched hands, and lifted feet, and with his neck bent down, he danced.Thus he danced. The old woman looked towards her husband, and said, My old man, my husband,Surely, that music is very melodious. I will dance, said the old woman.Having made the fold of her dress loose, she quickly began to dance near the hedge.9. Death and resurrection of Lingo.Then Lingo disclosed himself to the giant and became friendly with him. The giant apologised for having tried to eat his brother, and called Lingo his nephew. Lingo invited him to come and feast on the flesh of the sixteen scores ofnīlgai. The giant called his seven daughters and offered them all to Lingo in marriage. The daughters produced the arrow which they had treasured up as portending a husband. Lingo said he was not marrying himself, but he would take them home as wives for his brothers. So they all went back to the cave and Lingo assigned two of the daughters each to the three elder brothers and one to the youngest. Then the brothers, to show their gratitude, said that they would go and hunt in the forest and bring meat and fruit and Lingo should lie in a swing and be rocked by their seven wives. But while the wives were swinging Lingo and his eyes were shut, they wished to sport with him as their husbands’ younger brother. So saying they pulled his hands and feet till he woke up. Then he reproached them and called them his mothers and sisters, but they cared nothing and began to embrace him. Then Lingo was filled with wrath and leapt up, and seeing a rice-pestle near he seized it and beat them all with it soundly. Then the women went to their houses and wept and resolved to be revenged on Lingo. So when the brothers came home they told their husbands that while they were swinging Lingo he had tried to seduce them all from their virtue, and they were resolved to go home and stay no longer in Kachikopa with such a man about the place. Then the brothers were exceedingly angry with Lingo, who they thought had deceived them with a pretence of virtue in refusing a wife, and they resolved to kill him. So they enticed him into the forest with a story of a great animal which had put them to flight and asked him to kill it, and there they shot him to death with their arrows and gouged out his eyes and played ball with them.But the god Bhagwān became aware that Lingo was not praying to him as usual, and sent the crow Kageshwar to look for him. The crow came and reported that Lingo was dead, and the god sent him back with nectar to sprinkle it over the body and bring it to life again, which was done.10. He releases the Gonds shut up in the cave and constitutes the tribe.Lingo then thought he had had enough of the four brothers, so he determined to go and find the other sixteen score Gonds who were imprisoned somewhere as the brothers had told him. The manner of his doing this may be told in Captain Forsyth’s version:15And our Lingo redivivusWandered on across the mountains,Wandered sadly through the forestTill the darkening of the evening,Wandered on until the night fell.Screamed the panther in the forest,Growled the bear upon the mountain,And our Lingo then bethought himOf their cannibal propensities.Saw at hand the tree Niruda,Clambered up into its branches.Darkness fell upon the forest,Bears their heads wagged, yelled the jackalKolyal, the King of Jackals.Sounded loud their dreadful voicesIn the forest-shade primeval.Then the Jungle-Cock Gugotee,Mull the Peacock, Kurs the Wild Deer,Terror-stricken, screeched and shuddered,In that forest-shade primeval.But the moon arose at midnight,Poured her flood of silver radiance,Lighted all the forest arches,Through their gloomy branches slanting;Fell on Lingo, pondering deeplyOn his sixteen scores of Koitūrs.Then thought Lingo, I will ask herFor my sixteen scores of Koitūrs.‘Tell me, O Moon!’ said Lingo,‘Tell, O Brightener of the darkness!Where my sixteen scores are hidden.’But the Moon sailed onwards, upwards,And her cold and glancing moonbeamsSaid, ‘Your Gonds, I have not seen them.’And the Stars came forth and twinkledTwinkling eyes above the forest.Lingo said, “O Stars that twinkle!Eyes that look into the darkness,Tell me where my sixteen scores are.”But the cold Stars twinkling ever,Said, ‘Your Gonds, we have not seen them.’Broke the morning, the sky reddened,Faded out the star of morning,Rose the Sun above the forest,Brilliant Sun, the Lord of morning,And our Lingo quick descended,Quickly ran he to the eastward,Fell before the Lord of Morning,Gave the Great Sun salutation—‘Tell, O Sun!’ he said, ‘DiscoverWhere my sixteen scores of Gonds are.’But the Lord of Day reply made—“Hear, O Lingo, I a PilgrimWander onwards, through four watchesServing God, I have seen nothingOf your sixteen scores of Koitūrs.”Then our Lingo wandered onwardsThrough the arches of the forest;Wandered on until before himSaw the grotto of a hermit,Old and sage, the Black Kumāit,He the very wise and knowing,He the greatest of Magicians,Born in days that are forgotten,In the unremembered ages,Salutation gave and asked him—‘Tell, O Hermit! Great Kumāit!Where my sixteen scores of Gonds are.Then replied the Black Magician,Spake disdainfully in this wise—“Lingo, hear, your Gonds are assesEating cats, and mice, and bandicoots,Eating pigs, and cows, and buffaloes;Filthy wretches! wherefore ask me?If you wish it I will tell you.Our great Mahādeva caught them,And has shut them up securelyIn a cave within the bowelsOf his mountain Dewalgiri,With a stone of sixteen cubits,And his bulldog fierce Basmāsur;Serve them right, too, I consider,Filthy, casteless, stinking wretches!”And the Hermit to his grottoBack returned, and deeply ponderedOn the days that are forgotten,On the unremembered ages.But our Lingo wandered onwards,Fasting, praying, doing penance;Laid him on a bed of prickles,Thorns long and sharp and piercing.Fasting lay he devotee-like,Hand not lifting, foot not lifting,Eye not opening, nothing seeing.Twelve months long thus lay and fasted,Till his flesh was dry and withered,And the bones began to show through.Then the great god MahādevaFelt his seat begin to tremble,Felt his golden stool, all shakingFrom the penance of our Lingo.Felt, and wondered who on earthThis devotee was that was fastingTill his golden stool was shaking.Stepped he down from Dewalgiri,Came and saw that bed of pricklesWhere our Lingo lay unmoving.Asked him what his little game was,Why his golden stool was shaking.Answered Lingo, “Mighty Ruler!Nothing less will stop that shakingThan my sixteen scores of KoitūrsRendered up all safe and hurtlessFrom your cave in Dewalgiri.”Then the Great God, much disgusted,Offered all he had to Lingo,Offered kingdom, name, and riches,Offered anything he wished for,‘Only leave your stinking KoitūrsWell shut up in Dewalgiri.’But our Lingo all refusingWould have nothing but his Koitūrs;Gave a turn to run the thorns aLittle deeper in his midriff.Winced the Great God: “Very well, then,Take your Gonds—but first a favour.By the shore of the Black WaterLives a bird they call Black Bindo,Much I wish to see his young ones,Little Bindos from the sea-shore;For an offering bring these Bindos,Then your Gonds take from my mountain.”Then our Lingo rose and wandered,Wandered onwards through the forest,Till he reached the sounding sea-shore,Reached the brink of the Black Water,Found the Bingo birds were absentFrom their nest upon the sea-shore,Absent hunting in the forest,Hunting elephants prodigious,Which they killed and took their brains out,Cracked their skulls, and brought their brains toFeed their callow little Bindos,Wailing sadly by the sea-shore.Seven times a fearful serpent,Bhawarnāg the horrid serpent,Serpent born in ocean’s caverns,Coming forth from the Black Water,Had devoured the little Bindos—Broods of callow little BindosWailing sadly by the sea-shore—In the absence of their parents.Eighth this brood was. Stood our Lingo,Stood he pondering beside them—“If I take these little wretchesIn the absence of their parentsThey will call me thief and robber.No! I’ll wait till they come back here.”Then he laid him down and slumberedBy the little wailing Bindos.As he slept the dreadful serpent,Rising, came from the Black Water,Came to eat the callow Bindos,In the absence of their parents.Came he trunk-like from the waters,Came with fearful jaws distended,Huge and horrid, like a basketFor the winnowing of corn.Rose a hood of vast dimensionsO’er his fierce and dreadful visage.Shrieked the Bindos young and callow,Gave a cry of lamentation;Rose our Lingo; saw the monster;Drew an arrow from his quiver,Shot it swift into his stomach,Sharp and cutting in the stomach,Then another and another;Cleft him into seven pieces,Wriggled all the seven pieces,Wriggled backward to the water.But our Lingo, swift advancing,Seized the headpiece in his arms,Knocked the brains out on a boulder;Laid it down beside the Bindos,Callow, wailing, little Bindos.On it laid him, like a pillow,And began again to slumber.Soon returned the parent BindosFrom their hunting in the forest;Bringing brains and eyes of camelsAnd of elephants prodigious,For their little callow BindosWailing sadly by the sea-shore.But the Bindos young and callowBrains of camels would not swallow;Said—“A pretty set of parentsYou are truly! thus to leave usSadly wailing by the sea-shoreTo be eaten by the serpent—Bhawarnāg the dreadful serpent—Came he up from the Black Water,Came to eat us little Bindos,When this very valiant LingoShot an arrow in his stomach,Cut him into seven pieces—Give to Lingo brains of camels,Eyes of elephants prodigious.”Then the fond paternal BindoSaw the head-piece of the serpentUnder Lingo’s head a pillow,And he said, ‘O valiant Lingo,Ask whatever you may wish for.’Then he asked the little BindosFor an offering to the Great God,And the fond paternal Bindo,Much disgusted first refusing,Soon consented; said he’d go tooWith the fond maternal Bindo—Take them all upon his shoulders,And fly straight to Dewalgiri.Then he spread his mighty pinions,Took his Bindos up on one sideAnd our Lingo on the other.Thus they soared away togetherFrom the shores of the Black Water,And the fond maternal Bindo,O’er them hovering, spread an awningWith her broad and mighty pinionsO’er her offspring and our Lingo.By the forests and the mountainsSix months’ journey was it thitherTo the mountain Dewalgiri.Half the day was scarcely overEre this convoy from the sea-shoreLighted safe on Dewalgiri;Touched the knocker to the gatewayOf the Great God, Mahādeva.And the messenger NārāyanAnswering, went and told his master—“Lo, this very valiant Lingo!Here he is with all the Bindos,The Black Bindos from the sea-shore.”Then the Great God, much disgusted,Driven quite into a corner,Took our Lingo to the cavern,Sent Basmāsur to his kennel,Held his nose, and moved away theMighty stone of sixteen cubits;Called those sixteen scores of Gonds outMade them over to their Lingo.And they said, “O Father Lingo!What a bad time we’ve had of it,Not a thing to fill our belliesIn this horrid gloomy dungeon.”But our Lingo gave them dinner,Gave them rice and flour of millet,And they went off to the river,Had a drink, and cooked and ate it.The next episode is taken from a slightly different local version:And while they were cooking their food at the river a great flood came up, but all the Gonds crossed safely except the four gods, Tekām, Markām, Pusām and Telengām.16These were delayed because they had cooked their food withghīwhich they had looted from the Hindu deities. Then they stood on the bank and cried out,O God of the crossing,O Boundary God!Should you be here,Come take us across.Hearing this, the tortoise and crocodile came up to them, and offered to take them across the river. So Markām and Tekām sat on the back of the crocodile and Pusām and Telengām on the back of the tortoise, and before starting the gods made the crocodile and tortoise swear that they would not eat or drown them in the sea. But when theygot to the middle of the river the tortoise and crocodile began to sink, with the idea that they would drown the Gonds and feed their young with them. Then the Gonds cried out, and the Raigīdhni or vulture heard them. This bird appears to be the same as the Bindo, as it fed its young with elephants. The Raigīdhni flew to the Gonds and took them up on its back and flew ashore with them. And in its anger it picked out the tongue of the crocodile and crushed the neck of the tortoise. And this is why the crocodile is still tongueless and the tortoise has a broken neck, which is sometimes inside and sometimes outside its shell. Both animals also have the marks of string on their backs where the Gond gods tied their necks together when they were ferried across. Thus all the Gonds were happily reunited and Lingo took them into the forest, and they founded a town there, which grew and prospered. And Lingo divided all the Gonds into clans and made the oldest man a Pardhān or priest and founded the rule of exogamy. He also made the Gond gods, subsequently described,17and worshipped them with offerings of a calf and liquor, and danced before them. He also prescribed the ceremonies of marriage which are still observed, and after all this was done Lingo went to the gods.Gonds on a journeyGonds on a journey

(a)Origin and History1. Numbers and distribution.Gond.—The principal tribe of the Dravidian family, and perhaps the most important of the non-Aryan or forest tribes in India. In 1911 the Gonds were three million strong, and they are increasing rapidly. The Kolis of western India count half a million persons more than the Gonds, and if the four related tribes Kol, Munda, Ho, and Santāl were taken together, they would be stronger by about the same amount. But if historical importance be considered as well as numbers, the first place should be awarded to the Gonds. Of the whole caste the Central Provinces contain 2,300,000 persons, Central India, and Bihār and Orissa about 235,000 persons each, and they are returned in small numbers from Assam, Madras and Hyderābād. The 50,000 Gonds in Assam are no doubt immigrant labourers on the tea-gardens.2. Gondwāna.In the Central Provinces the Gonds occupy two main tracts. The first is the wide belt of broken hill and forest country in the centre of the Province, which forms the Satpūra plateau, and is mainly comprised in the Chhindwārā, Betūl, Seoni and Mandla Districts, with portions of several others adjoining them. And the second is the still wider and more inaccessible mass of hill ranges extending south of the Chhattīsgarh plain, and south-west down to the Godāvari, which includes portions of the three Chhattīsgarh Districts, the Bastar and Kanker States, and a great part of Chānda. In Mandla the Gonds form nearly half the population, and in Bastar about two-thirds. There is, however, no District or State of the Province which does not contain some Gonds, and it is both on account of their numbers and the fact that Gond dynasties possessed a great part of its area that the territory of the Central Provinces was formerly known as Gondwāna, or the country of the Gonds.1The existing importance of the Central Provinces dates from recent years, for so late as 1853 it was stated before the Royal Asiatic Society that “at present the Gondwāna highlandsand jungles comprise such a large tract of unexplored country that they form quite an oasis in our maps.” So much of this lately unexplored country as is British territory is now fairly well served by railways, traversed almost throughout by good roads, and provided with village schools at distances of five to ten miles apart, even in the wilder tracts.Gond women grinding cornGond women grinding corn3. Derivation of name and origin of the Gonds.The derivation of the word Gond is uncertain. It is the name given to the tribe by the Hindus or Muhammadans, as their own name for themselves is Koitūr or Koi. General Cunningham considered that the name Gond probably came from Gauda, the classical term for part of the United Provinces and Bengal. A Benāres inscription relating to one of the Chedi kings of Tripura or Tewar (near Jubbulpore) states that he was of the Haihaya tribe, who lived on the borders of the Nerbudda in the district of the Western Gauda in the Province of Mālwa. Three or four other inscriptions also refer to the kings of Gauda in the same locality. Gauda, however, was properly and commonly used as the name of part of Bengal. There is no evidence beyond a few doubtful inscriptions of its having ever been applied to any part of the Central Provinces. The principal passage in which General Cunningham identifies Gauda with the Central Provinces is that in which the king of Gauda came to the assistance of the ruler of Mālwa against the king of Kanauj, elder brother of the great Harsha Vardhana, and slew the latter king inA.D.605. But Mr. V. A. Smith holds that Gauda in this passage refers to Bengal and not to the Central Provinces;2and General Cunningham’s argument on the locality of Gauda is thus rendered extremely dubious, and with it his derivation of the name Gond. In fact it seems highly improbable that the name of a large tribe should have been taken from a term so little used and known in this special application. Though in theImperial Gazetteer3the present writer reproduced General Cunningham’s derivation of the term Gond, it was there characterised as speculative, and in the light of the above remarks now seems highly improbable. Mr. Hislop considered that the name Gond was a form of Kond, as he spelt the name ofthe Khond tribe. He pointed out thatkandgare interchangeable. Thus Gotalghar, the empty house where the village young men sleep, comes from Kotal, a led horse, andghar, a house. Similarly, Koikopāl, the name of a Gond subtribe who tend cattle, is from Koi or Gond, andgopal, a cowherd. The name by which the Gonds call themselves is Koi or Koitūr, while the Khonds call themselves Ku, which word Sir G. Grierson considers to be probably related to the Gond name Koi. Further, he states that the Telugu people call the Khonds, Gond or Kod (Kor). General Cunningham points out that the word Gond in the Central Provinces is frequently or, he says, usually pronounced Gaur, which is practically the same sound asgod, and with the change ofGtoKwould become Kod. Thus the two names Gond and Kod, by which the Telugu people know the Khonds, are practically the same as the names Gond and God of the Gonds in the Central Provinces, though Sir G. Grierson does not mention the change ofgtokin his account of either language. It seems highly probable that the designation Gond was given to the tribe by the Telugus. The Gonds speak a Dravidian language of the same family as Tamil, Canarese and Telugu, and therefore it is likely that they come from the south into the Central Provinces. Their route may have been up the Godāvari river into Chānda; from thence up the Indravati into Bastar and the hills south and east of the Chhattīsgarh plain; and up the Wardha and Wainganga to the Districts of the Satpūra Plateau. In Chānda, where a Gond dynasty reigned for some centuries, they would be in contact with the Telugus, and here they may have got their name of Gond, and carried it with them into the north and east of the Province. As already seen, the Khonds are called Gond by the Telugus, and Kandh by the Uriyas. The Khonds apparently came up more towards the east into Ganjam and Kālāhandi. Here the name of Gond or Kod, given them by the Telugus, may have been modified into Kandh by the Uriyas, and from the two names came the English corruption of Khond. The Khond and Gondi languages are now dissimilar. Still they present certain points of resemblance, and though Sir G. Grierson does not discuss their connection, it appears from his highlyinteresting genealogical tree of the Dravidian languages that Khond or Kui and Gondi are closely connected. These two languages, and no others, occupy an intermediate position between the two great branches sprung from the original Dravidian language, one of which is mainly represented by Telugu and the other by Tamil, Canarese and Malayālam.4Gondi and Khond are shown in the centre as the connecting link between the two great branches. Gondi is more nearly related to Tamil and Khond to Telugu. On the Telugu side, moreover, Khond approaches most closely to Kolāmi, which is a member of the Telugu branch. The Kolāms are a tribe of Wardha and Berār, sometimes considered an offshoot of the Gonds; at any rate, it seems probable that they came from southern India by the same route as the Gonds. Thus the Khond language is intermediate between Gondi and the Kolāmi dialect of Wardha and Berār, though the Kolāms live west of the Gonds and the Khonds east. And a fairly close relationship between the three languages appears to be established. Hence the linguistic evidence appears to afford strong support to the view that the Khonds and Gonds may originally have been one tribe. Further, Mr. Hislop points out that a word for god,pen, is common to the Gonds and Khonds; and the Khonds have a god called Bura Pen, who might be the same as Bura Deo, the great god of the Gonds. Mr. Hislop found Kodo Pen and Pharsi Pen as Gond gods,5while Pen or Pennu is the regular word for god among the Khonds. This evidence seems to establish a probability that the Gonds and Khonds were originally one tribe in the south of India, and that they obtained separate names and languages since they left their original home for the north. The fact that both of them speak languages of the Dravidian family, whose home is in southern India, makes it probable that the two tribes originally belonged there, and migrated north into the Central Provinces and Orissa. This hypothesis is supported by the traditions of the Gonds.4. History of the Gonds.As stated in the article on Kol, it is known that Rājpūt dynasties were ruling in various parts of the Central Provincesfrom about the sixth to the twelfth centuries. They then disappear, and there is a blank till the fourteenth century or later, when Gond kingdoms are found established at Kherla in Betūl, at Deogarh in Chhīndwara, at Garha-Mandla,6including the Jubbulpore country, and at Chānda, fourteen miles from Bhāndak. It seems clear, then, that the Hindu dynasties were subverted by the Gonds after the Muhammadan invasions of northern India had weakened or destroyed the central powers of the Hindus, and prevented any assistance being afforded to the outlying settlements. There is some reason to suppose that the immigration of the Gonds into the Central Provinces took place after the establishment of these Hindu kingdoms, and not before, as is commonly held.7But the point must at present be considered doubtful. There is no reason however to doubt that the Gonds came from the south through Chānda and Bastar. During the fourteenth century and afterwards the Gonds established dynasties at the places already mentioned in the Central Provinces. For two or three centuries the greater part of the Province was governed by Gond kings. Of their method of government in Narsinghpur, Sleeman said: “Under these Gond Rājas the country seems for the most part to have been distributed among feudatory chiefs, bound to attend upon the prince at his capital with a stipulated number of troops, to be employed wherever their services might be required, but to furnish little or no revenue in money. These chiefs were Gonds, and the countries they held for the support of their families and the payment of their troops and retinue little more than wild jungles. The Gonds seem not to have been at home in open country, and as from the sixteenth century a peaceable penetration of Hindu cultivators into the best lands of the Province assumed large dimensions, the Gonds gradually retired to the hill ranges on the borders of the plains.” The headquarters of each dynasty at Mandla, Garha, Kherla, Deogarh and Chānda seem to have been located in a position strengthened for defence either by a hill or a great river, and adjacent to an especially fertile plain tract, whoseproduce served for the maintenance of the ruler’s household and headquarters establishment. Often the site was on other sides bordered by dense forest which would afford a retreat to the occupants in case it fell to an enemy. Strong and spacious forts were built, with masonry tanks and wells inside them to provide water, but whether these buildings were solely the work of the Gonds or constructed with the assistance of Hindu or Muhammadan artificers is uncertain. But the Hindu immigrants found Gond government tolerant and beneficent. Under the easy eventless sway of these princes the rich country over which they ruled prospered, its flocks and herds increased, and the treasury filled. So far back as the fifteenth century we read in Firishta that the king of Kherla, who, if not a Gond himself, was a king of the Gonds, sumptuously entertained the Bāhmani king and made him rich offerings, among which were many diamonds, rubies and pearls. Of the Rāni Dūrgavati of Garha-Mandla, Sleeman said: “Of all the sovereigns of this dynasty she lives most in the page of history and in the grateful recollections of the people. She built the great reservoir which lies close to Jubbulpore, and is called after her Rāni Talao or Queen’s pond; and many other highly useful works were formed by her about Garha.” When the castle of Chaurāgarh was sacked by one of Akbar’s generals in 1564, the booty found, according to Firishta, comprised, independently of jewels, images of gold and silver and other valuables, no fewer than a hundred jars of gold coin and a thousand elephants. Of the Chānda rulers the Settlement officer who has recorded their history wrote that, “They left, if we forget the last few years, a well-governed and contented kingdom, adorned with admirable works of engineering skill and prosperous to a point which no aftertime has reached. They have left their mark behind them in royal tombs, lakes and palaces, but most of all in the seven miles of battlemented stone wall, too wide now for the shrunk city of Chānda within it, which stands on the very border-line between the forest and the plain, having in front the rich valley of the Wardha river, and behind and up to the city walls deep forest extending to the east.” According to local tradition the great wall of Chānda and other buildings,such as the tombs of the Gond kings and the palace at Junona, were built by immigrant Telugu masons of the Kāpu or Munurwār castes. Another excellent rule of the Gond kings was to give to any one who made a tank a grant of land free of revenue of the land lying beneath it. A large number of small irrigation tanks were constructed under this inducement in the Wainganga valley, and still remain. But the Gond states had no strength for defence, as was shown when in the eighteenth century Marātha chiefs, having acquired some knowledge of the art of war and military training by their long fighting against the Mughals, cast covetous eyes on Gondwāna. The loose tribal system, so easy in time of peace, entirely failed to knit together the strength of the people when united action was most required, and the plain country fell before the Marātha armies almost without a struggle. In the strongholds, however, of the hilly ranges which hem in every part of Gondwāna the chiefs for long continued to maintain an unequal resistance, and to revenge their own wrongs by indiscriminate rapine and slaughter. In such cases the Marātha plan was to continue pillaging and harassing the Gonds until they obtained an acknowledgment of their supremacy and the promise, at least, of an annual tribute. Under this treatment the hill Gonds soon lost every vestige of civilisation, and became the cruel, treacherous savages depicted by travellers of this period. They regularly plundered and murdered stragglers and small parties passing through the hills, while from their strongholds, built on the most inaccessible spurs of the Satpūras, they would make a dash into the rich plains of Berār and the Nerbudda valley, and after looting and killing all night, return straight across country to their jungle fortresses, guided by the light of a bonfire on some commanding peak.8With the pacification of the country and the introduction of a strong and equable system of government by the British, these wild marauders soon settled down and became the timid and inoffensive labourers which they now are.Palace of the Gond kings of Garha-Mandla at RāmnagarPalace of the Gond kings of Garha-Mandla at Rāmnagar5. Mythica traditions. Story of Lingo.Mr. Hislop took down from a Pardhān priest a Gond myth of the creation of the world and the origin of theGonds, and their liberation from a cave, in which they had been shut up by Siva, through the divine hero Lingo. General Cunningham said that the exact position of the cave was not known, but it would seem to have been somewhere in the Himalayas, as the name Dhawalgiri, which means a white mountain, is mentioned. The cave, according to ordinary Gond tradition, was situated in Kachikopa Lohāgarh or the Iron Valley in the Red Hill. It seems clear from the story itself that its author was desirous of connecting the Gonds with Hindu mythology, and as Siva’s heaven is in the Himalayas, the name Dhawalgiri, where he located the cave, may refer to them. It is also said that the cave was at the source of the Jumna. But in Mr. Hislop’s version the cave where all the Gonds except four were shut up is not in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, as the Gonds commonly say; but only the four Gonds who escaped wandered to this latter place and dwelt there. And the story does not show that Kachikopa Lohāgarh was on Mount Dhawalgiri or the Himalayas, where it places the cave in which the Gonds were shut up, or anywhere near them. On the contrary, it would be quite consonant with Mr. Hislop’s version if Kachikopa Lohāgarh were in the Central Provinces. It may be surmised that in the original Gond legend their ancestors really were shut up in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, but not by the god Siva. Very possibly the story began with them in the cave in the Iron Valley in the Red Hill. But the Hindu who clearly composed Mr. Hislop’s version wished to introduce the god Siva as a principal actor, and he therefore removed the site of the cave to the Himalayas. This appears probable from the story itself, in which, in its present form, Kachikopa Lohāgarh plays no real part, and only appears because it was in the original tradition and has to be retained.9But the Gonds think that their ancestors were actually shut up in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, and one tradition puts the site at Pachmarhi, whose striking hill scenery and red soil cleft by many deep and inaccessible ravines would render it a likely place for the incident. Another version locates Kachikopa Lohāgarh at Dārekasain Bhandāra, where there is a place known as Kachagarh or the iron fort. But Pachmarhi is perhaps the more probable, as it has some deep caves, which have always been looked upon as sacred places. The point is of some interest, because this legend of the cave being in the Himalayas is adduced as a Gond tradition that their ancestors came from the north, and hence as supporting the theory of the immigration of the Dravidians through the north-west of India. But if the view now suggested is correct, the story of the cave being in the Himalayas is not a genuine Gond tradition at all, but a Hindu interpolation. The only other ground known to the writer for asserting that the Gonds believed their ancestors to have come from the north is that they bury their dead with the feet to the north. There are other obvious Hindu accretions in the legend, as the saintly Brāhmanic character of Lingo and his overcoming the gods through fasting and self-torture, and also the fact that Siva shut up the Gonds in the cave because he was offended by their dirty habits and bad smell. But the legend still contains a considerable quantity of true Gond tradition, and though somewhat tedious, it seems necessary to give an abridgment of Mr. Hislop’s account, with reproduction of selected passages. Captain Forsyth also made a modernised poetical version,10from which one extract is taken. Certain variations from another form of the legend obtained in Bastar are included.6. Legend of the creation.In the beginning there was water everywhere, and God was born in a lotus-leaf and lived alone. One day he rubbed his arm and from the rubbing made a crow, which sat on his shoulder; he also made a crab, which swam out over the waters. God then ordered the crow to fly over the world and bring some earth. The crow flew about and could find no earth, but it saw the crab, which was supporting itself with one leg resting on the bottom of the sea. The crow was very tired and perched on the crab’s back, which was soft so that the crow’s feet made marks on it, which are still visible on the bodies of all crabs at present. The crow asked the crab where any earth could be found. The crab said that if God would make its body hard it would findsome earth. God said he would make part of the crab’s body hard, and he made its back hard, as it still remains. The crab then dived to the bottom of the sea, where it found Kenchna, the earth-worm. It caught hold of Kenchna by the neck with its claws and the mark thus made is still to be seen on the earth-worm’s neck. Then the earth-worm brought up earth out of its mouth and the crab brought this to God, and God scattered it over the sea and patches of land appeared. God then walked over the earth and a boil came on his hand, and out of it Mahādeo and Pārvati were born.7. Creation of the Gonds and their imprisonment by Mahādeo.From Mahādeo’s urine numerous vegetables began to spring up. Pārvati ate of these and became pregnant and gave birth to eighteen threshing-floors11of Brāhman gods and twelve threshing-floors of Gond gods. All the Gonds were scattered over the jungle. They behaved like Gonds and not like good Hindus, with lamentable results, as follows:12Hither and thither all the Gonds were scattered in the jungle.Places, hills, and valleys were filled with these Gonds.Even trees had their Gonds. How did the Gonds conduct themselves?Whatever came across them they must needs kill and eat it;They made no distinction. If they saw a jackal they killedAnd ate it; no distinction was observed; they respected not antelope, sāmbhar and the like.They made no distinction in eating a sow, a quail, a pigeon,A crow, a kite, an adjutant, a vulture,A lizard, a frog, a beetle, a cow, a calf, a he- and she-buffalo,Rats, bandicoots, squirrels—all these they killed and ate.So began the Gonds to do. They devoured raw and ripe things;They did not bathe for six months together;They did not wash their faces properly, even on dunghills they would fall down and remain.Such were the Gonds born in the beginning. A smell was spread over the jungleWhen the Gonds were thus disorderly behaved; they became disagreeable to Mahādeva,Who said: “The caste of the Gonds is very bad;I will not preserve them; they will ruin my hill Dhawalgiri.”Mahādeo then determined to get rid of the Gonds. With this view he invited them all to a meeting. When they satdown Mahādeo made a squirrel from the rubbings of his body and let it loose in the middle of the Gonds. All the Gonds at once got up and began to chase it, hoping for a meal. They seized sticks and stones and clods of earth, and their unkempt hair flew in the wind. The squirrel dodged about and ran away, and finally, directed by Mahādeo, ran into a large cave with all the Gonds after it. Mahādeo then rolled a large stone to the mouth of the cave and shut up all the Gonds in it. Only four remained outside, and they fled away to Kachikopa Lohāgarh, or the Iron Cave in the Red Hill, and lived there. Meanwhile Pārvati perceived that the smell of the Gonds, which had pleased her, had vanished from Dhawalgiri. She desired it to be restored and commenced a devotion. For six months she fasted and practised austerities. Bhagwān (God) was swinging in a swing. He was disturbed by Pārvati’s devotion. He sent Nārāyan (the sun) to see who was fasting. Nārāyan came and found Pārvati and asked her what she wanted. She said that she missed her Gonds and wanted them back. Nārāyan told Bhagwān, who promised that they should be given back.8. The birth and history of Lingo.The yellow flowers of the tree Pahindi were growing on Dhawalgiri. Bhagwān sent thunder and lightning, and the flower conceived. First fell from it a heap of turmeric or saffron. In the morning the sun came out, the flower burst open, and Lingo was born. Lingo was a perfect child. He had a diamond on his navel and a sandalwood mark on his forehead. He fell from the flower into the heap of turmeric. He played in the turmeric and slept in a swing. He became nine years old. He said there was no one there like him, and he would go where he could find his fellows. He climbed a needle-like hill,13and from afar off he saw Kachikopa Lohāgarh and the four Gonds. He came to them. They saw he was like them, and asked him to be their brother. They ate only animals. Lingo asked them to find for him an animal without a liver, and they searched all through the forest and could not. Then Lingo told them to cut down trees and make a field. They tried to cut down theanjan14trees, but their hands were blisteredand they could not go on. Lingo had been asleep. He woke up and saw they had only cut down one or two trees. He took the axe and cut down many trees, and fenced a field and made a gate to it. Black soil appeared. It began to rain, and rained without ceasing for three days. All the rivers and streams were filled. The field became green with rice, and it grew up. There were sixteen score ofnīlgaior blue-bull. They had two leaders, an old bull and his nephew. The young bull saw the rice of Lingo’s field and wished to eat it. The uncle told him not to eat of the field of Lingo or all thenīlgaiwould be killed. But the young bull did not heed, and took off all thenīlgaito eat the rice. When they got to the field they could find no entrance, so they jumped the fence, which was five cubits high. They ate all the rice from off the field and ran away. The young bull told them as they ran to put their feet on leaves and stones and boughs and grass, and not on the ground, so that they might not be tracked. Lingo woke up and went to see his field, and found all the rice eaten. He knew thenīlgaihad done it, and showed the brothers how to track them by the few marks which they had by accident made on the ground. They did so, and surrounded thenīlgaiand killed them all with their bows and arrows except the old uncle, from whom Lingo’s arrow rebounded harmlessly on account of his innocence, and one young doe. From these two thenīlgairace was preserved. Then Lingo told the Gonds to make fire and roast the deer as follows:He said, I will show you something; see if anywhere in yourWaistbands there is a flint; if so, take it out and make fire.But the matches did not ignite. As they were doing this, a watch of the night passed.They threw down the matches, and said to Lingo, Thou art a Saint;Show us where our fire is, and why it does not come out.Lingo said: Three koss (six miles) hence is Rikad Gawādi the giant.There is fire in his field; where smoke shall appear, go there,Come not back without bringing fire. Thus said Lingo.They said, We have never seen the place, where shall we go?Ye have never seen where this fire is? Lingo said;I will discharge an arrow thither.Go in the direction of the arrow; there you will get fire.He applied the arrow, and having pulled the bow, he discharged one:It crashed on, breaking twigs and making its passage clear.Having cut through the high grass, it made its way and reached the old man’s place (above mentioned).The arrow dropped close to the fire of the old man, who had daughters.The arrow was near the door. As soon as they saw it, the daughters came and took it up,And kept it. They asked their father: When will you give us in marriage?Thus said the seven sisters, the daughters of the old man.I will marry you as I think best for you;Remain as you are. So said the old man, the Rikad Gawādi.Lingo said, Hear, O brethren! I shot an arrow, it made its way.Go there, and you will see fire; bring thence the fire.Each said to the other, I will not go; but (at last) the youngest went.He descried the fire, and went to it; then beheld he an old man looking like the trunk of a tree.He saw from afar the old man’s field, around which a hedge was made.The old man kept only one way to it, and fastened a screen to the entrance, and had a fire in the centre of the field.He placed logs of the Mahua and Anjun and Sāj trees on the fire,Teak faggots he gathered, and enkindled flame.The fire blazed up, and warmed by the heat of it, in deep sleep lay the Rikad Gawādi.Thus the old man like a giant did appear. When the young Gond beheld him, he shivered;His heart leaped; and he was much afraid in his mind, and said:If the old man were to rise he will see me, and I shall be eaten up;I will steal away the fire and carry it off, then my life will be safe.He went near the fire secretly, and took a brand oftenduwood tree.When he was lifting it up a spark flew and fell on the hip of the old man.That spark was as large as a pot; the giant was blistered; he awoke alarmed.And said: I am hungry, and I cannot get food to eat anywhere; I feel a desire for flesh;Like a tender cucumber hast thou come to me. So said the old man to the Gond,Who began to fly. The old man followed him. The Gond then threw away the brand which he had stolen.He ran onward, and was not caught. Then the old man, being tired, turned back.Thence he returned to his field, and came near the fire and sat, and said, What nonsense is this?A tender prey had come within my reach;I said I will cut it up as soon as I can, but it escaped from my hand!Let it go; it will come again, then I will catch it. It has gone now.Then what happened? the Gond returned and came to his brethren.And said to them: Hear, O brethren, I went for fire, as you sent me, to that field; I beheld an old man like a giant.With hands stretched out and feet lifted up. I ran. I thus survived with difficulty.The brethren said to Lingo, We will not go. Lingo said, Sit ye here.O brethren, what sort of a person is this giant? I will go and see him.So saying, Lingo went away and reached a river.He thence arose and went onward. As he looked, he saw in front three gourds.Then he saw a bamboo stick, which he took up.When the river was floodedIt washed away a gourd tree, and its seed fell, and each stem produced bottle-gourds.He inserted a bamboo stick in the hollow of the gourd and made a guitar.He plucked two hairs from his head and strung it.He held a bow and fixed eleven keys to that one stick, and played on it.Lingo was much pleased in his mind.Holding it in his hand, he walked in the direction of the old man’s field.He approached the fire where Rikad Gawādi was sleeping.The giant seemed like a log lying close to the fire; his teeth were hideously visible;His mouth was gaping. Lingo looked at the old man while sleeping.His eyes were shut. Lingo said, This is not a good time to carry off the old man while he is asleep.In front he looked, and turned round and saw a treeOf the pīpal sort standing erect; he beheld its branches with wonder, and looked for a fit place to mount upon.It appeared a very good tree; so he climbed it, and ascended to the top of it to sit.As he sat the cock crew. Lingo said, It is daybreak;Meanwhile the old man must be rising. Therefore Lingo took the guitar in his hand,And held it; he gave a stroke, and it sounded well; from it he drew one hundred tunes.It sounded well, as if he was singing with his voice.Thus (as it were) a song was heard.Trees and hills were silent at its sound. The music loudly entered intoThe old man’s ears; he rose in haste, and sat up quickly; lifted up his eyes,And desired to hear (more). He looked hither and thither, but could not make out whence the sound came.The old man said: Whence has a creature come here to-day to sing like the maina bird?He saw a tree, but nothing appeared to him as he looked underneath it.He did not look up; he looked at the thickets and ravines, butSaw nothing. He came to the road, and near to the fire in the midst of his field and stood.Sometimes sitting, and sometimes standing, jumping, and rolling, he began to dance.The music sounded as the day dawned. His old woman came out in the morning and began to look out.She heard in the direction of the field a melodious music playing.When she arrived near the edge of her field, she heard music in her ears.That old woman called her husband to her.With stretched hands, and lifted feet, and with his neck bent down, he danced.Thus he danced. The old woman looked towards her husband, and said, My old man, my husband,Surely, that music is very melodious. I will dance, said the old woman.Having made the fold of her dress loose, she quickly began to dance near the hedge.9. Death and resurrection of Lingo.Then Lingo disclosed himself to the giant and became friendly with him. The giant apologised for having tried to eat his brother, and called Lingo his nephew. Lingo invited him to come and feast on the flesh of the sixteen scores ofnīlgai. The giant called his seven daughters and offered them all to Lingo in marriage. The daughters produced the arrow which they had treasured up as portending a husband. Lingo said he was not marrying himself, but he would take them home as wives for his brothers. So they all went back to the cave and Lingo assigned two of the daughters each to the three elder brothers and one to the youngest. Then the brothers, to show their gratitude, said that they would go and hunt in the forest and bring meat and fruit and Lingo should lie in a swing and be rocked by their seven wives. But while the wives were swinging Lingo and his eyes were shut, they wished to sport with him as their husbands’ younger brother. So saying they pulled his hands and feet till he woke up. Then he reproached them and called them his mothers and sisters, but they cared nothing and began to embrace him. Then Lingo was filled with wrath and leapt up, and seeing a rice-pestle near he seized it and beat them all with it soundly. Then the women went to their houses and wept and resolved to be revenged on Lingo. So when the brothers came home they told their husbands that while they were swinging Lingo he had tried to seduce them all from their virtue, and they were resolved to go home and stay no longer in Kachikopa with such a man about the place. Then the brothers were exceedingly angry with Lingo, who they thought had deceived them with a pretence of virtue in refusing a wife, and they resolved to kill him. So they enticed him into the forest with a story of a great animal which had put them to flight and asked him to kill it, and there they shot him to death with their arrows and gouged out his eyes and played ball with them.But the god Bhagwān became aware that Lingo was not praying to him as usual, and sent the crow Kageshwar to look for him. The crow came and reported that Lingo was dead, and the god sent him back with nectar to sprinkle it over the body and bring it to life again, which was done.10. He releases the Gonds shut up in the cave and constitutes the tribe.Lingo then thought he had had enough of the four brothers, so he determined to go and find the other sixteen score Gonds who were imprisoned somewhere as the brothers had told him. The manner of his doing this may be told in Captain Forsyth’s version:15And our Lingo redivivusWandered on across the mountains,Wandered sadly through the forestTill the darkening of the evening,Wandered on until the night fell.Screamed the panther in the forest,Growled the bear upon the mountain,And our Lingo then bethought himOf their cannibal propensities.Saw at hand the tree Niruda,Clambered up into its branches.Darkness fell upon the forest,Bears their heads wagged, yelled the jackalKolyal, the King of Jackals.Sounded loud their dreadful voicesIn the forest-shade primeval.Then the Jungle-Cock Gugotee,Mull the Peacock, Kurs the Wild Deer,Terror-stricken, screeched and shuddered,In that forest-shade primeval.But the moon arose at midnight,Poured her flood of silver radiance,Lighted all the forest arches,Through their gloomy branches slanting;Fell on Lingo, pondering deeplyOn his sixteen scores of Koitūrs.Then thought Lingo, I will ask herFor my sixteen scores of Koitūrs.‘Tell me, O Moon!’ said Lingo,‘Tell, O Brightener of the darkness!Where my sixteen scores are hidden.’But the Moon sailed onwards, upwards,And her cold and glancing moonbeamsSaid, ‘Your Gonds, I have not seen them.’And the Stars came forth and twinkledTwinkling eyes above the forest.Lingo said, “O Stars that twinkle!Eyes that look into the darkness,Tell me where my sixteen scores are.”But the cold Stars twinkling ever,Said, ‘Your Gonds, we have not seen them.’Broke the morning, the sky reddened,Faded out the star of morning,Rose the Sun above the forest,Brilliant Sun, the Lord of morning,And our Lingo quick descended,Quickly ran he to the eastward,Fell before the Lord of Morning,Gave the Great Sun salutation—‘Tell, O Sun!’ he said, ‘DiscoverWhere my sixteen scores of Gonds are.’But the Lord of Day reply made—“Hear, O Lingo, I a PilgrimWander onwards, through four watchesServing God, I have seen nothingOf your sixteen scores of Koitūrs.”Then our Lingo wandered onwardsThrough the arches of the forest;Wandered on until before himSaw the grotto of a hermit,Old and sage, the Black Kumāit,He the very wise and knowing,He the greatest of Magicians,Born in days that are forgotten,In the unremembered ages,Salutation gave and asked him—‘Tell, O Hermit! Great Kumāit!Where my sixteen scores of Gonds are.Then replied the Black Magician,Spake disdainfully in this wise—“Lingo, hear, your Gonds are assesEating cats, and mice, and bandicoots,Eating pigs, and cows, and buffaloes;Filthy wretches! wherefore ask me?If you wish it I will tell you.Our great Mahādeva caught them,And has shut them up securelyIn a cave within the bowelsOf his mountain Dewalgiri,With a stone of sixteen cubits,And his bulldog fierce Basmāsur;Serve them right, too, I consider,Filthy, casteless, stinking wretches!”And the Hermit to his grottoBack returned, and deeply ponderedOn the days that are forgotten,On the unremembered ages.But our Lingo wandered onwards,Fasting, praying, doing penance;Laid him on a bed of prickles,Thorns long and sharp and piercing.Fasting lay he devotee-like,Hand not lifting, foot not lifting,Eye not opening, nothing seeing.Twelve months long thus lay and fasted,Till his flesh was dry and withered,And the bones began to show through.Then the great god MahādevaFelt his seat begin to tremble,Felt his golden stool, all shakingFrom the penance of our Lingo.Felt, and wondered who on earthThis devotee was that was fastingTill his golden stool was shaking.Stepped he down from Dewalgiri,Came and saw that bed of pricklesWhere our Lingo lay unmoving.Asked him what his little game was,Why his golden stool was shaking.Answered Lingo, “Mighty Ruler!Nothing less will stop that shakingThan my sixteen scores of KoitūrsRendered up all safe and hurtlessFrom your cave in Dewalgiri.”Then the Great God, much disgusted,Offered all he had to Lingo,Offered kingdom, name, and riches,Offered anything he wished for,‘Only leave your stinking KoitūrsWell shut up in Dewalgiri.’But our Lingo all refusingWould have nothing but his Koitūrs;Gave a turn to run the thorns aLittle deeper in his midriff.Winced the Great God: “Very well, then,Take your Gonds—but first a favour.By the shore of the Black WaterLives a bird they call Black Bindo,Much I wish to see his young ones,Little Bindos from the sea-shore;For an offering bring these Bindos,Then your Gonds take from my mountain.”Then our Lingo rose and wandered,Wandered onwards through the forest,Till he reached the sounding sea-shore,Reached the brink of the Black Water,Found the Bingo birds were absentFrom their nest upon the sea-shore,Absent hunting in the forest,Hunting elephants prodigious,Which they killed and took their brains out,Cracked their skulls, and brought their brains toFeed their callow little Bindos,Wailing sadly by the sea-shore.Seven times a fearful serpent,Bhawarnāg the horrid serpent,Serpent born in ocean’s caverns,Coming forth from the Black Water,Had devoured the little Bindos—Broods of callow little BindosWailing sadly by the sea-shore—In the absence of their parents.Eighth this brood was. Stood our Lingo,Stood he pondering beside them—“If I take these little wretchesIn the absence of their parentsThey will call me thief and robber.No! I’ll wait till they come back here.”Then he laid him down and slumberedBy the little wailing Bindos.As he slept the dreadful serpent,Rising, came from the Black Water,Came to eat the callow Bindos,In the absence of their parents.Came he trunk-like from the waters,Came with fearful jaws distended,Huge and horrid, like a basketFor the winnowing of corn.Rose a hood of vast dimensionsO’er his fierce and dreadful visage.Shrieked the Bindos young and callow,Gave a cry of lamentation;Rose our Lingo; saw the monster;Drew an arrow from his quiver,Shot it swift into his stomach,Sharp and cutting in the stomach,Then another and another;Cleft him into seven pieces,Wriggled all the seven pieces,Wriggled backward to the water.But our Lingo, swift advancing,Seized the headpiece in his arms,Knocked the brains out on a boulder;Laid it down beside the Bindos,Callow, wailing, little Bindos.On it laid him, like a pillow,And began again to slumber.Soon returned the parent BindosFrom their hunting in the forest;Bringing brains and eyes of camelsAnd of elephants prodigious,For their little callow BindosWailing sadly by the sea-shore.But the Bindos young and callowBrains of camels would not swallow;Said—“A pretty set of parentsYou are truly! thus to leave usSadly wailing by the sea-shoreTo be eaten by the serpent—Bhawarnāg the dreadful serpent—Came he up from the Black Water,Came to eat us little Bindos,When this very valiant LingoShot an arrow in his stomach,Cut him into seven pieces—Give to Lingo brains of camels,Eyes of elephants prodigious.”Then the fond paternal BindoSaw the head-piece of the serpentUnder Lingo’s head a pillow,And he said, ‘O valiant Lingo,Ask whatever you may wish for.’Then he asked the little BindosFor an offering to the Great God,And the fond paternal Bindo,Much disgusted first refusing,Soon consented; said he’d go tooWith the fond maternal Bindo—Take them all upon his shoulders,And fly straight to Dewalgiri.Then he spread his mighty pinions,Took his Bindos up on one sideAnd our Lingo on the other.Thus they soared away togetherFrom the shores of the Black Water,And the fond maternal Bindo,O’er them hovering, spread an awningWith her broad and mighty pinionsO’er her offspring and our Lingo.By the forests and the mountainsSix months’ journey was it thitherTo the mountain Dewalgiri.Half the day was scarcely overEre this convoy from the sea-shoreLighted safe on Dewalgiri;Touched the knocker to the gatewayOf the Great God, Mahādeva.And the messenger NārāyanAnswering, went and told his master—“Lo, this very valiant Lingo!Here he is with all the Bindos,The Black Bindos from the sea-shore.”Then the Great God, much disgusted,Driven quite into a corner,Took our Lingo to the cavern,Sent Basmāsur to his kennel,Held his nose, and moved away theMighty stone of sixteen cubits;Called those sixteen scores of Gonds outMade them over to their Lingo.And they said, “O Father Lingo!What a bad time we’ve had of it,Not a thing to fill our belliesIn this horrid gloomy dungeon.”But our Lingo gave them dinner,Gave them rice and flour of millet,And they went off to the river,Had a drink, and cooked and ate it.The next episode is taken from a slightly different local version:And while they were cooking their food at the river a great flood came up, but all the Gonds crossed safely except the four gods, Tekām, Markām, Pusām and Telengām.16These were delayed because they had cooked their food withghīwhich they had looted from the Hindu deities. Then they stood on the bank and cried out,O God of the crossing,O Boundary God!Should you be here,Come take us across.Hearing this, the tortoise and crocodile came up to them, and offered to take them across the river. So Markām and Tekām sat on the back of the crocodile and Pusām and Telengām on the back of the tortoise, and before starting the gods made the crocodile and tortoise swear that they would not eat or drown them in the sea. But when theygot to the middle of the river the tortoise and crocodile began to sink, with the idea that they would drown the Gonds and feed their young with them. Then the Gonds cried out, and the Raigīdhni or vulture heard them. This bird appears to be the same as the Bindo, as it fed its young with elephants. The Raigīdhni flew to the Gonds and took them up on its back and flew ashore with them. And in its anger it picked out the tongue of the crocodile and crushed the neck of the tortoise. And this is why the crocodile is still tongueless and the tortoise has a broken neck, which is sometimes inside and sometimes outside its shell. Both animals also have the marks of string on their backs where the Gond gods tied their necks together when they were ferried across. Thus all the Gonds were happily reunited and Lingo took them into the forest, and they founded a town there, which grew and prospered. And Lingo divided all the Gonds into clans and made the oldest man a Pardhān or priest and founded the rule of exogamy. He also made the Gond gods, subsequently described,17and worshipped them with offerings of a calf and liquor, and danced before them. He also prescribed the ceremonies of marriage which are still observed, and after all this was done Lingo went to the gods.Gonds on a journeyGonds on a journey

1. Numbers and distribution.Gond.—The principal tribe of the Dravidian family, and perhaps the most important of the non-Aryan or forest tribes in India. In 1911 the Gonds were three million strong, and they are increasing rapidly. The Kolis of western India count half a million persons more than the Gonds, and if the four related tribes Kol, Munda, Ho, and Santāl were taken together, they would be stronger by about the same amount. But if historical importance be considered as well as numbers, the first place should be awarded to the Gonds. Of the whole caste the Central Provinces contain 2,300,000 persons, Central India, and Bihār and Orissa about 235,000 persons each, and they are returned in small numbers from Assam, Madras and Hyderābād. The 50,000 Gonds in Assam are no doubt immigrant labourers on the tea-gardens.

1. Numbers and distribution.

Gond.—The principal tribe of the Dravidian family, and perhaps the most important of the non-Aryan or forest tribes in India. In 1911 the Gonds were three million strong, and they are increasing rapidly. The Kolis of western India count half a million persons more than the Gonds, and if the four related tribes Kol, Munda, Ho, and Santāl were taken together, they would be stronger by about the same amount. But if historical importance be considered as well as numbers, the first place should be awarded to the Gonds. Of the whole caste the Central Provinces contain 2,300,000 persons, Central India, and Bihār and Orissa about 235,000 persons each, and they are returned in small numbers from Assam, Madras and Hyderābād. The 50,000 Gonds in Assam are no doubt immigrant labourers on the tea-gardens.

Gond.—The principal tribe of the Dravidian family, and perhaps the most important of the non-Aryan or forest tribes in India. In 1911 the Gonds were three million strong, and they are increasing rapidly. The Kolis of western India count half a million persons more than the Gonds, and if the four related tribes Kol, Munda, Ho, and Santāl were taken together, they would be stronger by about the same amount. But if historical importance be considered as well as numbers, the first place should be awarded to the Gonds. Of the whole caste the Central Provinces contain 2,300,000 persons, Central India, and Bihār and Orissa about 235,000 persons each, and they are returned in small numbers from Assam, Madras and Hyderābād. The 50,000 Gonds in Assam are no doubt immigrant labourers on the tea-gardens.

2. Gondwāna.In the Central Provinces the Gonds occupy two main tracts. The first is the wide belt of broken hill and forest country in the centre of the Province, which forms the Satpūra plateau, and is mainly comprised in the Chhindwārā, Betūl, Seoni and Mandla Districts, with portions of several others adjoining them. And the second is the still wider and more inaccessible mass of hill ranges extending south of the Chhattīsgarh plain, and south-west down to the Godāvari, which includes portions of the three Chhattīsgarh Districts, the Bastar and Kanker States, and a great part of Chānda. In Mandla the Gonds form nearly half the population, and in Bastar about two-thirds. There is, however, no District or State of the Province which does not contain some Gonds, and it is both on account of their numbers and the fact that Gond dynasties possessed a great part of its area that the territory of the Central Provinces was formerly known as Gondwāna, or the country of the Gonds.1The existing importance of the Central Provinces dates from recent years, for so late as 1853 it was stated before the Royal Asiatic Society that “at present the Gondwāna highlandsand jungles comprise such a large tract of unexplored country that they form quite an oasis in our maps.” So much of this lately unexplored country as is British territory is now fairly well served by railways, traversed almost throughout by good roads, and provided with village schools at distances of five to ten miles apart, even in the wilder tracts.Gond women grinding cornGond women grinding corn

2. Gondwāna.

In the Central Provinces the Gonds occupy two main tracts. The first is the wide belt of broken hill and forest country in the centre of the Province, which forms the Satpūra plateau, and is mainly comprised in the Chhindwārā, Betūl, Seoni and Mandla Districts, with portions of several others adjoining them. And the second is the still wider and more inaccessible mass of hill ranges extending south of the Chhattīsgarh plain, and south-west down to the Godāvari, which includes portions of the three Chhattīsgarh Districts, the Bastar and Kanker States, and a great part of Chānda. In Mandla the Gonds form nearly half the population, and in Bastar about two-thirds. There is, however, no District or State of the Province which does not contain some Gonds, and it is both on account of their numbers and the fact that Gond dynasties possessed a great part of its area that the territory of the Central Provinces was formerly known as Gondwāna, or the country of the Gonds.1The existing importance of the Central Provinces dates from recent years, for so late as 1853 it was stated before the Royal Asiatic Society that “at present the Gondwāna highlandsand jungles comprise such a large tract of unexplored country that they form quite an oasis in our maps.” So much of this lately unexplored country as is British territory is now fairly well served by railways, traversed almost throughout by good roads, and provided with village schools at distances of five to ten miles apart, even in the wilder tracts.Gond women grinding cornGond women grinding corn

In the Central Provinces the Gonds occupy two main tracts. The first is the wide belt of broken hill and forest country in the centre of the Province, which forms the Satpūra plateau, and is mainly comprised in the Chhindwārā, Betūl, Seoni and Mandla Districts, with portions of several others adjoining them. And the second is the still wider and more inaccessible mass of hill ranges extending south of the Chhattīsgarh plain, and south-west down to the Godāvari, which includes portions of the three Chhattīsgarh Districts, the Bastar and Kanker States, and a great part of Chānda. In Mandla the Gonds form nearly half the population, and in Bastar about two-thirds. There is, however, no District or State of the Province which does not contain some Gonds, and it is both on account of their numbers and the fact that Gond dynasties possessed a great part of its area that the territory of the Central Provinces was formerly known as Gondwāna, or the country of the Gonds.1The existing importance of the Central Provinces dates from recent years, for so late as 1853 it was stated before the Royal Asiatic Society that “at present the Gondwāna highlandsand jungles comprise such a large tract of unexplored country that they form quite an oasis in our maps.” So much of this lately unexplored country as is British territory is now fairly well served by railways, traversed almost throughout by good roads, and provided with village schools at distances of five to ten miles apart, even in the wilder tracts.

Gond women grinding cornGond women grinding corn

Gond women grinding corn

3. Derivation of name and origin of the Gonds.The derivation of the word Gond is uncertain. It is the name given to the tribe by the Hindus or Muhammadans, as their own name for themselves is Koitūr or Koi. General Cunningham considered that the name Gond probably came from Gauda, the classical term for part of the United Provinces and Bengal. A Benāres inscription relating to one of the Chedi kings of Tripura or Tewar (near Jubbulpore) states that he was of the Haihaya tribe, who lived on the borders of the Nerbudda in the district of the Western Gauda in the Province of Mālwa. Three or four other inscriptions also refer to the kings of Gauda in the same locality. Gauda, however, was properly and commonly used as the name of part of Bengal. There is no evidence beyond a few doubtful inscriptions of its having ever been applied to any part of the Central Provinces. The principal passage in which General Cunningham identifies Gauda with the Central Provinces is that in which the king of Gauda came to the assistance of the ruler of Mālwa against the king of Kanauj, elder brother of the great Harsha Vardhana, and slew the latter king inA.D.605. But Mr. V. A. Smith holds that Gauda in this passage refers to Bengal and not to the Central Provinces;2and General Cunningham’s argument on the locality of Gauda is thus rendered extremely dubious, and with it his derivation of the name Gond. In fact it seems highly improbable that the name of a large tribe should have been taken from a term so little used and known in this special application. Though in theImperial Gazetteer3the present writer reproduced General Cunningham’s derivation of the term Gond, it was there characterised as speculative, and in the light of the above remarks now seems highly improbable. Mr. Hislop considered that the name Gond was a form of Kond, as he spelt the name ofthe Khond tribe. He pointed out thatkandgare interchangeable. Thus Gotalghar, the empty house where the village young men sleep, comes from Kotal, a led horse, andghar, a house. Similarly, Koikopāl, the name of a Gond subtribe who tend cattle, is from Koi or Gond, andgopal, a cowherd. The name by which the Gonds call themselves is Koi or Koitūr, while the Khonds call themselves Ku, which word Sir G. Grierson considers to be probably related to the Gond name Koi. Further, he states that the Telugu people call the Khonds, Gond or Kod (Kor). General Cunningham points out that the word Gond in the Central Provinces is frequently or, he says, usually pronounced Gaur, which is practically the same sound asgod, and with the change ofGtoKwould become Kod. Thus the two names Gond and Kod, by which the Telugu people know the Khonds, are practically the same as the names Gond and God of the Gonds in the Central Provinces, though Sir G. Grierson does not mention the change ofgtokin his account of either language. It seems highly probable that the designation Gond was given to the tribe by the Telugus. The Gonds speak a Dravidian language of the same family as Tamil, Canarese and Telugu, and therefore it is likely that they come from the south into the Central Provinces. Their route may have been up the Godāvari river into Chānda; from thence up the Indravati into Bastar and the hills south and east of the Chhattīsgarh plain; and up the Wardha and Wainganga to the Districts of the Satpūra Plateau. In Chānda, where a Gond dynasty reigned for some centuries, they would be in contact with the Telugus, and here they may have got their name of Gond, and carried it with them into the north and east of the Province. As already seen, the Khonds are called Gond by the Telugus, and Kandh by the Uriyas. The Khonds apparently came up more towards the east into Ganjam and Kālāhandi. Here the name of Gond or Kod, given them by the Telugus, may have been modified into Kandh by the Uriyas, and from the two names came the English corruption of Khond. The Khond and Gondi languages are now dissimilar. Still they present certain points of resemblance, and though Sir G. Grierson does not discuss their connection, it appears from his highlyinteresting genealogical tree of the Dravidian languages that Khond or Kui and Gondi are closely connected. These two languages, and no others, occupy an intermediate position between the two great branches sprung from the original Dravidian language, one of which is mainly represented by Telugu and the other by Tamil, Canarese and Malayālam.4Gondi and Khond are shown in the centre as the connecting link between the two great branches. Gondi is more nearly related to Tamil and Khond to Telugu. On the Telugu side, moreover, Khond approaches most closely to Kolāmi, which is a member of the Telugu branch. The Kolāms are a tribe of Wardha and Berār, sometimes considered an offshoot of the Gonds; at any rate, it seems probable that they came from southern India by the same route as the Gonds. Thus the Khond language is intermediate between Gondi and the Kolāmi dialect of Wardha and Berār, though the Kolāms live west of the Gonds and the Khonds east. And a fairly close relationship between the three languages appears to be established. Hence the linguistic evidence appears to afford strong support to the view that the Khonds and Gonds may originally have been one tribe. Further, Mr. Hislop points out that a word for god,pen, is common to the Gonds and Khonds; and the Khonds have a god called Bura Pen, who might be the same as Bura Deo, the great god of the Gonds. Mr. Hislop found Kodo Pen and Pharsi Pen as Gond gods,5while Pen or Pennu is the regular word for god among the Khonds. This evidence seems to establish a probability that the Gonds and Khonds were originally one tribe in the south of India, and that they obtained separate names and languages since they left their original home for the north. The fact that both of them speak languages of the Dravidian family, whose home is in southern India, makes it probable that the two tribes originally belonged there, and migrated north into the Central Provinces and Orissa. This hypothesis is supported by the traditions of the Gonds.

3. Derivation of name and origin of the Gonds.

The derivation of the word Gond is uncertain. It is the name given to the tribe by the Hindus or Muhammadans, as their own name for themselves is Koitūr or Koi. General Cunningham considered that the name Gond probably came from Gauda, the classical term for part of the United Provinces and Bengal. A Benāres inscription relating to one of the Chedi kings of Tripura or Tewar (near Jubbulpore) states that he was of the Haihaya tribe, who lived on the borders of the Nerbudda in the district of the Western Gauda in the Province of Mālwa. Three or four other inscriptions also refer to the kings of Gauda in the same locality. Gauda, however, was properly and commonly used as the name of part of Bengal. There is no evidence beyond a few doubtful inscriptions of its having ever been applied to any part of the Central Provinces. The principal passage in which General Cunningham identifies Gauda with the Central Provinces is that in which the king of Gauda came to the assistance of the ruler of Mālwa against the king of Kanauj, elder brother of the great Harsha Vardhana, and slew the latter king inA.D.605. But Mr. V. A. Smith holds that Gauda in this passage refers to Bengal and not to the Central Provinces;2and General Cunningham’s argument on the locality of Gauda is thus rendered extremely dubious, and with it his derivation of the name Gond. In fact it seems highly improbable that the name of a large tribe should have been taken from a term so little used and known in this special application. Though in theImperial Gazetteer3the present writer reproduced General Cunningham’s derivation of the term Gond, it was there characterised as speculative, and in the light of the above remarks now seems highly improbable. Mr. Hislop considered that the name Gond was a form of Kond, as he spelt the name ofthe Khond tribe. He pointed out thatkandgare interchangeable. Thus Gotalghar, the empty house where the village young men sleep, comes from Kotal, a led horse, andghar, a house. Similarly, Koikopāl, the name of a Gond subtribe who tend cattle, is from Koi or Gond, andgopal, a cowherd. The name by which the Gonds call themselves is Koi or Koitūr, while the Khonds call themselves Ku, which word Sir G. Grierson considers to be probably related to the Gond name Koi. Further, he states that the Telugu people call the Khonds, Gond or Kod (Kor). General Cunningham points out that the word Gond in the Central Provinces is frequently or, he says, usually pronounced Gaur, which is practically the same sound asgod, and with the change ofGtoKwould become Kod. Thus the two names Gond and Kod, by which the Telugu people know the Khonds, are practically the same as the names Gond and God of the Gonds in the Central Provinces, though Sir G. Grierson does not mention the change ofgtokin his account of either language. It seems highly probable that the designation Gond was given to the tribe by the Telugus. The Gonds speak a Dravidian language of the same family as Tamil, Canarese and Telugu, and therefore it is likely that they come from the south into the Central Provinces. Their route may have been up the Godāvari river into Chānda; from thence up the Indravati into Bastar and the hills south and east of the Chhattīsgarh plain; and up the Wardha and Wainganga to the Districts of the Satpūra Plateau. In Chānda, where a Gond dynasty reigned for some centuries, they would be in contact with the Telugus, and here they may have got their name of Gond, and carried it with them into the north and east of the Province. As already seen, the Khonds are called Gond by the Telugus, and Kandh by the Uriyas. The Khonds apparently came up more towards the east into Ganjam and Kālāhandi. Here the name of Gond or Kod, given them by the Telugus, may have been modified into Kandh by the Uriyas, and from the two names came the English corruption of Khond. The Khond and Gondi languages are now dissimilar. Still they present certain points of resemblance, and though Sir G. Grierson does not discuss their connection, it appears from his highlyinteresting genealogical tree of the Dravidian languages that Khond or Kui and Gondi are closely connected. These two languages, and no others, occupy an intermediate position between the two great branches sprung from the original Dravidian language, one of which is mainly represented by Telugu and the other by Tamil, Canarese and Malayālam.4Gondi and Khond are shown in the centre as the connecting link between the two great branches. Gondi is more nearly related to Tamil and Khond to Telugu. On the Telugu side, moreover, Khond approaches most closely to Kolāmi, which is a member of the Telugu branch. The Kolāms are a tribe of Wardha and Berār, sometimes considered an offshoot of the Gonds; at any rate, it seems probable that they came from southern India by the same route as the Gonds. Thus the Khond language is intermediate between Gondi and the Kolāmi dialect of Wardha and Berār, though the Kolāms live west of the Gonds and the Khonds east. And a fairly close relationship between the three languages appears to be established. Hence the linguistic evidence appears to afford strong support to the view that the Khonds and Gonds may originally have been one tribe. Further, Mr. Hislop points out that a word for god,pen, is common to the Gonds and Khonds; and the Khonds have a god called Bura Pen, who might be the same as Bura Deo, the great god of the Gonds. Mr. Hislop found Kodo Pen and Pharsi Pen as Gond gods,5while Pen or Pennu is the regular word for god among the Khonds. This evidence seems to establish a probability that the Gonds and Khonds were originally one tribe in the south of India, and that they obtained separate names and languages since they left their original home for the north. The fact that both of them speak languages of the Dravidian family, whose home is in southern India, makes it probable that the two tribes originally belonged there, and migrated north into the Central Provinces and Orissa. This hypothesis is supported by the traditions of the Gonds.

The derivation of the word Gond is uncertain. It is the name given to the tribe by the Hindus or Muhammadans, as their own name for themselves is Koitūr or Koi. General Cunningham considered that the name Gond probably came from Gauda, the classical term for part of the United Provinces and Bengal. A Benāres inscription relating to one of the Chedi kings of Tripura or Tewar (near Jubbulpore) states that he was of the Haihaya tribe, who lived on the borders of the Nerbudda in the district of the Western Gauda in the Province of Mālwa. Three or four other inscriptions also refer to the kings of Gauda in the same locality. Gauda, however, was properly and commonly used as the name of part of Bengal. There is no evidence beyond a few doubtful inscriptions of its having ever been applied to any part of the Central Provinces. The principal passage in which General Cunningham identifies Gauda with the Central Provinces is that in which the king of Gauda came to the assistance of the ruler of Mālwa against the king of Kanauj, elder brother of the great Harsha Vardhana, and slew the latter king inA.D.605. But Mr. V. A. Smith holds that Gauda in this passage refers to Bengal and not to the Central Provinces;2and General Cunningham’s argument on the locality of Gauda is thus rendered extremely dubious, and with it his derivation of the name Gond. In fact it seems highly improbable that the name of a large tribe should have been taken from a term so little used and known in this special application. Though in theImperial Gazetteer3the present writer reproduced General Cunningham’s derivation of the term Gond, it was there characterised as speculative, and in the light of the above remarks now seems highly improbable. Mr. Hislop considered that the name Gond was a form of Kond, as he spelt the name ofthe Khond tribe. He pointed out thatkandgare interchangeable. Thus Gotalghar, the empty house where the village young men sleep, comes from Kotal, a led horse, andghar, a house. Similarly, Koikopāl, the name of a Gond subtribe who tend cattle, is from Koi or Gond, andgopal, a cowherd. The name by which the Gonds call themselves is Koi or Koitūr, while the Khonds call themselves Ku, which word Sir G. Grierson considers to be probably related to the Gond name Koi. Further, he states that the Telugu people call the Khonds, Gond or Kod (Kor). General Cunningham points out that the word Gond in the Central Provinces is frequently or, he says, usually pronounced Gaur, which is practically the same sound asgod, and with the change ofGtoKwould become Kod. Thus the two names Gond and Kod, by which the Telugu people know the Khonds, are practically the same as the names Gond and God of the Gonds in the Central Provinces, though Sir G. Grierson does not mention the change ofgtokin his account of either language. It seems highly probable that the designation Gond was given to the tribe by the Telugus. The Gonds speak a Dravidian language of the same family as Tamil, Canarese and Telugu, and therefore it is likely that they come from the south into the Central Provinces. Their route may have been up the Godāvari river into Chānda; from thence up the Indravati into Bastar and the hills south and east of the Chhattīsgarh plain; and up the Wardha and Wainganga to the Districts of the Satpūra Plateau. In Chānda, where a Gond dynasty reigned for some centuries, they would be in contact with the Telugus, and here they may have got their name of Gond, and carried it with them into the north and east of the Province. As already seen, the Khonds are called Gond by the Telugus, and Kandh by the Uriyas. The Khonds apparently came up more towards the east into Ganjam and Kālāhandi. Here the name of Gond or Kod, given them by the Telugus, may have been modified into Kandh by the Uriyas, and from the two names came the English corruption of Khond. The Khond and Gondi languages are now dissimilar. Still they present certain points of resemblance, and though Sir G. Grierson does not discuss their connection, it appears from his highlyinteresting genealogical tree of the Dravidian languages that Khond or Kui and Gondi are closely connected. These two languages, and no others, occupy an intermediate position between the two great branches sprung from the original Dravidian language, one of which is mainly represented by Telugu and the other by Tamil, Canarese and Malayālam.4Gondi and Khond are shown in the centre as the connecting link between the two great branches. Gondi is more nearly related to Tamil and Khond to Telugu. On the Telugu side, moreover, Khond approaches most closely to Kolāmi, which is a member of the Telugu branch. The Kolāms are a tribe of Wardha and Berār, sometimes considered an offshoot of the Gonds; at any rate, it seems probable that they came from southern India by the same route as the Gonds. Thus the Khond language is intermediate between Gondi and the Kolāmi dialect of Wardha and Berār, though the Kolāms live west of the Gonds and the Khonds east. And a fairly close relationship between the three languages appears to be established. Hence the linguistic evidence appears to afford strong support to the view that the Khonds and Gonds may originally have been one tribe. Further, Mr. Hislop points out that a word for god,pen, is common to the Gonds and Khonds; and the Khonds have a god called Bura Pen, who might be the same as Bura Deo, the great god of the Gonds. Mr. Hislop found Kodo Pen and Pharsi Pen as Gond gods,5while Pen or Pennu is the regular word for god among the Khonds. This evidence seems to establish a probability that the Gonds and Khonds were originally one tribe in the south of India, and that they obtained separate names and languages since they left their original home for the north. The fact that both of them speak languages of the Dravidian family, whose home is in southern India, makes it probable that the two tribes originally belonged there, and migrated north into the Central Provinces and Orissa. This hypothesis is supported by the traditions of the Gonds.

4. History of the Gonds.As stated in the article on Kol, it is known that Rājpūt dynasties were ruling in various parts of the Central Provincesfrom about the sixth to the twelfth centuries. They then disappear, and there is a blank till the fourteenth century or later, when Gond kingdoms are found established at Kherla in Betūl, at Deogarh in Chhīndwara, at Garha-Mandla,6including the Jubbulpore country, and at Chānda, fourteen miles from Bhāndak. It seems clear, then, that the Hindu dynasties were subverted by the Gonds after the Muhammadan invasions of northern India had weakened or destroyed the central powers of the Hindus, and prevented any assistance being afforded to the outlying settlements. There is some reason to suppose that the immigration of the Gonds into the Central Provinces took place after the establishment of these Hindu kingdoms, and not before, as is commonly held.7But the point must at present be considered doubtful. There is no reason however to doubt that the Gonds came from the south through Chānda and Bastar. During the fourteenth century and afterwards the Gonds established dynasties at the places already mentioned in the Central Provinces. For two or three centuries the greater part of the Province was governed by Gond kings. Of their method of government in Narsinghpur, Sleeman said: “Under these Gond Rājas the country seems for the most part to have been distributed among feudatory chiefs, bound to attend upon the prince at his capital with a stipulated number of troops, to be employed wherever their services might be required, but to furnish little or no revenue in money. These chiefs were Gonds, and the countries they held for the support of their families and the payment of their troops and retinue little more than wild jungles. The Gonds seem not to have been at home in open country, and as from the sixteenth century a peaceable penetration of Hindu cultivators into the best lands of the Province assumed large dimensions, the Gonds gradually retired to the hill ranges on the borders of the plains.” The headquarters of each dynasty at Mandla, Garha, Kherla, Deogarh and Chānda seem to have been located in a position strengthened for defence either by a hill or a great river, and adjacent to an especially fertile plain tract, whoseproduce served for the maintenance of the ruler’s household and headquarters establishment. Often the site was on other sides bordered by dense forest which would afford a retreat to the occupants in case it fell to an enemy. Strong and spacious forts were built, with masonry tanks and wells inside them to provide water, but whether these buildings were solely the work of the Gonds or constructed with the assistance of Hindu or Muhammadan artificers is uncertain. But the Hindu immigrants found Gond government tolerant and beneficent. Under the easy eventless sway of these princes the rich country over which they ruled prospered, its flocks and herds increased, and the treasury filled. So far back as the fifteenth century we read in Firishta that the king of Kherla, who, if not a Gond himself, was a king of the Gonds, sumptuously entertained the Bāhmani king and made him rich offerings, among which were many diamonds, rubies and pearls. Of the Rāni Dūrgavati of Garha-Mandla, Sleeman said: “Of all the sovereigns of this dynasty she lives most in the page of history and in the grateful recollections of the people. She built the great reservoir which lies close to Jubbulpore, and is called after her Rāni Talao or Queen’s pond; and many other highly useful works were formed by her about Garha.” When the castle of Chaurāgarh was sacked by one of Akbar’s generals in 1564, the booty found, according to Firishta, comprised, independently of jewels, images of gold and silver and other valuables, no fewer than a hundred jars of gold coin and a thousand elephants. Of the Chānda rulers the Settlement officer who has recorded their history wrote that, “They left, if we forget the last few years, a well-governed and contented kingdom, adorned with admirable works of engineering skill and prosperous to a point which no aftertime has reached. They have left their mark behind them in royal tombs, lakes and palaces, but most of all in the seven miles of battlemented stone wall, too wide now for the shrunk city of Chānda within it, which stands on the very border-line between the forest and the plain, having in front the rich valley of the Wardha river, and behind and up to the city walls deep forest extending to the east.” According to local tradition the great wall of Chānda and other buildings,such as the tombs of the Gond kings and the palace at Junona, were built by immigrant Telugu masons of the Kāpu or Munurwār castes. Another excellent rule of the Gond kings was to give to any one who made a tank a grant of land free of revenue of the land lying beneath it. A large number of small irrigation tanks were constructed under this inducement in the Wainganga valley, and still remain. But the Gond states had no strength for defence, as was shown when in the eighteenth century Marātha chiefs, having acquired some knowledge of the art of war and military training by their long fighting against the Mughals, cast covetous eyes on Gondwāna. The loose tribal system, so easy in time of peace, entirely failed to knit together the strength of the people when united action was most required, and the plain country fell before the Marātha armies almost without a struggle. In the strongholds, however, of the hilly ranges which hem in every part of Gondwāna the chiefs for long continued to maintain an unequal resistance, and to revenge their own wrongs by indiscriminate rapine and slaughter. In such cases the Marātha plan was to continue pillaging and harassing the Gonds until they obtained an acknowledgment of their supremacy and the promise, at least, of an annual tribute. Under this treatment the hill Gonds soon lost every vestige of civilisation, and became the cruel, treacherous savages depicted by travellers of this period. They regularly plundered and murdered stragglers and small parties passing through the hills, while from their strongholds, built on the most inaccessible spurs of the Satpūras, they would make a dash into the rich plains of Berār and the Nerbudda valley, and after looting and killing all night, return straight across country to their jungle fortresses, guided by the light of a bonfire on some commanding peak.8With the pacification of the country and the introduction of a strong and equable system of government by the British, these wild marauders soon settled down and became the timid and inoffensive labourers which they now are.Palace of the Gond kings of Garha-Mandla at RāmnagarPalace of the Gond kings of Garha-Mandla at Rāmnagar

4. History of the Gonds.

As stated in the article on Kol, it is known that Rājpūt dynasties were ruling in various parts of the Central Provincesfrom about the sixth to the twelfth centuries. They then disappear, and there is a blank till the fourteenth century or later, when Gond kingdoms are found established at Kherla in Betūl, at Deogarh in Chhīndwara, at Garha-Mandla,6including the Jubbulpore country, and at Chānda, fourteen miles from Bhāndak. It seems clear, then, that the Hindu dynasties were subverted by the Gonds after the Muhammadan invasions of northern India had weakened or destroyed the central powers of the Hindus, and prevented any assistance being afforded to the outlying settlements. There is some reason to suppose that the immigration of the Gonds into the Central Provinces took place after the establishment of these Hindu kingdoms, and not before, as is commonly held.7But the point must at present be considered doubtful. There is no reason however to doubt that the Gonds came from the south through Chānda and Bastar. During the fourteenth century and afterwards the Gonds established dynasties at the places already mentioned in the Central Provinces. For two or three centuries the greater part of the Province was governed by Gond kings. Of their method of government in Narsinghpur, Sleeman said: “Under these Gond Rājas the country seems for the most part to have been distributed among feudatory chiefs, bound to attend upon the prince at his capital with a stipulated number of troops, to be employed wherever their services might be required, but to furnish little or no revenue in money. These chiefs were Gonds, and the countries they held for the support of their families and the payment of their troops and retinue little more than wild jungles. The Gonds seem not to have been at home in open country, and as from the sixteenth century a peaceable penetration of Hindu cultivators into the best lands of the Province assumed large dimensions, the Gonds gradually retired to the hill ranges on the borders of the plains.” The headquarters of each dynasty at Mandla, Garha, Kherla, Deogarh and Chānda seem to have been located in a position strengthened for defence either by a hill or a great river, and adjacent to an especially fertile plain tract, whoseproduce served for the maintenance of the ruler’s household and headquarters establishment. Often the site was on other sides bordered by dense forest which would afford a retreat to the occupants in case it fell to an enemy. Strong and spacious forts were built, with masonry tanks and wells inside them to provide water, but whether these buildings were solely the work of the Gonds or constructed with the assistance of Hindu or Muhammadan artificers is uncertain. But the Hindu immigrants found Gond government tolerant and beneficent. Under the easy eventless sway of these princes the rich country over which they ruled prospered, its flocks and herds increased, and the treasury filled. So far back as the fifteenth century we read in Firishta that the king of Kherla, who, if not a Gond himself, was a king of the Gonds, sumptuously entertained the Bāhmani king and made him rich offerings, among which were many diamonds, rubies and pearls. Of the Rāni Dūrgavati of Garha-Mandla, Sleeman said: “Of all the sovereigns of this dynasty she lives most in the page of history and in the grateful recollections of the people. She built the great reservoir which lies close to Jubbulpore, and is called after her Rāni Talao or Queen’s pond; and many other highly useful works were formed by her about Garha.” When the castle of Chaurāgarh was sacked by one of Akbar’s generals in 1564, the booty found, according to Firishta, comprised, independently of jewels, images of gold and silver and other valuables, no fewer than a hundred jars of gold coin and a thousand elephants. Of the Chānda rulers the Settlement officer who has recorded their history wrote that, “They left, if we forget the last few years, a well-governed and contented kingdom, adorned with admirable works of engineering skill and prosperous to a point which no aftertime has reached. They have left their mark behind them in royal tombs, lakes and palaces, but most of all in the seven miles of battlemented stone wall, too wide now for the shrunk city of Chānda within it, which stands on the very border-line between the forest and the plain, having in front the rich valley of the Wardha river, and behind and up to the city walls deep forest extending to the east.” According to local tradition the great wall of Chānda and other buildings,such as the tombs of the Gond kings and the palace at Junona, were built by immigrant Telugu masons of the Kāpu or Munurwār castes. Another excellent rule of the Gond kings was to give to any one who made a tank a grant of land free of revenue of the land lying beneath it. A large number of small irrigation tanks were constructed under this inducement in the Wainganga valley, and still remain. But the Gond states had no strength for defence, as was shown when in the eighteenth century Marātha chiefs, having acquired some knowledge of the art of war and military training by their long fighting against the Mughals, cast covetous eyes on Gondwāna. The loose tribal system, so easy in time of peace, entirely failed to knit together the strength of the people when united action was most required, and the plain country fell before the Marātha armies almost without a struggle. In the strongholds, however, of the hilly ranges which hem in every part of Gondwāna the chiefs for long continued to maintain an unequal resistance, and to revenge their own wrongs by indiscriminate rapine and slaughter. In such cases the Marātha plan was to continue pillaging and harassing the Gonds until they obtained an acknowledgment of their supremacy and the promise, at least, of an annual tribute. Under this treatment the hill Gonds soon lost every vestige of civilisation, and became the cruel, treacherous savages depicted by travellers of this period. They regularly plundered and murdered stragglers and small parties passing through the hills, while from their strongholds, built on the most inaccessible spurs of the Satpūras, they would make a dash into the rich plains of Berār and the Nerbudda valley, and after looting and killing all night, return straight across country to their jungle fortresses, guided by the light of a bonfire on some commanding peak.8With the pacification of the country and the introduction of a strong and equable system of government by the British, these wild marauders soon settled down and became the timid and inoffensive labourers which they now are.Palace of the Gond kings of Garha-Mandla at RāmnagarPalace of the Gond kings of Garha-Mandla at Rāmnagar

As stated in the article on Kol, it is known that Rājpūt dynasties were ruling in various parts of the Central Provincesfrom about the sixth to the twelfth centuries. They then disappear, and there is a blank till the fourteenth century or later, when Gond kingdoms are found established at Kherla in Betūl, at Deogarh in Chhīndwara, at Garha-Mandla,6including the Jubbulpore country, and at Chānda, fourteen miles from Bhāndak. It seems clear, then, that the Hindu dynasties were subverted by the Gonds after the Muhammadan invasions of northern India had weakened or destroyed the central powers of the Hindus, and prevented any assistance being afforded to the outlying settlements. There is some reason to suppose that the immigration of the Gonds into the Central Provinces took place after the establishment of these Hindu kingdoms, and not before, as is commonly held.7But the point must at present be considered doubtful. There is no reason however to doubt that the Gonds came from the south through Chānda and Bastar. During the fourteenth century and afterwards the Gonds established dynasties at the places already mentioned in the Central Provinces. For two or three centuries the greater part of the Province was governed by Gond kings. Of their method of government in Narsinghpur, Sleeman said: “Under these Gond Rājas the country seems for the most part to have been distributed among feudatory chiefs, bound to attend upon the prince at his capital with a stipulated number of troops, to be employed wherever their services might be required, but to furnish little or no revenue in money. These chiefs were Gonds, and the countries they held for the support of their families and the payment of their troops and retinue little more than wild jungles. The Gonds seem not to have been at home in open country, and as from the sixteenth century a peaceable penetration of Hindu cultivators into the best lands of the Province assumed large dimensions, the Gonds gradually retired to the hill ranges on the borders of the plains.” The headquarters of each dynasty at Mandla, Garha, Kherla, Deogarh and Chānda seem to have been located in a position strengthened for defence either by a hill or a great river, and adjacent to an especially fertile plain tract, whoseproduce served for the maintenance of the ruler’s household and headquarters establishment. Often the site was on other sides bordered by dense forest which would afford a retreat to the occupants in case it fell to an enemy. Strong and spacious forts were built, with masonry tanks and wells inside them to provide water, but whether these buildings were solely the work of the Gonds or constructed with the assistance of Hindu or Muhammadan artificers is uncertain. But the Hindu immigrants found Gond government tolerant and beneficent. Under the easy eventless sway of these princes the rich country over which they ruled prospered, its flocks and herds increased, and the treasury filled. So far back as the fifteenth century we read in Firishta that the king of Kherla, who, if not a Gond himself, was a king of the Gonds, sumptuously entertained the Bāhmani king and made him rich offerings, among which were many diamonds, rubies and pearls. Of the Rāni Dūrgavati of Garha-Mandla, Sleeman said: “Of all the sovereigns of this dynasty she lives most in the page of history and in the grateful recollections of the people. She built the great reservoir which lies close to Jubbulpore, and is called after her Rāni Talao or Queen’s pond; and many other highly useful works were formed by her about Garha.” When the castle of Chaurāgarh was sacked by one of Akbar’s generals in 1564, the booty found, according to Firishta, comprised, independently of jewels, images of gold and silver and other valuables, no fewer than a hundred jars of gold coin and a thousand elephants. Of the Chānda rulers the Settlement officer who has recorded their history wrote that, “They left, if we forget the last few years, a well-governed and contented kingdom, adorned with admirable works of engineering skill and prosperous to a point which no aftertime has reached. They have left their mark behind them in royal tombs, lakes and palaces, but most of all in the seven miles of battlemented stone wall, too wide now for the shrunk city of Chānda within it, which stands on the very border-line between the forest and the plain, having in front the rich valley of the Wardha river, and behind and up to the city walls deep forest extending to the east.” According to local tradition the great wall of Chānda and other buildings,such as the tombs of the Gond kings and the palace at Junona, were built by immigrant Telugu masons of the Kāpu or Munurwār castes. Another excellent rule of the Gond kings was to give to any one who made a tank a grant of land free of revenue of the land lying beneath it. A large number of small irrigation tanks were constructed under this inducement in the Wainganga valley, and still remain. But the Gond states had no strength for defence, as was shown when in the eighteenth century Marātha chiefs, having acquired some knowledge of the art of war and military training by their long fighting against the Mughals, cast covetous eyes on Gondwāna. The loose tribal system, so easy in time of peace, entirely failed to knit together the strength of the people when united action was most required, and the plain country fell before the Marātha armies almost without a struggle. In the strongholds, however, of the hilly ranges which hem in every part of Gondwāna the chiefs for long continued to maintain an unequal resistance, and to revenge their own wrongs by indiscriminate rapine and slaughter. In such cases the Marātha plan was to continue pillaging and harassing the Gonds until they obtained an acknowledgment of their supremacy and the promise, at least, of an annual tribute. Under this treatment the hill Gonds soon lost every vestige of civilisation, and became the cruel, treacherous savages depicted by travellers of this period. They regularly plundered and murdered stragglers and small parties passing through the hills, while from their strongholds, built on the most inaccessible spurs of the Satpūras, they would make a dash into the rich plains of Berār and the Nerbudda valley, and after looting and killing all night, return straight across country to their jungle fortresses, guided by the light of a bonfire on some commanding peak.8With the pacification of the country and the introduction of a strong and equable system of government by the British, these wild marauders soon settled down and became the timid and inoffensive labourers which they now are.

Palace of the Gond kings of Garha-Mandla at RāmnagarPalace of the Gond kings of Garha-Mandla at Rāmnagar

Palace of the Gond kings of Garha-Mandla at Rāmnagar

5. Mythica traditions. Story of Lingo.Mr. Hislop took down from a Pardhān priest a Gond myth of the creation of the world and the origin of theGonds, and their liberation from a cave, in which they had been shut up by Siva, through the divine hero Lingo. General Cunningham said that the exact position of the cave was not known, but it would seem to have been somewhere in the Himalayas, as the name Dhawalgiri, which means a white mountain, is mentioned. The cave, according to ordinary Gond tradition, was situated in Kachikopa Lohāgarh or the Iron Valley in the Red Hill. It seems clear from the story itself that its author was desirous of connecting the Gonds with Hindu mythology, and as Siva’s heaven is in the Himalayas, the name Dhawalgiri, where he located the cave, may refer to them. It is also said that the cave was at the source of the Jumna. But in Mr. Hislop’s version the cave where all the Gonds except four were shut up is not in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, as the Gonds commonly say; but only the four Gonds who escaped wandered to this latter place and dwelt there. And the story does not show that Kachikopa Lohāgarh was on Mount Dhawalgiri or the Himalayas, where it places the cave in which the Gonds were shut up, or anywhere near them. On the contrary, it would be quite consonant with Mr. Hislop’s version if Kachikopa Lohāgarh were in the Central Provinces. It may be surmised that in the original Gond legend their ancestors really were shut up in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, but not by the god Siva. Very possibly the story began with them in the cave in the Iron Valley in the Red Hill. But the Hindu who clearly composed Mr. Hislop’s version wished to introduce the god Siva as a principal actor, and he therefore removed the site of the cave to the Himalayas. This appears probable from the story itself, in which, in its present form, Kachikopa Lohāgarh plays no real part, and only appears because it was in the original tradition and has to be retained.9But the Gonds think that their ancestors were actually shut up in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, and one tradition puts the site at Pachmarhi, whose striking hill scenery and red soil cleft by many deep and inaccessible ravines would render it a likely place for the incident. Another version locates Kachikopa Lohāgarh at Dārekasain Bhandāra, where there is a place known as Kachagarh or the iron fort. But Pachmarhi is perhaps the more probable, as it has some deep caves, which have always been looked upon as sacred places. The point is of some interest, because this legend of the cave being in the Himalayas is adduced as a Gond tradition that their ancestors came from the north, and hence as supporting the theory of the immigration of the Dravidians through the north-west of India. But if the view now suggested is correct, the story of the cave being in the Himalayas is not a genuine Gond tradition at all, but a Hindu interpolation. The only other ground known to the writer for asserting that the Gonds believed their ancestors to have come from the north is that they bury their dead with the feet to the north. There are other obvious Hindu accretions in the legend, as the saintly Brāhmanic character of Lingo and his overcoming the gods through fasting and self-torture, and also the fact that Siva shut up the Gonds in the cave because he was offended by their dirty habits and bad smell. But the legend still contains a considerable quantity of true Gond tradition, and though somewhat tedious, it seems necessary to give an abridgment of Mr. Hislop’s account, with reproduction of selected passages. Captain Forsyth also made a modernised poetical version,10from which one extract is taken. Certain variations from another form of the legend obtained in Bastar are included.

5. Mythica traditions. Story of Lingo.

Mr. Hislop took down from a Pardhān priest a Gond myth of the creation of the world and the origin of theGonds, and their liberation from a cave, in which they had been shut up by Siva, through the divine hero Lingo. General Cunningham said that the exact position of the cave was not known, but it would seem to have been somewhere in the Himalayas, as the name Dhawalgiri, which means a white mountain, is mentioned. The cave, according to ordinary Gond tradition, was situated in Kachikopa Lohāgarh or the Iron Valley in the Red Hill. It seems clear from the story itself that its author was desirous of connecting the Gonds with Hindu mythology, and as Siva’s heaven is in the Himalayas, the name Dhawalgiri, where he located the cave, may refer to them. It is also said that the cave was at the source of the Jumna. But in Mr. Hislop’s version the cave where all the Gonds except four were shut up is not in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, as the Gonds commonly say; but only the four Gonds who escaped wandered to this latter place and dwelt there. And the story does not show that Kachikopa Lohāgarh was on Mount Dhawalgiri or the Himalayas, where it places the cave in which the Gonds were shut up, or anywhere near them. On the contrary, it would be quite consonant with Mr. Hislop’s version if Kachikopa Lohāgarh were in the Central Provinces. It may be surmised that in the original Gond legend their ancestors really were shut up in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, but not by the god Siva. Very possibly the story began with them in the cave in the Iron Valley in the Red Hill. But the Hindu who clearly composed Mr. Hislop’s version wished to introduce the god Siva as a principal actor, and he therefore removed the site of the cave to the Himalayas. This appears probable from the story itself, in which, in its present form, Kachikopa Lohāgarh plays no real part, and only appears because it was in the original tradition and has to be retained.9But the Gonds think that their ancestors were actually shut up in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, and one tradition puts the site at Pachmarhi, whose striking hill scenery and red soil cleft by many deep and inaccessible ravines would render it a likely place for the incident. Another version locates Kachikopa Lohāgarh at Dārekasain Bhandāra, where there is a place known as Kachagarh or the iron fort. But Pachmarhi is perhaps the more probable, as it has some deep caves, which have always been looked upon as sacred places. The point is of some interest, because this legend of the cave being in the Himalayas is adduced as a Gond tradition that their ancestors came from the north, and hence as supporting the theory of the immigration of the Dravidians through the north-west of India. But if the view now suggested is correct, the story of the cave being in the Himalayas is not a genuine Gond tradition at all, but a Hindu interpolation. The only other ground known to the writer for asserting that the Gonds believed their ancestors to have come from the north is that they bury their dead with the feet to the north. There are other obvious Hindu accretions in the legend, as the saintly Brāhmanic character of Lingo and his overcoming the gods through fasting and self-torture, and also the fact that Siva shut up the Gonds in the cave because he was offended by their dirty habits and bad smell. But the legend still contains a considerable quantity of true Gond tradition, and though somewhat tedious, it seems necessary to give an abridgment of Mr. Hislop’s account, with reproduction of selected passages. Captain Forsyth also made a modernised poetical version,10from which one extract is taken. Certain variations from another form of the legend obtained in Bastar are included.

Mr. Hislop took down from a Pardhān priest a Gond myth of the creation of the world and the origin of theGonds, and their liberation from a cave, in which they had been shut up by Siva, through the divine hero Lingo. General Cunningham said that the exact position of the cave was not known, but it would seem to have been somewhere in the Himalayas, as the name Dhawalgiri, which means a white mountain, is mentioned. The cave, according to ordinary Gond tradition, was situated in Kachikopa Lohāgarh or the Iron Valley in the Red Hill. It seems clear from the story itself that its author was desirous of connecting the Gonds with Hindu mythology, and as Siva’s heaven is in the Himalayas, the name Dhawalgiri, where he located the cave, may refer to them. It is also said that the cave was at the source of the Jumna. But in Mr. Hislop’s version the cave where all the Gonds except four were shut up is not in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, as the Gonds commonly say; but only the four Gonds who escaped wandered to this latter place and dwelt there. And the story does not show that Kachikopa Lohāgarh was on Mount Dhawalgiri or the Himalayas, where it places the cave in which the Gonds were shut up, or anywhere near them. On the contrary, it would be quite consonant with Mr. Hislop’s version if Kachikopa Lohāgarh were in the Central Provinces. It may be surmised that in the original Gond legend their ancestors really were shut up in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, but not by the god Siva. Very possibly the story began with them in the cave in the Iron Valley in the Red Hill. But the Hindu who clearly composed Mr. Hislop’s version wished to introduce the god Siva as a principal actor, and he therefore removed the site of the cave to the Himalayas. This appears probable from the story itself, in which, in its present form, Kachikopa Lohāgarh plays no real part, and only appears because it was in the original tradition and has to be retained.9But the Gonds think that their ancestors were actually shut up in Kachikopa Lohāgarh, and one tradition puts the site at Pachmarhi, whose striking hill scenery and red soil cleft by many deep and inaccessible ravines would render it a likely place for the incident. Another version locates Kachikopa Lohāgarh at Dārekasain Bhandāra, where there is a place known as Kachagarh or the iron fort. But Pachmarhi is perhaps the more probable, as it has some deep caves, which have always been looked upon as sacred places. The point is of some interest, because this legend of the cave being in the Himalayas is adduced as a Gond tradition that their ancestors came from the north, and hence as supporting the theory of the immigration of the Dravidians through the north-west of India. But if the view now suggested is correct, the story of the cave being in the Himalayas is not a genuine Gond tradition at all, but a Hindu interpolation. The only other ground known to the writer for asserting that the Gonds believed their ancestors to have come from the north is that they bury their dead with the feet to the north. There are other obvious Hindu accretions in the legend, as the saintly Brāhmanic character of Lingo and his overcoming the gods through fasting and self-torture, and also the fact that Siva shut up the Gonds in the cave because he was offended by their dirty habits and bad smell. But the legend still contains a considerable quantity of true Gond tradition, and though somewhat tedious, it seems necessary to give an abridgment of Mr. Hislop’s account, with reproduction of selected passages. Captain Forsyth also made a modernised poetical version,10from which one extract is taken. Certain variations from another form of the legend obtained in Bastar are included.

6. Legend of the creation.In the beginning there was water everywhere, and God was born in a lotus-leaf and lived alone. One day he rubbed his arm and from the rubbing made a crow, which sat on his shoulder; he also made a crab, which swam out over the waters. God then ordered the crow to fly over the world and bring some earth. The crow flew about and could find no earth, but it saw the crab, which was supporting itself with one leg resting on the bottom of the sea. The crow was very tired and perched on the crab’s back, which was soft so that the crow’s feet made marks on it, which are still visible on the bodies of all crabs at present. The crow asked the crab where any earth could be found. The crab said that if God would make its body hard it would findsome earth. God said he would make part of the crab’s body hard, and he made its back hard, as it still remains. The crab then dived to the bottom of the sea, where it found Kenchna, the earth-worm. It caught hold of Kenchna by the neck with its claws and the mark thus made is still to be seen on the earth-worm’s neck. Then the earth-worm brought up earth out of its mouth and the crab brought this to God, and God scattered it over the sea and patches of land appeared. God then walked over the earth and a boil came on his hand, and out of it Mahādeo and Pārvati were born.

6. Legend of the creation.

In the beginning there was water everywhere, and God was born in a lotus-leaf and lived alone. One day he rubbed his arm and from the rubbing made a crow, which sat on his shoulder; he also made a crab, which swam out over the waters. God then ordered the crow to fly over the world and bring some earth. The crow flew about and could find no earth, but it saw the crab, which was supporting itself with one leg resting on the bottom of the sea. The crow was very tired and perched on the crab’s back, which was soft so that the crow’s feet made marks on it, which are still visible on the bodies of all crabs at present. The crow asked the crab where any earth could be found. The crab said that if God would make its body hard it would findsome earth. God said he would make part of the crab’s body hard, and he made its back hard, as it still remains. The crab then dived to the bottom of the sea, where it found Kenchna, the earth-worm. It caught hold of Kenchna by the neck with its claws and the mark thus made is still to be seen on the earth-worm’s neck. Then the earth-worm brought up earth out of its mouth and the crab brought this to God, and God scattered it over the sea and patches of land appeared. God then walked over the earth and a boil came on his hand, and out of it Mahādeo and Pārvati were born.

In the beginning there was water everywhere, and God was born in a lotus-leaf and lived alone. One day he rubbed his arm and from the rubbing made a crow, which sat on his shoulder; he also made a crab, which swam out over the waters. God then ordered the crow to fly over the world and bring some earth. The crow flew about and could find no earth, but it saw the crab, which was supporting itself with one leg resting on the bottom of the sea. The crow was very tired and perched on the crab’s back, which was soft so that the crow’s feet made marks on it, which are still visible on the bodies of all crabs at present. The crow asked the crab where any earth could be found. The crab said that if God would make its body hard it would findsome earth. God said he would make part of the crab’s body hard, and he made its back hard, as it still remains. The crab then dived to the bottom of the sea, where it found Kenchna, the earth-worm. It caught hold of Kenchna by the neck with its claws and the mark thus made is still to be seen on the earth-worm’s neck. Then the earth-worm brought up earth out of its mouth and the crab brought this to God, and God scattered it over the sea and patches of land appeared. God then walked over the earth and a boil came on his hand, and out of it Mahādeo and Pārvati were born.

7. Creation of the Gonds and their imprisonment by Mahādeo.From Mahādeo’s urine numerous vegetables began to spring up. Pārvati ate of these and became pregnant and gave birth to eighteen threshing-floors11of Brāhman gods and twelve threshing-floors of Gond gods. All the Gonds were scattered over the jungle. They behaved like Gonds and not like good Hindus, with lamentable results, as follows:12Hither and thither all the Gonds were scattered in the jungle.Places, hills, and valleys were filled with these Gonds.Even trees had their Gonds. How did the Gonds conduct themselves?Whatever came across them they must needs kill and eat it;They made no distinction. If they saw a jackal they killedAnd ate it; no distinction was observed; they respected not antelope, sāmbhar and the like.They made no distinction in eating a sow, a quail, a pigeon,A crow, a kite, an adjutant, a vulture,A lizard, a frog, a beetle, a cow, a calf, a he- and she-buffalo,Rats, bandicoots, squirrels—all these they killed and ate.So began the Gonds to do. They devoured raw and ripe things;They did not bathe for six months together;They did not wash their faces properly, even on dunghills they would fall down and remain.Such were the Gonds born in the beginning. A smell was spread over the jungleWhen the Gonds were thus disorderly behaved; they became disagreeable to Mahādeva,Who said: “The caste of the Gonds is very bad;I will not preserve them; they will ruin my hill Dhawalgiri.”Mahādeo then determined to get rid of the Gonds. With this view he invited them all to a meeting. When they satdown Mahādeo made a squirrel from the rubbings of his body and let it loose in the middle of the Gonds. All the Gonds at once got up and began to chase it, hoping for a meal. They seized sticks and stones and clods of earth, and their unkempt hair flew in the wind. The squirrel dodged about and ran away, and finally, directed by Mahādeo, ran into a large cave with all the Gonds after it. Mahādeo then rolled a large stone to the mouth of the cave and shut up all the Gonds in it. Only four remained outside, and they fled away to Kachikopa Lohāgarh, or the Iron Cave in the Red Hill, and lived there. Meanwhile Pārvati perceived that the smell of the Gonds, which had pleased her, had vanished from Dhawalgiri. She desired it to be restored and commenced a devotion. For six months she fasted and practised austerities. Bhagwān (God) was swinging in a swing. He was disturbed by Pārvati’s devotion. He sent Nārāyan (the sun) to see who was fasting. Nārāyan came and found Pārvati and asked her what she wanted. She said that she missed her Gonds and wanted them back. Nārāyan told Bhagwān, who promised that they should be given back.

7. Creation of the Gonds and their imprisonment by Mahādeo.

From Mahādeo’s urine numerous vegetables began to spring up. Pārvati ate of these and became pregnant and gave birth to eighteen threshing-floors11of Brāhman gods and twelve threshing-floors of Gond gods. All the Gonds were scattered over the jungle. They behaved like Gonds and not like good Hindus, with lamentable results, as follows:12Hither and thither all the Gonds were scattered in the jungle.Places, hills, and valleys were filled with these Gonds.Even trees had their Gonds. How did the Gonds conduct themselves?Whatever came across them they must needs kill and eat it;They made no distinction. If they saw a jackal they killedAnd ate it; no distinction was observed; they respected not antelope, sāmbhar and the like.They made no distinction in eating a sow, a quail, a pigeon,A crow, a kite, an adjutant, a vulture,A lizard, a frog, a beetle, a cow, a calf, a he- and she-buffalo,Rats, bandicoots, squirrels—all these they killed and ate.So began the Gonds to do. They devoured raw and ripe things;They did not bathe for six months together;They did not wash their faces properly, even on dunghills they would fall down and remain.Such were the Gonds born in the beginning. A smell was spread over the jungleWhen the Gonds were thus disorderly behaved; they became disagreeable to Mahādeva,Who said: “The caste of the Gonds is very bad;I will not preserve them; they will ruin my hill Dhawalgiri.”Mahādeo then determined to get rid of the Gonds. With this view he invited them all to a meeting. When they satdown Mahādeo made a squirrel from the rubbings of his body and let it loose in the middle of the Gonds. All the Gonds at once got up and began to chase it, hoping for a meal. They seized sticks and stones and clods of earth, and their unkempt hair flew in the wind. The squirrel dodged about and ran away, and finally, directed by Mahādeo, ran into a large cave with all the Gonds after it. Mahādeo then rolled a large stone to the mouth of the cave and shut up all the Gonds in it. Only four remained outside, and they fled away to Kachikopa Lohāgarh, or the Iron Cave in the Red Hill, and lived there. Meanwhile Pārvati perceived that the smell of the Gonds, which had pleased her, had vanished from Dhawalgiri. She desired it to be restored and commenced a devotion. For six months she fasted and practised austerities. Bhagwān (God) was swinging in a swing. He was disturbed by Pārvati’s devotion. He sent Nārāyan (the sun) to see who was fasting. Nārāyan came and found Pārvati and asked her what she wanted. She said that she missed her Gonds and wanted them back. Nārāyan told Bhagwān, who promised that they should be given back.

From Mahādeo’s urine numerous vegetables began to spring up. Pārvati ate of these and became pregnant and gave birth to eighteen threshing-floors11of Brāhman gods and twelve threshing-floors of Gond gods. All the Gonds were scattered over the jungle. They behaved like Gonds and not like good Hindus, with lamentable results, as follows:12

Hither and thither all the Gonds were scattered in the jungle.Places, hills, and valleys were filled with these Gonds.Even trees had their Gonds. How did the Gonds conduct themselves?Whatever came across them they must needs kill and eat it;They made no distinction. If they saw a jackal they killedAnd ate it; no distinction was observed; they respected not antelope, sāmbhar and the like.They made no distinction in eating a sow, a quail, a pigeon,A crow, a kite, an adjutant, a vulture,A lizard, a frog, a beetle, a cow, a calf, a he- and she-buffalo,Rats, bandicoots, squirrels—all these they killed and ate.So began the Gonds to do. They devoured raw and ripe things;They did not bathe for six months together;They did not wash their faces properly, even on dunghills they would fall down and remain.Such were the Gonds born in the beginning. A smell was spread over the jungleWhen the Gonds were thus disorderly behaved; they became disagreeable to Mahādeva,Who said: “The caste of the Gonds is very bad;I will not preserve them; they will ruin my hill Dhawalgiri.”

Hither and thither all the Gonds were scattered in the jungle.

Places, hills, and valleys were filled with these Gonds.

Even trees had their Gonds. How did the Gonds conduct themselves?

Whatever came across them they must needs kill and eat it;

They made no distinction. If they saw a jackal they killed

And ate it; no distinction was observed; they respected not antelope, sāmbhar and the like.

They made no distinction in eating a sow, a quail, a pigeon,

A crow, a kite, an adjutant, a vulture,

A lizard, a frog, a beetle, a cow, a calf, a he- and she-buffalo,

Rats, bandicoots, squirrels—all these they killed and ate.

So began the Gonds to do. They devoured raw and ripe things;

They did not bathe for six months together;

They did not wash their faces properly, even on dunghills they would fall down and remain.

Such were the Gonds born in the beginning. A smell was spread over the jungle

When the Gonds were thus disorderly behaved; they became disagreeable to Mahādeva,

Who said: “The caste of the Gonds is very bad;

I will not preserve them; they will ruin my hill Dhawalgiri.”

Mahādeo then determined to get rid of the Gonds. With this view he invited them all to a meeting. When they satdown Mahādeo made a squirrel from the rubbings of his body and let it loose in the middle of the Gonds. All the Gonds at once got up and began to chase it, hoping for a meal. They seized sticks and stones and clods of earth, and their unkempt hair flew in the wind. The squirrel dodged about and ran away, and finally, directed by Mahādeo, ran into a large cave with all the Gonds after it. Mahādeo then rolled a large stone to the mouth of the cave and shut up all the Gonds in it. Only four remained outside, and they fled away to Kachikopa Lohāgarh, or the Iron Cave in the Red Hill, and lived there. Meanwhile Pārvati perceived that the smell of the Gonds, which had pleased her, had vanished from Dhawalgiri. She desired it to be restored and commenced a devotion. For six months she fasted and practised austerities. Bhagwān (God) was swinging in a swing. He was disturbed by Pārvati’s devotion. He sent Nārāyan (the sun) to see who was fasting. Nārāyan came and found Pārvati and asked her what she wanted. She said that she missed her Gonds and wanted them back. Nārāyan told Bhagwān, who promised that they should be given back.

8. The birth and history of Lingo.The yellow flowers of the tree Pahindi were growing on Dhawalgiri. Bhagwān sent thunder and lightning, and the flower conceived. First fell from it a heap of turmeric or saffron. In the morning the sun came out, the flower burst open, and Lingo was born. Lingo was a perfect child. He had a diamond on his navel and a sandalwood mark on his forehead. He fell from the flower into the heap of turmeric. He played in the turmeric and slept in a swing. He became nine years old. He said there was no one there like him, and he would go where he could find his fellows. He climbed a needle-like hill,13and from afar off he saw Kachikopa Lohāgarh and the four Gonds. He came to them. They saw he was like them, and asked him to be their brother. They ate only animals. Lingo asked them to find for him an animal without a liver, and they searched all through the forest and could not. Then Lingo told them to cut down trees and make a field. They tried to cut down theanjan14trees, but their hands were blisteredand they could not go on. Lingo had been asleep. He woke up and saw they had only cut down one or two trees. He took the axe and cut down many trees, and fenced a field and made a gate to it. Black soil appeared. It began to rain, and rained without ceasing for three days. All the rivers and streams were filled. The field became green with rice, and it grew up. There were sixteen score ofnīlgaior blue-bull. They had two leaders, an old bull and his nephew. The young bull saw the rice of Lingo’s field and wished to eat it. The uncle told him not to eat of the field of Lingo or all thenīlgaiwould be killed. But the young bull did not heed, and took off all thenīlgaito eat the rice. When they got to the field they could find no entrance, so they jumped the fence, which was five cubits high. They ate all the rice from off the field and ran away. The young bull told them as they ran to put their feet on leaves and stones and boughs and grass, and not on the ground, so that they might not be tracked. Lingo woke up and went to see his field, and found all the rice eaten. He knew thenīlgaihad done it, and showed the brothers how to track them by the few marks which they had by accident made on the ground. They did so, and surrounded thenīlgaiand killed them all with their bows and arrows except the old uncle, from whom Lingo’s arrow rebounded harmlessly on account of his innocence, and one young doe. From these two thenīlgairace was preserved. Then Lingo told the Gonds to make fire and roast the deer as follows:He said, I will show you something; see if anywhere in yourWaistbands there is a flint; if so, take it out and make fire.But the matches did not ignite. As they were doing this, a watch of the night passed.They threw down the matches, and said to Lingo, Thou art a Saint;Show us where our fire is, and why it does not come out.Lingo said: Three koss (six miles) hence is Rikad Gawādi the giant.There is fire in his field; where smoke shall appear, go there,Come not back without bringing fire. Thus said Lingo.They said, We have never seen the place, where shall we go?Ye have never seen where this fire is? Lingo said;I will discharge an arrow thither.Go in the direction of the arrow; there you will get fire.He applied the arrow, and having pulled the bow, he discharged one:It crashed on, breaking twigs and making its passage clear.Having cut through the high grass, it made its way and reached the old man’s place (above mentioned).The arrow dropped close to the fire of the old man, who had daughters.The arrow was near the door. As soon as they saw it, the daughters came and took it up,And kept it. They asked their father: When will you give us in marriage?Thus said the seven sisters, the daughters of the old man.I will marry you as I think best for you;Remain as you are. So said the old man, the Rikad Gawādi.Lingo said, Hear, O brethren! I shot an arrow, it made its way.Go there, and you will see fire; bring thence the fire.Each said to the other, I will not go; but (at last) the youngest went.He descried the fire, and went to it; then beheld he an old man looking like the trunk of a tree.He saw from afar the old man’s field, around which a hedge was made.The old man kept only one way to it, and fastened a screen to the entrance, and had a fire in the centre of the field.He placed logs of the Mahua and Anjun and Sāj trees on the fire,Teak faggots he gathered, and enkindled flame.The fire blazed up, and warmed by the heat of it, in deep sleep lay the Rikad Gawādi.Thus the old man like a giant did appear. When the young Gond beheld him, he shivered;His heart leaped; and he was much afraid in his mind, and said:If the old man were to rise he will see me, and I shall be eaten up;I will steal away the fire and carry it off, then my life will be safe.He went near the fire secretly, and took a brand oftenduwood tree.When he was lifting it up a spark flew and fell on the hip of the old man.That spark was as large as a pot; the giant was blistered; he awoke alarmed.And said: I am hungry, and I cannot get food to eat anywhere; I feel a desire for flesh;Like a tender cucumber hast thou come to me. So said the old man to the Gond,Who began to fly. The old man followed him. The Gond then threw away the brand which he had stolen.He ran onward, and was not caught. Then the old man, being tired, turned back.Thence he returned to his field, and came near the fire and sat, and said, What nonsense is this?A tender prey had come within my reach;I said I will cut it up as soon as I can, but it escaped from my hand!Let it go; it will come again, then I will catch it. It has gone now.Then what happened? the Gond returned and came to his brethren.And said to them: Hear, O brethren, I went for fire, as you sent me, to that field; I beheld an old man like a giant.With hands stretched out and feet lifted up. I ran. I thus survived with difficulty.The brethren said to Lingo, We will not go. Lingo said, Sit ye here.O brethren, what sort of a person is this giant? I will go and see him.So saying, Lingo went away and reached a river.He thence arose and went onward. As he looked, he saw in front three gourds.Then he saw a bamboo stick, which he took up.When the river was floodedIt washed away a gourd tree, and its seed fell, and each stem produced bottle-gourds.He inserted a bamboo stick in the hollow of the gourd and made a guitar.He plucked two hairs from his head and strung it.He held a bow and fixed eleven keys to that one stick, and played on it.Lingo was much pleased in his mind.Holding it in his hand, he walked in the direction of the old man’s field.He approached the fire where Rikad Gawādi was sleeping.The giant seemed like a log lying close to the fire; his teeth were hideously visible;His mouth was gaping. Lingo looked at the old man while sleeping.His eyes were shut. Lingo said, This is not a good time to carry off the old man while he is asleep.In front he looked, and turned round and saw a treeOf the pīpal sort standing erect; he beheld its branches with wonder, and looked for a fit place to mount upon.It appeared a very good tree; so he climbed it, and ascended to the top of it to sit.As he sat the cock crew. Lingo said, It is daybreak;Meanwhile the old man must be rising. Therefore Lingo took the guitar in his hand,And held it; he gave a stroke, and it sounded well; from it he drew one hundred tunes.It sounded well, as if he was singing with his voice.Thus (as it were) a song was heard.Trees and hills were silent at its sound. The music loudly entered intoThe old man’s ears; he rose in haste, and sat up quickly; lifted up his eyes,And desired to hear (more). He looked hither and thither, but could not make out whence the sound came.The old man said: Whence has a creature come here to-day to sing like the maina bird?He saw a tree, but nothing appeared to him as he looked underneath it.He did not look up; he looked at the thickets and ravines, butSaw nothing. He came to the road, and near to the fire in the midst of his field and stood.Sometimes sitting, and sometimes standing, jumping, and rolling, he began to dance.The music sounded as the day dawned. His old woman came out in the morning and began to look out.She heard in the direction of the field a melodious music playing.When she arrived near the edge of her field, she heard music in her ears.That old woman called her husband to her.With stretched hands, and lifted feet, and with his neck bent down, he danced.Thus he danced. The old woman looked towards her husband, and said, My old man, my husband,Surely, that music is very melodious. I will dance, said the old woman.Having made the fold of her dress loose, she quickly began to dance near the hedge.

8. The birth and history of Lingo.

The yellow flowers of the tree Pahindi were growing on Dhawalgiri. Bhagwān sent thunder and lightning, and the flower conceived. First fell from it a heap of turmeric or saffron. In the morning the sun came out, the flower burst open, and Lingo was born. Lingo was a perfect child. He had a diamond on his navel and a sandalwood mark on his forehead. He fell from the flower into the heap of turmeric. He played in the turmeric and slept in a swing. He became nine years old. He said there was no one there like him, and he would go where he could find his fellows. He climbed a needle-like hill,13and from afar off he saw Kachikopa Lohāgarh and the four Gonds. He came to them. They saw he was like them, and asked him to be their brother. They ate only animals. Lingo asked them to find for him an animal without a liver, and they searched all through the forest and could not. Then Lingo told them to cut down trees and make a field. They tried to cut down theanjan14trees, but their hands were blisteredand they could not go on. Lingo had been asleep. He woke up and saw they had only cut down one or two trees. He took the axe and cut down many trees, and fenced a field and made a gate to it. Black soil appeared. It began to rain, and rained without ceasing for three days. All the rivers and streams were filled. The field became green with rice, and it grew up. There were sixteen score ofnīlgaior blue-bull. They had two leaders, an old bull and his nephew. The young bull saw the rice of Lingo’s field and wished to eat it. The uncle told him not to eat of the field of Lingo or all thenīlgaiwould be killed. But the young bull did not heed, and took off all thenīlgaito eat the rice. When they got to the field they could find no entrance, so they jumped the fence, which was five cubits high. They ate all the rice from off the field and ran away. The young bull told them as they ran to put their feet on leaves and stones and boughs and grass, and not on the ground, so that they might not be tracked. Lingo woke up and went to see his field, and found all the rice eaten. He knew thenīlgaihad done it, and showed the brothers how to track them by the few marks which they had by accident made on the ground. They did so, and surrounded thenīlgaiand killed them all with their bows and arrows except the old uncle, from whom Lingo’s arrow rebounded harmlessly on account of his innocence, and one young doe. From these two thenīlgairace was preserved. Then Lingo told the Gonds to make fire and roast the deer as follows:He said, I will show you something; see if anywhere in yourWaistbands there is a flint; if so, take it out and make fire.But the matches did not ignite. As they were doing this, a watch of the night passed.They threw down the matches, and said to Lingo, Thou art a Saint;Show us where our fire is, and why it does not come out.Lingo said: Three koss (six miles) hence is Rikad Gawādi the giant.There is fire in his field; where smoke shall appear, go there,Come not back without bringing fire. Thus said Lingo.They said, We have never seen the place, where shall we go?Ye have never seen where this fire is? Lingo said;I will discharge an arrow thither.Go in the direction of the arrow; there you will get fire.He applied the arrow, and having pulled the bow, he discharged one:It crashed on, breaking twigs and making its passage clear.Having cut through the high grass, it made its way and reached the old man’s place (above mentioned).The arrow dropped close to the fire of the old man, who had daughters.The arrow was near the door. As soon as they saw it, the daughters came and took it up,And kept it. They asked their father: When will you give us in marriage?Thus said the seven sisters, the daughters of the old man.I will marry you as I think best for you;Remain as you are. So said the old man, the Rikad Gawādi.Lingo said, Hear, O brethren! I shot an arrow, it made its way.Go there, and you will see fire; bring thence the fire.Each said to the other, I will not go; but (at last) the youngest went.He descried the fire, and went to it; then beheld he an old man looking like the trunk of a tree.He saw from afar the old man’s field, around which a hedge was made.The old man kept only one way to it, and fastened a screen to the entrance, and had a fire in the centre of the field.He placed logs of the Mahua and Anjun and Sāj trees on the fire,Teak faggots he gathered, and enkindled flame.The fire blazed up, and warmed by the heat of it, in deep sleep lay the Rikad Gawādi.Thus the old man like a giant did appear. When the young Gond beheld him, he shivered;His heart leaped; and he was much afraid in his mind, and said:If the old man were to rise he will see me, and I shall be eaten up;I will steal away the fire and carry it off, then my life will be safe.He went near the fire secretly, and took a brand oftenduwood tree.When he was lifting it up a spark flew and fell on the hip of the old man.That spark was as large as a pot; the giant was blistered; he awoke alarmed.And said: I am hungry, and I cannot get food to eat anywhere; I feel a desire for flesh;Like a tender cucumber hast thou come to me. So said the old man to the Gond,Who began to fly. The old man followed him. The Gond then threw away the brand which he had stolen.He ran onward, and was not caught. Then the old man, being tired, turned back.Thence he returned to his field, and came near the fire and sat, and said, What nonsense is this?A tender prey had come within my reach;I said I will cut it up as soon as I can, but it escaped from my hand!Let it go; it will come again, then I will catch it. It has gone now.Then what happened? the Gond returned and came to his brethren.And said to them: Hear, O brethren, I went for fire, as you sent me, to that field; I beheld an old man like a giant.With hands stretched out and feet lifted up. I ran. I thus survived with difficulty.The brethren said to Lingo, We will not go. Lingo said, Sit ye here.O brethren, what sort of a person is this giant? I will go and see him.So saying, Lingo went away and reached a river.He thence arose and went onward. As he looked, he saw in front three gourds.Then he saw a bamboo stick, which he took up.When the river was floodedIt washed away a gourd tree, and its seed fell, and each stem produced bottle-gourds.He inserted a bamboo stick in the hollow of the gourd and made a guitar.He plucked two hairs from his head and strung it.He held a bow and fixed eleven keys to that one stick, and played on it.Lingo was much pleased in his mind.Holding it in his hand, he walked in the direction of the old man’s field.He approached the fire where Rikad Gawādi was sleeping.The giant seemed like a log lying close to the fire; his teeth were hideously visible;His mouth was gaping. Lingo looked at the old man while sleeping.His eyes were shut. Lingo said, This is not a good time to carry off the old man while he is asleep.In front he looked, and turned round and saw a treeOf the pīpal sort standing erect; he beheld its branches with wonder, and looked for a fit place to mount upon.It appeared a very good tree; so he climbed it, and ascended to the top of it to sit.As he sat the cock crew. Lingo said, It is daybreak;Meanwhile the old man must be rising. Therefore Lingo took the guitar in his hand,And held it; he gave a stroke, and it sounded well; from it he drew one hundred tunes.It sounded well, as if he was singing with his voice.Thus (as it were) a song was heard.Trees and hills were silent at its sound. The music loudly entered intoThe old man’s ears; he rose in haste, and sat up quickly; lifted up his eyes,And desired to hear (more). He looked hither and thither, but could not make out whence the sound came.The old man said: Whence has a creature come here to-day to sing like the maina bird?He saw a tree, but nothing appeared to him as he looked underneath it.He did not look up; he looked at the thickets and ravines, butSaw nothing. He came to the road, and near to the fire in the midst of his field and stood.Sometimes sitting, and sometimes standing, jumping, and rolling, he began to dance.The music sounded as the day dawned. His old woman came out in the morning and began to look out.She heard in the direction of the field a melodious music playing.When she arrived near the edge of her field, she heard music in her ears.That old woman called her husband to her.With stretched hands, and lifted feet, and with his neck bent down, he danced.Thus he danced. The old woman looked towards her husband, and said, My old man, my husband,Surely, that music is very melodious. I will dance, said the old woman.Having made the fold of her dress loose, she quickly began to dance near the hedge.

The yellow flowers of the tree Pahindi were growing on Dhawalgiri. Bhagwān sent thunder and lightning, and the flower conceived. First fell from it a heap of turmeric or saffron. In the morning the sun came out, the flower burst open, and Lingo was born. Lingo was a perfect child. He had a diamond on his navel and a sandalwood mark on his forehead. He fell from the flower into the heap of turmeric. He played in the turmeric and slept in a swing. He became nine years old. He said there was no one there like him, and he would go where he could find his fellows. He climbed a needle-like hill,13and from afar off he saw Kachikopa Lohāgarh and the four Gonds. He came to them. They saw he was like them, and asked him to be their brother. They ate only animals. Lingo asked them to find for him an animal without a liver, and they searched all through the forest and could not. Then Lingo told them to cut down trees and make a field. They tried to cut down theanjan14trees, but their hands were blisteredand they could not go on. Lingo had been asleep. He woke up and saw they had only cut down one or two trees. He took the axe and cut down many trees, and fenced a field and made a gate to it. Black soil appeared. It began to rain, and rained without ceasing for three days. All the rivers and streams were filled. The field became green with rice, and it grew up. There were sixteen score ofnīlgaior blue-bull. They had two leaders, an old bull and his nephew. The young bull saw the rice of Lingo’s field and wished to eat it. The uncle told him not to eat of the field of Lingo or all thenīlgaiwould be killed. But the young bull did not heed, and took off all thenīlgaito eat the rice. When they got to the field they could find no entrance, so they jumped the fence, which was five cubits high. They ate all the rice from off the field and ran away. The young bull told them as they ran to put their feet on leaves and stones and boughs and grass, and not on the ground, so that they might not be tracked. Lingo woke up and went to see his field, and found all the rice eaten. He knew thenīlgaihad done it, and showed the brothers how to track them by the few marks which they had by accident made on the ground. They did so, and surrounded thenīlgaiand killed them all with their bows and arrows except the old uncle, from whom Lingo’s arrow rebounded harmlessly on account of his innocence, and one young doe. From these two thenīlgairace was preserved. Then Lingo told the Gonds to make fire and roast the deer as follows:

He said, I will show you something; see if anywhere in yourWaistbands there is a flint; if so, take it out and make fire.But the matches did not ignite. As they were doing this, a watch of the night passed.They threw down the matches, and said to Lingo, Thou art a Saint;Show us where our fire is, and why it does not come out.Lingo said: Three koss (six miles) hence is Rikad Gawādi the giant.There is fire in his field; where smoke shall appear, go there,Come not back without bringing fire. Thus said Lingo.They said, We have never seen the place, where shall we go?Ye have never seen where this fire is? Lingo said;I will discharge an arrow thither.Go in the direction of the arrow; there you will get fire.He applied the arrow, and having pulled the bow, he discharged one:It crashed on, breaking twigs and making its passage clear.Having cut through the high grass, it made its way and reached the old man’s place (above mentioned).The arrow dropped close to the fire of the old man, who had daughters.The arrow was near the door. As soon as they saw it, the daughters came and took it up,And kept it. They asked their father: When will you give us in marriage?Thus said the seven sisters, the daughters of the old man.I will marry you as I think best for you;Remain as you are. So said the old man, the Rikad Gawādi.Lingo said, Hear, O brethren! I shot an arrow, it made its way.Go there, and you will see fire; bring thence the fire.Each said to the other, I will not go; but (at last) the youngest went.He descried the fire, and went to it; then beheld he an old man looking like the trunk of a tree.He saw from afar the old man’s field, around which a hedge was made.The old man kept only one way to it, and fastened a screen to the entrance, and had a fire in the centre of the field.He placed logs of the Mahua and Anjun and Sāj trees on the fire,Teak faggots he gathered, and enkindled flame.The fire blazed up, and warmed by the heat of it, in deep sleep lay the Rikad Gawādi.Thus the old man like a giant did appear. When the young Gond beheld him, he shivered;His heart leaped; and he was much afraid in his mind, and said:If the old man were to rise he will see me, and I shall be eaten up;I will steal away the fire and carry it off, then my life will be safe.He went near the fire secretly, and took a brand oftenduwood tree.When he was lifting it up a spark flew and fell on the hip of the old man.That spark was as large as a pot; the giant was blistered; he awoke alarmed.And said: I am hungry, and I cannot get food to eat anywhere; I feel a desire for flesh;Like a tender cucumber hast thou come to me. So said the old man to the Gond,Who began to fly. The old man followed him. The Gond then threw away the brand which he had stolen.He ran onward, and was not caught. Then the old man, being tired, turned back.Thence he returned to his field, and came near the fire and sat, and said, What nonsense is this?A tender prey had come within my reach;I said I will cut it up as soon as I can, but it escaped from my hand!Let it go; it will come again, then I will catch it. It has gone now.Then what happened? the Gond returned and came to his brethren.And said to them: Hear, O brethren, I went for fire, as you sent me, to that field; I beheld an old man like a giant.With hands stretched out and feet lifted up. I ran. I thus survived with difficulty.The brethren said to Lingo, We will not go. Lingo said, Sit ye here.O brethren, what sort of a person is this giant? I will go and see him.So saying, Lingo went away and reached a river.He thence arose and went onward. As he looked, he saw in front three gourds.Then he saw a bamboo stick, which he took up.When the river was floodedIt washed away a gourd tree, and its seed fell, and each stem produced bottle-gourds.He inserted a bamboo stick in the hollow of the gourd and made a guitar.He plucked two hairs from his head and strung it.He held a bow and fixed eleven keys to that one stick, and played on it.Lingo was much pleased in his mind.Holding it in his hand, he walked in the direction of the old man’s field.He approached the fire where Rikad Gawādi was sleeping.The giant seemed like a log lying close to the fire; his teeth were hideously visible;His mouth was gaping. Lingo looked at the old man while sleeping.His eyes were shut. Lingo said, This is not a good time to carry off the old man while he is asleep.In front he looked, and turned round and saw a treeOf the pīpal sort standing erect; he beheld its branches with wonder, and looked for a fit place to mount upon.It appeared a very good tree; so he climbed it, and ascended to the top of it to sit.As he sat the cock crew. Lingo said, It is daybreak;Meanwhile the old man must be rising. Therefore Lingo took the guitar in his hand,And held it; he gave a stroke, and it sounded well; from it he drew one hundred tunes.It sounded well, as if he was singing with his voice.Thus (as it were) a song was heard.Trees and hills were silent at its sound. The music loudly entered intoThe old man’s ears; he rose in haste, and sat up quickly; lifted up his eyes,And desired to hear (more). He looked hither and thither, but could not make out whence the sound came.The old man said: Whence has a creature come here to-day to sing like the maina bird?He saw a tree, but nothing appeared to him as he looked underneath it.He did not look up; he looked at the thickets and ravines, butSaw nothing. He came to the road, and near to the fire in the midst of his field and stood.Sometimes sitting, and sometimes standing, jumping, and rolling, he began to dance.The music sounded as the day dawned. His old woman came out in the morning and began to look out.She heard in the direction of the field a melodious music playing.When she arrived near the edge of her field, she heard music in her ears.That old woman called her husband to her.With stretched hands, and lifted feet, and with his neck bent down, he danced.Thus he danced. The old woman looked towards her husband, and said, My old man, my husband,Surely, that music is very melodious. I will dance, said the old woman.Having made the fold of her dress loose, she quickly began to dance near the hedge.

He said, I will show you something; see if anywhere in your

Waistbands there is a flint; if so, take it out and make fire.

But the matches did not ignite. As they were doing this, a watch of the night passed.

They threw down the matches, and said to Lingo, Thou art a Saint;

Show us where our fire is, and why it does not come out.

Lingo said: Three koss (six miles) hence is Rikad Gawādi the giant.

There is fire in his field; where smoke shall appear, go there,

Come not back without bringing fire. Thus said Lingo.

They said, We have never seen the place, where shall we go?

Ye have never seen where this fire is? Lingo said;

I will discharge an arrow thither.

Go in the direction of the arrow; there you will get fire.

He applied the arrow, and having pulled the bow, he discharged one:

It crashed on, breaking twigs and making its passage clear.

Having cut through the high grass, it made its way and reached the old man’s place (above mentioned).

The arrow dropped close to the fire of the old man, who had daughters.

The arrow was near the door. As soon as they saw it, the daughters came and took it up,

And kept it. They asked their father: When will you give us in marriage?

Thus said the seven sisters, the daughters of the old man.

I will marry you as I think best for you;

Remain as you are. So said the old man, the Rikad Gawādi.

Lingo said, Hear, O brethren! I shot an arrow, it made its way.

Go there, and you will see fire; bring thence the fire.

Each said to the other, I will not go; but (at last) the youngest went.

He descried the fire, and went to it; then beheld he an old man looking like the trunk of a tree.

He saw from afar the old man’s field, around which a hedge was made.

The old man kept only one way to it, and fastened a screen to the entrance, and had a fire in the centre of the field.

He placed logs of the Mahua and Anjun and Sāj trees on the fire,

Teak faggots he gathered, and enkindled flame.

The fire blazed up, and warmed by the heat of it, in deep sleep lay the Rikad Gawādi.

Thus the old man like a giant did appear. When the young Gond beheld him, he shivered;

His heart leaped; and he was much afraid in his mind, and said:

If the old man were to rise he will see me, and I shall be eaten up;

I will steal away the fire and carry it off, then my life will be safe.

He went near the fire secretly, and took a brand oftenduwood tree.

When he was lifting it up a spark flew and fell on the hip of the old man.

That spark was as large as a pot; the giant was blistered; he awoke alarmed.

And said: I am hungry, and I cannot get food to eat anywhere; I feel a desire for flesh;

Like a tender cucumber hast thou come to me. So said the old man to the Gond,

Who began to fly. The old man followed him. The Gond then threw away the brand which he had stolen.

He ran onward, and was not caught. Then the old man, being tired, turned back.

Thence he returned to his field, and came near the fire and sat, and said, What nonsense is this?

A tender prey had come within my reach;

I said I will cut it up as soon as I can, but it escaped from my hand!

Let it go; it will come again, then I will catch it. It has gone now.

Then what happened? the Gond returned and came to his brethren.

And said to them: Hear, O brethren, I went for fire, as you sent me, to that field; I beheld an old man like a giant.

With hands stretched out and feet lifted up. I ran. I thus survived with difficulty.

The brethren said to Lingo, We will not go. Lingo said, Sit ye here.

O brethren, what sort of a person is this giant? I will go and see him.

So saying, Lingo went away and reached a river.

He thence arose and went onward. As he looked, he saw in front three gourds.

Then he saw a bamboo stick, which he took up.

When the river was flooded

It washed away a gourd tree, and its seed fell, and each stem produced bottle-gourds.

He inserted a bamboo stick in the hollow of the gourd and made a guitar.

He plucked two hairs from his head and strung it.

He held a bow and fixed eleven keys to that one stick, and played on it.

Lingo was much pleased in his mind.

Holding it in his hand, he walked in the direction of the old man’s field.

He approached the fire where Rikad Gawādi was sleeping.

The giant seemed like a log lying close to the fire; his teeth were hideously visible;

His mouth was gaping. Lingo looked at the old man while sleeping.

His eyes were shut. Lingo said, This is not a good time to carry off the old man while he is asleep.

In front he looked, and turned round and saw a tree

Of the pīpal sort standing erect; he beheld its branches with wonder, and looked for a fit place to mount upon.

It appeared a very good tree; so he climbed it, and ascended to the top of it to sit.

As he sat the cock crew. Lingo said, It is daybreak;

Meanwhile the old man must be rising. Therefore Lingo took the guitar in his hand,

And held it; he gave a stroke, and it sounded well; from it he drew one hundred tunes.

It sounded well, as if he was singing with his voice.

Thus (as it were) a song was heard.

Trees and hills were silent at its sound. The music loudly entered into

The old man’s ears; he rose in haste, and sat up quickly; lifted up his eyes,

And desired to hear (more). He looked hither and thither, but could not make out whence the sound came.

The old man said: Whence has a creature come here to-day to sing like the maina bird?

He saw a tree, but nothing appeared to him as he looked underneath it.

He did not look up; he looked at the thickets and ravines, but

Saw nothing. He came to the road, and near to the fire in the midst of his field and stood.

Sometimes sitting, and sometimes standing, jumping, and rolling, he began to dance.

The music sounded as the day dawned. His old woman came out in the morning and began to look out.

She heard in the direction of the field a melodious music playing.

When she arrived near the edge of her field, she heard music in her ears.

That old woman called her husband to her.

With stretched hands, and lifted feet, and with his neck bent down, he danced.

Thus he danced. The old woman looked towards her husband, and said, My old man, my husband,

Surely, that music is very melodious. I will dance, said the old woman.

Having made the fold of her dress loose, she quickly began to dance near the hedge.

9. Death and resurrection of Lingo.Then Lingo disclosed himself to the giant and became friendly with him. The giant apologised for having tried to eat his brother, and called Lingo his nephew. Lingo invited him to come and feast on the flesh of the sixteen scores ofnīlgai. The giant called his seven daughters and offered them all to Lingo in marriage. The daughters produced the arrow which they had treasured up as portending a husband. Lingo said he was not marrying himself, but he would take them home as wives for his brothers. So they all went back to the cave and Lingo assigned two of the daughters each to the three elder brothers and one to the youngest. Then the brothers, to show their gratitude, said that they would go and hunt in the forest and bring meat and fruit and Lingo should lie in a swing and be rocked by their seven wives. But while the wives were swinging Lingo and his eyes were shut, they wished to sport with him as their husbands’ younger brother. So saying they pulled his hands and feet till he woke up. Then he reproached them and called them his mothers and sisters, but they cared nothing and began to embrace him. Then Lingo was filled with wrath and leapt up, and seeing a rice-pestle near he seized it and beat them all with it soundly. Then the women went to their houses and wept and resolved to be revenged on Lingo. So when the brothers came home they told their husbands that while they were swinging Lingo he had tried to seduce them all from their virtue, and they were resolved to go home and stay no longer in Kachikopa with such a man about the place. Then the brothers were exceedingly angry with Lingo, who they thought had deceived them with a pretence of virtue in refusing a wife, and they resolved to kill him. So they enticed him into the forest with a story of a great animal which had put them to flight and asked him to kill it, and there they shot him to death with their arrows and gouged out his eyes and played ball with them.But the god Bhagwān became aware that Lingo was not praying to him as usual, and sent the crow Kageshwar to look for him. The crow came and reported that Lingo was dead, and the god sent him back with nectar to sprinkle it over the body and bring it to life again, which was done.

9. Death and resurrection of Lingo.

Then Lingo disclosed himself to the giant and became friendly with him. The giant apologised for having tried to eat his brother, and called Lingo his nephew. Lingo invited him to come and feast on the flesh of the sixteen scores ofnīlgai. The giant called his seven daughters and offered them all to Lingo in marriage. The daughters produced the arrow which they had treasured up as portending a husband. Lingo said he was not marrying himself, but he would take them home as wives for his brothers. So they all went back to the cave and Lingo assigned two of the daughters each to the three elder brothers and one to the youngest. Then the brothers, to show their gratitude, said that they would go and hunt in the forest and bring meat and fruit and Lingo should lie in a swing and be rocked by their seven wives. But while the wives were swinging Lingo and his eyes were shut, they wished to sport with him as their husbands’ younger brother. So saying they pulled his hands and feet till he woke up. Then he reproached them and called them his mothers and sisters, but they cared nothing and began to embrace him. Then Lingo was filled with wrath and leapt up, and seeing a rice-pestle near he seized it and beat them all with it soundly. Then the women went to their houses and wept and resolved to be revenged on Lingo. So when the brothers came home they told their husbands that while they were swinging Lingo he had tried to seduce them all from their virtue, and they were resolved to go home and stay no longer in Kachikopa with such a man about the place. Then the brothers were exceedingly angry with Lingo, who they thought had deceived them with a pretence of virtue in refusing a wife, and they resolved to kill him. So they enticed him into the forest with a story of a great animal which had put them to flight and asked him to kill it, and there they shot him to death with their arrows and gouged out his eyes and played ball with them.But the god Bhagwān became aware that Lingo was not praying to him as usual, and sent the crow Kageshwar to look for him. The crow came and reported that Lingo was dead, and the god sent him back with nectar to sprinkle it over the body and bring it to life again, which was done.

Then Lingo disclosed himself to the giant and became friendly with him. The giant apologised for having tried to eat his brother, and called Lingo his nephew. Lingo invited him to come and feast on the flesh of the sixteen scores ofnīlgai. The giant called his seven daughters and offered them all to Lingo in marriage. The daughters produced the arrow which they had treasured up as portending a husband. Lingo said he was not marrying himself, but he would take them home as wives for his brothers. So they all went back to the cave and Lingo assigned two of the daughters each to the three elder brothers and one to the youngest. Then the brothers, to show their gratitude, said that they would go and hunt in the forest and bring meat and fruit and Lingo should lie in a swing and be rocked by their seven wives. But while the wives were swinging Lingo and his eyes were shut, they wished to sport with him as their husbands’ younger brother. So saying they pulled his hands and feet till he woke up. Then he reproached them and called them his mothers and sisters, but they cared nothing and began to embrace him. Then Lingo was filled with wrath and leapt up, and seeing a rice-pestle near he seized it and beat them all with it soundly. Then the women went to their houses and wept and resolved to be revenged on Lingo. So when the brothers came home they told their husbands that while they were swinging Lingo he had tried to seduce them all from their virtue, and they were resolved to go home and stay no longer in Kachikopa with such a man about the place. Then the brothers were exceedingly angry with Lingo, who they thought had deceived them with a pretence of virtue in refusing a wife, and they resolved to kill him. So they enticed him into the forest with a story of a great animal which had put them to flight and asked him to kill it, and there they shot him to death with their arrows and gouged out his eyes and played ball with them.

But the god Bhagwān became aware that Lingo was not praying to him as usual, and sent the crow Kageshwar to look for him. The crow came and reported that Lingo was dead, and the god sent him back with nectar to sprinkle it over the body and bring it to life again, which was done.

10. He releases the Gonds shut up in the cave and constitutes the tribe.Lingo then thought he had had enough of the four brothers, so he determined to go and find the other sixteen score Gonds who were imprisoned somewhere as the brothers had told him. The manner of his doing this may be told in Captain Forsyth’s version:15And our Lingo redivivusWandered on across the mountains,Wandered sadly through the forestTill the darkening of the evening,Wandered on until the night fell.Screamed the panther in the forest,Growled the bear upon the mountain,And our Lingo then bethought himOf their cannibal propensities.Saw at hand the tree Niruda,Clambered up into its branches.Darkness fell upon the forest,Bears their heads wagged, yelled the jackalKolyal, the King of Jackals.Sounded loud their dreadful voicesIn the forest-shade primeval.Then the Jungle-Cock Gugotee,Mull the Peacock, Kurs the Wild Deer,Terror-stricken, screeched and shuddered,In that forest-shade primeval.But the moon arose at midnight,Poured her flood of silver radiance,Lighted all the forest arches,Through their gloomy branches slanting;Fell on Lingo, pondering deeplyOn his sixteen scores of Koitūrs.Then thought Lingo, I will ask herFor my sixteen scores of Koitūrs.‘Tell me, O Moon!’ said Lingo,‘Tell, O Brightener of the darkness!Where my sixteen scores are hidden.’But the Moon sailed onwards, upwards,And her cold and glancing moonbeamsSaid, ‘Your Gonds, I have not seen them.’And the Stars came forth and twinkledTwinkling eyes above the forest.Lingo said, “O Stars that twinkle!Eyes that look into the darkness,Tell me where my sixteen scores are.”But the cold Stars twinkling ever,Said, ‘Your Gonds, we have not seen them.’Broke the morning, the sky reddened,Faded out the star of morning,Rose the Sun above the forest,Brilliant Sun, the Lord of morning,And our Lingo quick descended,Quickly ran he to the eastward,Fell before the Lord of Morning,Gave the Great Sun salutation—‘Tell, O Sun!’ he said, ‘DiscoverWhere my sixteen scores of Gonds are.’But the Lord of Day reply made—“Hear, O Lingo, I a PilgrimWander onwards, through four watchesServing God, I have seen nothingOf your sixteen scores of Koitūrs.”Then our Lingo wandered onwardsThrough the arches of the forest;Wandered on until before himSaw the grotto of a hermit,Old and sage, the Black Kumāit,He the very wise and knowing,He the greatest of Magicians,Born in days that are forgotten,In the unremembered ages,Salutation gave and asked him—‘Tell, O Hermit! Great Kumāit!Where my sixteen scores of Gonds are.Then replied the Black Magician,Spake disdainfully in this wise—“Lingo, hear, your Gonds are assesEating cats, and mice, and bandicoots,Eating pigs, and cows, and buffaloes;Filthy wretches! wherefore ask me?If you wish it I will tell you.Our great Mahādeva caught them,And has shut them up securelyIn a cave within the bowelsOf his mountain Dewalgiri,With a stone of sixteen cubits,And his bulldog fierce Basmāsur;Serve them right, too, I consider,Filthy, casteless, stinking wretches!”And the Hermit to his grottoBack returned, and deeply ponderedOn the days that are forgotten,On the unremembered ages.But our Lingo wandered onwards,Fasting, praying, doing penance;Laid him on a bed of prickles,Thorns long and sharp and piercing.Fasting lay he devotee-like,Hand not lifting, foot not lifting,Eye not opening, nothing seeing.Twelve months long thus lay and fasted,Till his flesh was dry and withered,And the bones began to show through.Then the great god MahādevaFelt his seat begin to tremble,Felt his golden stool, all shakingFrom the penance of our Lingo.Felt, and wondered who on earthThis devotee was that was fastingTill his golden stool was shaking.Stepped he down from Dewalgiri,Came and saw that bed of pricklesWhere our Lingo lay unmoving.Asked him what his little game was,Why his golden stool was shaking.Answered Lingo, “Mighty Ruler!Nothing less will stop that shakingThan my sixteen scores of KoitūrsRendered up all safe and hurtlessFrom your cave in Dewalgiri.”Then the Great God, much disgusted,Offered all he had to Lingo,Offered kingdom, name, and riches,Offered anything he wished for,‘Only leave your stinking KoitūrsWell shut up in Dewalgiri.’But our Lingo all refusingWould have nothing but his Koitūrs;Gave a turn to run the thorns aLittle deeper in his midriff.Winced the Great God: “Very well, then,Take your Gonds—but first a favour.By the shore of the Black WaterLives a bird they call Black Bindo,Much I wish to see his young ones,Little Bindos from the sea-shore;For an offering bring these Bindos,Then your Gonds take from my mountain.”Then our Lingo rose and wandered,Wandered onwards through the forest,Till he reached the sounding sea-shore,Reached the brink of the Black Water,Found the Bingo birds were absentFrom their nest upon the sea-shore,Absent hunting in the forest,Hunting elephants prodigious,Which they killed and took their brains out,Cracked their skulls, and brought their brains toFeed their callow little Bindos,Wailing sadly by the sea-shore.Seven times a fearful serpent,Bhawarnāg the horrid serpent,Serpent born in ocean’s caverns,Coming forth from the Black Water,Had devoured the little Bindos—Broods of callow little BindosWailing sadly by the sea-shore—In the absence of their parents.Eighth this brood was. Stood our Lingo,Stood he pondering beside them—“If I take these little wretchesIn the absence of their parentsThey will call me thief and robber.No! I’ll wait till they come back here.”Then he laid him down and slumberedBy the little wailing Bindos.As he slept the dreadful serpent,Rising, came from the Black Water,Came to eat the callow Bindos,In the absence of their parents.Came he trunk-like from the waters,Came with fearful jaws distended,Huge and horrid, like a basketFor the winnowing of corn.Rose a hood of vast dimensionsO’er his fierce and dreadful visage.Shrieked the Bindos young and callow,Gave a cry of lamentation;Rose our Lingo; saw the monster;Drew an arrow from his quiver,Shot it swift into his stomach,Sharp and cutting in the stomach,Then another and another;Cleft him into seven pieces,Wriggled all the seven pieces,Wriggled backward to the water.But our Lingo, swift advancing,Seized the headpiece in his arms,Knocked the brains out on a boulder;Laid it down beside the Bindos,Callow, wailing, little Bindos.On it laid him, like a pillow,And began again to slumber.Soon returned the parent BindosFrom their hunting in the forest;Bringing brains and eyes of camelsAnd of elephants prodigious,For their little callow BindosWailing sadly by the sea-shore.But the Bindos young and callowBrains of camels would not swallow;Said—“A pretty set of parentsYou are truly! thus to leave usSadly wailing by the sea-shoreTo be eaten by the serpent—Bhawarnāg the dreadful serpent—Came he up from the Black Water,Came to eat us little Bindos,When this very valiant LingoShot an arrow in his stomach,Cut him into seven pieces—Give to Lingo brains of camels,Eyes of elephants prodigious.”Then the fond paternal BindoSaw the head-piece of the serpentUnder Lingo’s head a pillow,And he said, ‘O valiant Lingo,Ask whatever you may wish for.’Then he asked the little BindosFor an offering to the Great God,And the fond paternal Bindo,Much disgusted first refusing,Soon consented; said he’d go tooWith the fond maternal Bindo—Take them all upon his shoulders,And fly straight to Dewalgiri.Then he spread his mighty pinions,Took his Bindos up on one sideAnd our Lingo on the other.Thus they soared away togetherFrom the shores of the Black Water,And the fond maternal Bindo,O’er them hovering, spread an awningWith her broad and mighty pinionsO’er her offspring and our Lingo.By the forests and the mountainsSix months’ journey was it thitherTo the mountain Dewalgiri.Half the day was scarcely overEre this convoy from the sea-shoreLighted safe on Dewalgiri;Touched the knocker to the gatewayOf the Great God, Mahādeva.And the messenger NārāyanAnswering, went and told his master—“Lo, this very valiant Lingo!Here he is with all the Bindos,The Black Bindos from the sea-shore.”Then the Great God, much disgusted,Driven quite into a corner,Took our Lingo to the cavern,Sent Basmāsur to his kennel,Held his nose, and moved away theMighty stone of sixteen cubits;Called those sixteen scores of Gonds outMade them over to their Lingo.And they said, “O Father Lingo!What a bad time we’ve had of it,Not a thing to fill our belliesIn this horrid gloomy dungeon.”But our Lingo gave them dinner,Gave them rice and flour of millet,And they went off to the river,Had a drink, and cooked and ate it.The next episode is taken from a slightly different local version:And while they were cooking their food at the river a great flood came up, but all the Gonds crossed safely except the four gods, Tekām, Markām, Pusām and Telengām.16These were delayed because they had cooked their food withghīwhich they had looted from the Hindu deities. Then they stood on the bank and cried out,O God of the crossing,O Boundary God!Should you be here,Come take us across.Hearing this, the tortoise and crocodile came up to them, and offered to take them across the river. So Markām and Tekām sat on the back of the crocodile and Pusām and Telengām on the back of the tortoise, and before starting the gods made the crocodile and tortoise swear that they would not eat or drown them in the sea. But when theygot to the middle of the river the tortoise and crocodile began to sink, with the idea that they would drown the Gonds and feed their young with them. Then the Gonds cried out, and the Raigīdhni or vulture heard them. This bird appears to be the same as the Bindo, as it fed its young with elephants. The Raigīdhni flew to the Gonds and took them up on its back and flew ashore with them. And in its anger it picked out the tongue of the crocodile and crushed the neck of the tortoise. And this is why the crocodile is still tongueless and the tortoise has a broken neck, which is sometimes inside and sometimes outside its shell. Both animals also have the marks of string on their backs where the Gond gods tied their necks together when they were ferried across. Thus all the Gonds were happily reunited and Lingo took them into the forest, and they founded a town there, which grew and prospered. And Lingo divided all the Gonds into clans and made the oldest man a Pardhān or priest and founded the rule of exogamy. He also made the Gond gods, subsequently described,17and worshipped them with offerings of a calf and liquor, and danced before them. He also prescribed the ceremonies of marriage which are still observed, and after all this was done Lingo went to the gods.Gonds on a journeyGonds on a journey

10. He releases the Gonds shut up in the cave and constitutes the tribe.

Lingo then thought he had had enough of the four brothers, so he determined to go and find the other sixteen score Gonds who were imprisoned somewhere as the brothers had told him. The manner of his doing this may be told in Captain Forsyth’s version:15And our Lingo redivivusWandered on across the mountains,Wandered sadly through the forestTill the darkening of the evening,Wandered on until the night fell.Screamed the panther in the forest,Growled the bear upon the mountain,And our Lingo then bethought himOf their cannibal propensities.Saw at hand the tree Niruda,Clambered up into its branches.Darkness fell upon the forest,Bears their heads wagged, yelled the jackalKolyal, the King of Jackals.Sounded loud their dreadful voicesIn the forest-shade primeval.Then the Jungle-Cock Gugotee,Mull the Peacock, Kurs the Wild Deer,Terror-stricken, screeched and shuddered,In that forest-shade primeval.But the moon arose at midnight,Poured her flood of silver radiance,Lighted all the forest arches,Through their gloomy branches slanting;Fell on Lingo, pondering deeplyOn his sixteen scores of Koitūrs.Then thought Lingo, I will ask herFor my sixteen scores of Koitūrs.‘Tell me, O Moon!’ said Lingo,‘Tell, O Brightener of the darkness!Where my sixteen scores are hidden.’But the Moon sailed onwards, upwards,And her cold and glancing moonbeamsSaid, ‘Your Gonds, I have not seen them.’And the Stars came forth and twinkledTwinkling eyes above the forest.Lingo said, “O Stars that twinkle!Eyes that look into the darkness,Tell me where my sixteen scores are.”But the cold Stars twinkling ever,Said, ‘Your Gonds, we have not seen them.’Broke the morning, the sky reddened,Faded out the star of morning,Rose the Sun above the forest,Brilliant Sun, the Lord of morning,And our Lingo quick descended,Quickly ran he to the eastward,Fell before the Lord of Morning,Gave the Great Sun salutation—‘Tell, O Sun!’ he said, ‘DiscoverWhere my sixteen scores of Gonds are.’But the Lord of Day reply made—“Hear, O Lingo, I a PilgrimWander onwards, through four watchesServing God, I have seen nothingOf your sixteen scores of Koitūrs.”Then our Lingo wandered onwardsThrough the arches of the forest;Wandered on until before himSaw the grotto of a hermit,Old and sage, the Black Kumāit,He the very wise and knowing,He the greatest of Magicians,Born in days that are forgotten,In the unremembered ages,Salutation gave and asked him—‘Tell, O Hermit! Great Kumāit!Where my sixteen scores of Gonds are.Then replied the Black Magician,Spake disdainfully in this wise—“Lingo, hear, your Gonds are assesEating cats, and mice, and bandicoots,Eating pigs, and cows, and buffaloes;Filthy wretches! wherefore ask me?If you wish it I will tell you.Our great Mahādeva caught them,And has shut them up securelyIn a cave within the bowelsOf his mountain Dewalgiri,With a stone of sixteen cubits,And his bulldog fierce Basmāsur;Serve them right, too, I consider,Filthy, casteless, stinking wretches!”And the Hermit to his grottoBack returned, and deeply ponderedOn the days that are forgotten,On the unremembered ages.But our Lingo wandered onwards,Fasting, praying, doing penance;Laid him on a bed of prickles,Thorns long and sharp and piercing.Fasting lay he devotee-like,Hand not lifting, foot not lifting,Eye not opening, nothing seeing.Twelve months long thus lay and fasted,Till his flesh was dry and withered,And the bones began to show through.Then the great god MahādevaFelt his seat begin to tremble,Felt his golden stool, all shakingFrom the penance of our Lingo.Felt, and wondered who on earthThis devotee was that was fastingTill his golden stool was shaking.Stepped he down from Dewalgiri,Came and saw that bed of pricklesWhere our Lingo lay unmoving.Asked him what his little game was,Why his golden stool was shaking.Answered Lingo, “Mighty Ruler!Nothing less will stop that shakingThan my sixteen scores of KoitūrsRendered up all safe and hurtlessFrom your cave in Dewalgiri.”Then the Great God, much disgusted,Offered all he had to Lingo,Offered kingdom, name, and riches,Offered anything he wished for,‘Only leave your stinking KoitūrsWell shut up in Dewalgiri.’But our Lingo all refusingWould have nothing but his Koitūrs;Gave a turn to run the thorns aLittle deeper in his midriff.Winced the Great God: “Very well, then,Take your Gonds—but first a favour.By the shore of the Black WaterLives a bird they call Black Bindo,Much I wish to see his young ones,Little Bindos from the sea-shore;For an offering bring these Bindos,Then your Gonds take from my mountain.”Then our Lingo rose and wandered,Wandered onwards through the forest,Till he reached the sounding sea-shore,Reached the brink of the Black Water,Found the Bingo birds were absentFrom their nest upon the sea-shore,Absent hunting in the forest,Hunting elephants prodigious,Which they killed and took their brains out,Cracked their skulls, and brought their brains toFeed their callow little Bindos,Wailing sadly by the sea-shore.Seven times a fearful serpent,Bhawarnāg the horrid serpent,Serpent born in ocean’s caverns,Coming forth from the Black Water,Had devoured the little Bindos—Broods of callow little BindosWailing sadly by the sea-shore—In the absence of their parents.Eighth this brood was. Stood our Lingo,Stood he pondering beside them—“If I take these little wretchesIn the absence of their parentsThey will call me thief and robber.No! I’ll wait till they come back here.”Then he laid him down and slumberedBy the little wailing Bindos.As he slept the dreadful serpent,Rising, came from the Black Water,Came to eat the callow Bindos,In the absence of their parents.Came he trunk-like from the waters,Came with fearful jaws distended,Huge and horrid, like a basketFor the winnowing of corn.Rose a hood of vast dimensionsO’er his fierce and dreadful visage.Shrieked the Bindos young and callow,Gave a cry of lamentation;Rose our Lingo; saw the monster;Drew an arrow from his quiver,Shot it swift into his stomach,Sharp and cutting in the stomach,Then another and another;Cleft him into seven pieces,Wriggled all the seven pieces,Wriggled backward to the water.But our Lingo, swift advancing,Seized the headpiece in his arms,Knocked the brains out on a boulder;Laid it down beside the Bindos,Callow, wailing, little Bindos.On it laid him, like a pillow,And began again to slumber.Soon returned the parent BindosFrom their hunting in the forest;Bringing brains and eyes of camelsAnd of elephants prodigious,For their little callow BindosWailing sadly by the sea-shore.But the Bindos young and callowBrains of camels would not swallow;Said—“A pretty set of parentsYou are truly! thus to leave usSadly wailing by the sea-shoreTo be eaten by the serpent—Bhawarnāg the dreadful serpent—Came he up from the Black Water,Came to eat us little Bindos,When this very valiant LingoShot an arrow in his stomach,Cut him into seven pieces—Give to Lingo brains of camels,Eyes of elephants prodigious.”Then the fond paternal BindoSaw the head-piece of the serpentUnder Lingo’s head a pillow,And he said, ‘O valiant Lingo,Ask whatever you may wish for.’Then he asked the little BindosFor an offering to the Great God,And the fond paternal Bindo,Much disgusted first refusing,Soon consented; said he’d go tooWith the fond maternal Bindo—Take them all upon his shoulders,And fly straight to Dewalgiri.Then he spread his mighty pinions,Took his Bindos up on one sideAnd our Lingo on the other.Thus they soared away togetherFrom the shores of the Black Water,And the fond maternal Bindo,O’er them hovering, spread an awningWith her broad and mighty pinionsO’er her offspring and our Lingo.By the forests and the mountainsSix months’ journey was it thitherTo the mountain Dewalgiri.Half the day was scarcely overEre this convoy from the sea-shoreLighted safe on Dewalgiri;Touched the knocker to the gatewayOf the Great God, Mahādeva.And the messenger NārāyanAnswering, went and told his master—“Lo, this very valiant Lingo!Here he is with all the Bindos,The Black Bindos from the sea-shore.”Then the Great God, much disgusted,Driven quite into a corner,Took our Lingo to the cavern,Sent Basmāsur to his kennel,Held his nose, and moved away theMighty stone of sixteen cubits;Called those sixteen scores of Gonds outMade them over to their Lingo.And they said, “O Father Lingo!What a bad time we’ve had of it,Not a thing to fill our belliesIn this horrid gloomy dungeon.”But our Lingo gave them dinner,Gave them rice and flour of millet,And they went off to the river,Had a drink, and cooked and ate it.The next episode is taken from a slightly different local version:And while they were cooking their food at the river a great flood came up, but all the Gonds crossed safely except the four gods, Tekām, Markām, Pusām and Telengām.16These were delayed because they had cooked their food withghīwhich they had looted from the Hindu deities. Then they stood on the bank and cried out,O God of the crossing,O Boundary God!Should you be here,Come take us across.Hearing this, the tortoise and crocodile came up to them, and offered to take them across the river. So Markām and Tekām sat on the back of the crocodile and Pusām and Telengām on the back of the tortoise, and before starting the gods made the crocodile and tortoise swear that they would not eat or drown them in the sea. But when theygot to the middle of the river the tortoise and crocodile began to sink, with the idea that they would drown the Gonds and feed their young with them. Then the Gonds cried out, and the Raigīdhni or vulture heard them. This bird appears to be the same as the Bindo, as it fed its young with elephants. The Raigīdhni flew to the Gonds and took them up on its back and flew ashore with them. And in its anger it picked out the tongue of the crocodile and crushed the neck of the tortoise. And this is why the crocodile is still tongueless and the tortoise has a broken neck, which is sometimes inside and sometimes outside its shell. Both animals also have the marks of string on their backs where the Gond gods tied their necks together when they were ferried across. Thus all the Gonds were happily reunited and Lingo took them into the forest, and they founded a town there, which grew and prospered. And Lingo divided all the Gonds into clans and made the oldest man a Pardhān or priest and founded the rule of exogamy. He also made the Gond gods, subsequently described,17and worshipped them with offerings of a calf and liquor, and danced before them. He also prescribed the ceremonies of marriage which are still observed, and after all this was done Lingo went to the gods.Gonds on a journeyGonds on a journey

Lingo then thought he had had enough of the four brothers, so he determined to go and find the other sixteen score Gonds who were imprisoned somewhere as the brothers had told him. The manner of his doing this may be told in Captain Forsyth’s version:15

And our Lingo redivivusWandered on across the mountains,Wandered sadly through the forestTill the darkening of the evening,Wandered on until the night fell.Screamed the panther in the forest,Growled the bear upon the mountain,And our Lingo then bethought himOf their cannibal propensities.Saw at hand the tree Niruda,Clambered up into its branches.Darkness fell upon the forest,Bears their heads wagged, yelled the jackalKolyal, the King of Jackals.Sounded loud their dreadful voicesIn the forest-shade primeval.Then the Jungle-Cock Gugotee,Mull the Peacock, Kurs the Wild Deer,Terror-stricken, screeched and shuddered,In that forest-shade primeval.But the moon arose at midnight,Poured her flood of silver radiance,Lighted all the forest arches,Through their gloomy branches slanting;Fell on Lingo, pondering deeplyOn his sixteen scores of Koitūrs.Then thought Lingo, I will ask herFor my sixteen scores of Koitūrs.‘Tell me, O Moon!’ said Lingo,‘Tell, O Brightener of the darkness!Where my sixteen scores are hidden.’But the Moon sailed onwards, upwards,And her cold and glancing moonbeamsSaid, ‘Your Gonds, I have not seen them.’And the Stars came forth and twinkledTwinkling eyes above the forest.Lingo said, “O Stars that twinkle!Eyes that look into the darkness,Tell me where my sixteen scores are.”But the cold Stars twinkling ever,Said, ‘Your Gonds, we have not seen them.’Broke the morning, the sky reddened,Faded out the star of morning,Rose the Sun above the forest,Brilliant Sun, the Lord of morning,And our Lingo quick descended,Quickly ran he to the eastward,Fell before the Lord of Morning,Gave the Great Sun salutation—‘Tell, O Sun!’ he said, ‘DiscoverWhere my sixteen scores of Gonds are.’But the Lord of Day reply made—“Hear, O Lingo, I a PilgrimWander onwards, through four watchesServing God, I have seen nothingOf your sixteen scores of Koitūrs.”Then our Lingo wandered onwardsThrough the arches of the forest;Wandered on until before himSaw the grotto of a hermit,Old and sage, the Black Kumāit,He the very wise and knowing,He the greatest of Magicians,Born in days that are forgotten,In the unremembered ages,Salutation gave and asked him—‘Tell, O Hermit! Great Kumāit!Where my sixteen scores of Gonds are.Then replied the Black Magician,Spake disdainfully in this wise—“Lingo, hear, your Gonds are assesEating cats, and mice, and bandicoots,Eating pigs, and cows, and buffaloes;Filthy wretches! wherefore ask me?If you wish it I will tell you.Our great Mahādeva caught them,And has shut them up securelyIn a cave within the bowelsOf his mountain Dewalgiri,With a stone of sixteen cubits,And his bulldog fierce Basmāsur;Serve them right, too, I consider,Filthy, casteless, stinking wretches!”And the Hermit to his grottoBack returned, and deeply ponderedOn the days that are forgotten,On the unremembered ages.But our Lingo wandered onwards,Fasting, praying, doing penance;Laid him on a bed of prickles,Thorns long and sharp and piercing.Fasting lay he devotee-like,Hand not lifting, foot not lifting,Eye not opening, nothing seeing.Twelve months long thus lay and fasted,Till his flesh was dry and withered,And the bones began to show through.Then the great god MahādevaFelt his seat begin to tremble,Felt his golden stool, all shakingFrom the penance of our Lingo.Felt, and wondered who on earthThis devotee was that was fastingTill his golden stool was shaking.Stepped he down from Dewalgiri,Came and saw that bed of pricklesWhere our Lingo lay unmoving.Asked him what his little game was,Why his golden stool was shaking.Answered Lingo, “Mighty Ruler!Nothing less will stop that shakingThan my sixteen scores of KoitūrsRendered up all safe and hurtlessFrom your cave in Dewalgiri.”Then the Great God, much disgusted,Offered all he had to Lingo,Offered kingdom, name, and riches,Offered anything he wished for,‘Only leave your stinking KoitūrsWell shut up in Dewalgiri.’But our Lingo all refusingWould have nothing but his Koitūrs;Gave a turn to run the thorns aLittle deeper in his midriff.Winced the Great God: “Very well, then,Take your Gonds—but first a favour.By the shore of the Black WaterLives a bird they call Black Bindo,Much I wish to see his young ones,Little Bindos from the sea-shore;For an offering bring these Bindos,Then your Gonds take from my mountain.”Then our Lingo rose and wandered,Wandered onwards through the forest,Till he reached the sounding sea-shore,Reached the brink of the Black Water,Found the Bingo birds were absentFrom their nest upon the sea-shore,Absent hunting in the forest,Hunting elephants prodigious,Which they killed and took their brains out,Cracked their skulls, and brought their brains toFeed their callow little Bindos,Wailing sadly by the sea-shore.Seven times a fearful serpent,Bhawarnāg the horrid serpent,Serpent born in ocean’s caverns,Coming forth from the Black Water,Had devoured the little Bindos—Broods of callow little BindosWailing sadly by the sea-shore—In the absence of their parents.Eighth this brood was. Stood our Lingo,Stood he pondering beside them—“If I take these little wretchesIn the absence of their parentsThey will call me thief and robber.No! I’ll wait till they come back here.”Then he laid him down and slumberedBy the little wailing Bindos.As he slept the dreadful serpent,Rising, came from the Black Water,Came to eat the callow Bindos,In the absence of their parents.Came he trunk-like from the waters,Came with fearful jaws distended,Huge and horrid, like a basketFor the winnowing of corn.Rose a hood of vast dimensionsO’er his fierce and dreadful visage.Shrieked the Bindos young and callow,Gave a cry of lamentation;Rose our Lingo; saw the monster;Drew an arrow from his quiver,Shot it swift into his stomach,Sharp and cutting in the stomach,Then another and another;Cleft him into seven pieces,Wriggled all the seven pieces,Wriggled backward to the water.But our Lingo, swift advancing,Seized the headpiece in his arms,Knocked the brains out on a boulder;Laid it down beside the Bindos,Callow, wailing, little Bindos.On it laid him, like a pillow,And began again to slumber.Soon returned the parent BindosFrom their hunting in the forest;Bringing brains and eyes of camelsAnd of elephants prodigious,For their little callow BindosWailing sadly by the sea-shore.But the Bindos young and callowBrains of camels would not swallow;Said—“A pretty set of parentsYou are truly! thus to leave usSadly wailing by the sea-shoreTo be eaten by the serpent—Bhawarnāg the dreadful serpent—Came he up from the Black Water,Came to eat us little Bindos,When this very valiant LingoShot an arrow in his stomach,Cut him into seven pieces—Give to Lingo brains of camels,Eyes of elephants prodigious.”Then the fond paternal BindoSaw the head-piece of the serpentUnder Lingo’s head a pillow,And he said, ‘O valiant Lingo,Ask whatever you may wish for.’Then he asked the little BindosFor an offering to the Great God,And the fond paternal Bindo,Much disgusted first refusing,Soon consented; said he’d go tooWith the fond maternal Bindo—Take them all upon his shoulders,And fly straight to Dewalgiri.Then he spread his mighty pinions,Took his Bindos up on one sideAnd our Lingo on the other.Thus they soared away togetherFrom the shores of the Black Water,And the fond maternal Bindo,O’er them hovering, spread an awningWith her broad and mighty pinionsO’er her offspring and our Lingo.By the forests and the mountainsSix months’ journey was it thitherTo the mountain Dewalgiri.Half the day was scarcely overEre this convoy from the sea-shoreLighted safe on Dewalgiri;Touched the knocker to the gatewayOf the Great God, Mahādeva.And the messenger NārāyanAnswering, went and told his master—“Lo, this very valiant Lingo!Here he is with all the Bindos,The Black Bindos from the sea-shore.”Then the Great God, much disgusted,Driven quite into a corner,Took our Lingo to the cavern,Sent Basmāsur to his kennel,Held his nose, and moved away theMighty stone of sixteen cubits;Called those sixteen scores of Gonds outMade them over to their Lingo.And they said, “O Father Lingo!What a bad time we’ve had of it,Not a thing to fill our belliesIn this horrid gloomy dungeon.”But our Lingo gave them dinner,Gave them rice and flour of millet,And they went off to the river,Had a drink, and cooked and ate it.

And our Lingo redivivus

Wandered on across the mountains,

Wandered sadly through the forest

Till the darkening of the evening,

Wandered on until the night fell.

Screamed the panther in the forest,

Growled the bear upon the mountain,

And our Lingo then bethought him

Of their cannibal propensities.

Saw at hand the tree Niruda,

Clambered up into its branches.

Darkness fell upon the forest,

Bears their heads wagged, yelled the jackal

Kolyal, the King of Jackals.

Sounded loud their dreadful voices

In the forest-shade primeval.

Then the Jungle-Cock Gugotee,

Mull the Peacock, Kurs the Wild Deer,

Terror-stricken, screeched and shuddered,

In that forest-shade primeval.

But the moon arose at midnight,

Poured her flood of silver radiance,

Lighted all the forest arches,

Through their gloomy branches slanting;

Fell on Lingo, pondering deeply

On his sixteen scores of Koitūrs.

Then thought Lingo, I will ask her

For my sixteen scores of Koitūrs.

‘Tell me, O Moon!’ said Lingo,

‘Tell, O Brightener of the darkness!

Where my sixteen scores are hidden.’

But the Moon sailed onwards, upwards,

And her cold and glancing moonbeams

Said, ‘Your Gonds, I have not seen them.’

And the Stars came forth and twinkled

Twinkling eyes above the forest.

Lingo said, “O Stars that twinkle!

Eyes that look into the darkness,

Tell me where my sixteen scores are.”

But the cold Stars twinkling ever,

Said, ‘Your Gonds, we have not seen them.’

Broke the morning, the sky reddened,

Faded out the star of morning,

Rose the Sun above the forest,

Brilliant Sun, the Lord of morning,

And our Lingo quick descended,

Quickly ran he to the eastward,

Fell before the Lord of Morning,

Gave the Great Sun salutation—

‘Tell, O Sun!’ he said, ‘Discover

Where my sixteen scores of Gonds are.’

But the Lord of Day reply made—

“Hear, O Lingo, I a Pilgrim

Wander onwards, through four watches

Serving God, I have seen nothing

Of your sixteen scores of Koitūrs.”

Then our Lingo wandered onwards

Through the arches of the forest;

Wandered on until before him

Saw the grotto of a hermit,

Old and sage, the Black Kumāit,

He the very wise and knowing,

He the greatest of Magicians,

Born in days that are forgotten,

In the unremembered ages,

Salutation gave and asked him—

‘Tell, O Hermit! Great Kumāit!

Where my sixteen scores of Gonds are.

Then replied the Black Magician,

Spake disdainfully in this wise—

“Lingo, hear, your Gonds are asses

Eating cats, and mice, and bandicoots,

Eating pigs, and cows, and buffaloes;

Filthy wretches! wherefore ask me?

If you wish it I will tell you.

Our great Mahādeva caught them,

And has shut them up securely

In a cave within the bowels

Of his mountain Dewalgiri,

With a stone of sixteen cubits,

And his bulldog fierce Basmāsur;

Serve them right, too, I consider,

Filthy, casteless, stinking wretches!”

And the Hermit to his grotto

Back returned, and deeply pondered

On the days that are forgotten,

On the unremembered ages.

But our Lingo wandered onwards,

Fasting, praying, doing penance;

Laid him on a bed of prickles,

Thorns long and sharp and piercing.

Fasting lay he devotee-like,

Hand not lifting, foot not lifting,

Eye not opening, nothing seeing.

Twelve months long thus lay and fasted,

Till his flesh was dry and withered,

And the bones began to show through.

Then the great god Mahādeva

Felt his seat begin to tremble,

Felt his golden stool, all shaking

From the penance of our Lingo.

Felt, and wondered who on earth

This devotee was that was fasting

Till his golden stool was shaking.

Stepped he down from Dewalgiri,

Came and saw that bed of prickles

Where our Lingo lay unmoving.

Asked him what his little game was,

Why his golden stool was shaking.

Answered Lingo, “Mighty Ruler!

Nothing less will stop that shaking

Than my sixteen scores of Koitūrs

Rendered up all safe and hurtless

From your cave in Dewalgiri.”

Then the Great God, much disgusted,

Offered all he had to Lingo,

Offered kingdom, name, and riches,

Offered anything he wished for,

‘Only leave your stinking Koitūrs

Well shut up in Dewalgiri.’

But our Lingo all refusing

Would have nothing but his Koitūrs;

Gave a turn to run the thorns a

Little deeper in his midriff.

Winced the Great God: “Very well, then,

Take your Gonds—but first a favour.

By the shore of the Black Water

Lives a bird they call Black Bindo,

Much I wish to see his young ones,

Little Bindos from the sea-shore;

For an offering bring these Bindos,

Then your Gonds take from my mountain.”

Then our Lingo rose and wandered,

Wandered onwards through the forest,

Till he reached the sounding sea-shore,

Reached the brink of the Black Water,

Found the Bingo birds were absent

From their nest upon the sea-shore,

Absent hunting in the forest,

Hunting elephants prodigious,

Which they killed and took their brains out,

Cracked their skulls, and brought their brains to

Feed their callow little Bindos,

Wailing sadly by the sea-shore.

Seven times a fearful serpent,

Bhawarnāg the horrid serpent,

Serpent born in ocean’s caverns,

Coming forth from the Black Water,

Had devoured the little Bindos—

Broods of callow little Bindos

Wailing sadly by the sea-shore—

In the absence of their parents.

Eighth this brood was. Stood our Lingo,

Stood he pondering beside them—

“If I take these little wretches

In the absence of their parents

They will call me thief and robber.

No! I’ll wait till they come back here.”

Then he laid him down and slumbered

By the little wailing Bindos.

As he slept the dreadful serpent,

Rising, came from the Black Water,

Came to eat the callow Bindos,

In the absence of their parents.

Came he trunk-like from the waters,

Came with fearful jaws distended,

Huge and horrid, like a basket

For the winnowing of corn.

Rose a hood of vast dimensions

O’er his fierce and dreadful visage.

Shrieked the Bindos young and callow,

Gave a cry of lamentation;

Rose our Lingo; saw the monster;

Drew an arrow from his quiver,

Shot it swift into his stomach,

Sharp and cutting in the stomach,

Then another and another;

Cleft him into seven pieces,

Wriggled all the seven pieces,

Wriggled backward to the water.

But our Lingo, swift advancing,

Seized the headpiece in his arms,

Knocked the brains out on a boulder;

Laid it down beside the Bindos,

Callow, wailing, little Bindos.

On it laid him, like a pillow,

And began again to slumber.

Soon returned the parent Bindos

From their hunting in the forest;

Bringing brains and eyes of camels

And of elephants prodigious,

For their little callow Bindos

Wailing sadly by the sea-shore.

But the Bindos young and callow

Brains of camels would not swallow;

Said—“A pretty set of parents

You are truly! thus to leave us

Sadly wailing by the sea-shore

To be eaten by the serpent—

Bhawarnāg the dreadful serpent—

Came he up from the Black Water,

Came to eat us little Bindos,

When this very valiant Lingo

Shot an arrow in his stomach,

Cut him into seven pieces—

Give to Lingo brains of camels,

Eyes of elephants prodigious.”

Then the fond paternal Bindo

Saw the head-piece of the serpent

Under Lingo’s head a pillow,

And he said, ‘O valiant Lingo,

Ask whatever you may wish for.’

Then he asked the little Bindos

For an offering to the Great God,

And the fond paternal Bindo,

Much disgusted first refusing,

Soon consented; said he’d go too

With the fond maternal Bindo—

Take them all upon his shoulders,

And fly straight to Dewalgiri.

Then he spread his mighty pinions,

Took his Bindos up on one side

And our Lingo on the other.

Thus they soared away together

From the shores of the Black Water,

And the fond maternal Bindo,

O’er them hovering, spread an awning

With her broad and mighty pinions

O’er her offspring and our Lingo.

By the forests and the mountains

Six months’ journey was it thither

To the mountain Dewalgiri.

Half the day was scarcely over

Ere this convoy from the sea-shore

Lighted safe on Dewalgiri;

Touched the knocker to the gateway

Of the Great God, Mahādeva.

And the messenger Nārāyan

Answering, went and told his master—

“Lo, this very valiant Lingo!

Here he is with all the Bindos,

The Black Bindos from the sea-shore.”

Then the Great God, much disgusted,

Driven quite into a corner,

Took our Lingo to the cavern,

Sent Basmāsur to his kennel,

Held his nose, and moved away the

Mighty stone of sixteen cubits;

Called those sixteen scores of Gonds out

Made them over to their Lingo.

And they said, “O Father Lingo!

What a bad time we’ve had of it,

Not a thing to fill our bellies

In this horrid gloomy dungeon.”

But our Lingo gave them dinner,

Gave them rice and flour of millet,

And they went off to the river,

Had a drink, and cooked and ate it.

The next episode is taken from a slightly different local version:

And while they were cooking their food at the river a great flood came up, but all the Gonds crossed safely except the four gods, Tekām, Markām, Pusām and Telengām.16These were delayed because they had cooked their food withghīwhich they had looted from the Hindu deities. Then they stood on the bank and cried out,

O God of the crossing,O Boundary God!Should you be here,Come take us across.

O God of the crossing,

O Boundary God!

Should you be here,

Come take us across.

Hearing this, the tortoise and crocodile came up to them, and offered to take them across the river. So Markām and Tekām sat on the back of the crocodile and Pusām and Telengām on the back of the tortoise, and before starting the gods made the crocodile and tortoise swear that they would not eat or drown them in the sea. But when theygot to the middle of the river the tortoise and crocodile began to sink, with the idea that they would drown the Gonds and feed their young with them. Then the Gonds cried out, and the Raigīdhni or vulture heard them. This bird appears to be the same as the Bindo, as it fed its young with elephants. The Raigīdhni flew to the Gonds and took them up on its back and flew ashore with them. And in its anger it picked out the tongue of the crocodile and crushed the neck of the tortoise. And this is why the crocodile is still tongueless and the tortoise has a broken neck, which is sometimes inside and sometimes outside its shell. Both animals also have the marks of string on their backs where the Gond gods tied their necks together when they were ferried across. Thus all the Gonds were happily reunited and Lingo took them into the forest, and they founded a town there, which grew and prospered. And Lingo divided all the Gonds into clans and made the oldest man a Pardhān or priest and founded the rule of exogamy. He also made the Gond gods, subsequently described,17and worshipped them with offerings of a calf and liquor, and danced before them. He also prescribed the ceremonies of marriage which are still observed, and after all this was done Lingo went to the gods.

Gonds on a journeyGonds on a journey

Gonds on a journey

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