V.

SILVER MINES AND MINING.

ANTIQUITY OF SILVER.—REAL ESTATE AND SLAVE PURCHASES IN BIBLICAL TIMES.—SOLOMON AND HIS SILVER SPECULATIONS.—ABUNDANCE OF SILVER AMONG THE ANCIENTS.—THE EARLIEST MINES.—ORIENTAL EXAGGERATION.—SPANISH MINES AND THEIR HISTORY.—MEXICAN MINES.—A NONDESCRIPT ANIMAL.—NOVEL WAY OF OBTAINING A PIGSKIN.—PERU AND ITS SILVER.—A HIGH-TONED CITY.—ARIZONA.—BEAUTIES OF ARIZONA CIVILIZATION.—MINES OF UTAH AND NEVADA.—SAD RESULTS OF A SPECULATION.

One of the most important of the precious metals is that known as silver. The ancients were familiar with it, and from very early periods it has been a common medium of exchange, and is used as such among all nations who recognize a metallic currency. It is one of the metals mentioned in the Old Testament, reference being made to it as constituting, among other things, the riches of Abraham. Abraham made a real estate transaction by purchasing the field of Ephron for four hundred shekels of silver. Twenty-nine pieces of silver were paid for Joseph at the time his brothers disposed of him and gave a bill of sale; and throughout the Scriptures there are many other references made to the same metal.

DISCOVERY OF SILVER IN PERU, BY DIEGO HUALCA, IN 1545.

INTERIOR OF A SILVER MINE IN MEXICO.

Those who have given attention to the subject think that gold was first known and used as money, partly for the reason that it is more frequently mentioned in the earlier histories, and also from the fact that gold is obtained in a metallic state, while silver must generally be separated from ores in which the metal is concealed. The Egyptians and Hebrews were familiar with gold and silver, and employed them both as a circulating medium, and for the manufacture of jewels, vases, rings, and other articles for household orpersonal use. The oldest known coins are of silver, though there are gold coins of nearly as great antiquity.

It is a little curious that the ancients possessed silver in greater abundance than people of the present day. It is possible that the old historians drew the long bow a little in describing it, and due allowance may be made for their statement. In the time of King Solomon, silver is said to have been so abundant as to be considered of very little account, and the king had made it to be as stones in Jerusalem. Polybius says that it was largely employed, together with gold, in the form of plates for covering the beams and pillars of the temples, and the tiles upon the roofs were of solid silver. Other historians, both sacred and profane, speak of its great abundance, and some of them are so liberal in the use of adjectives, as to lead to the suspicion that they were in no wise trammelled by existing facts. Oriental exaggeration has no doubt something to do with their stories.

ORIENTAL EXAGGERATIONS.

At the present day, in certain parts of the East, a statement is rarely made exactly as it should be, according to Western notions. Thus a man, describing a fine house, would not convey a proper idea of its character if he described it exactly as it is. If he should say that the house covered a square mile in area, was half a mile high, contained two thousand rooms, each of them so full of furniture that nobody could get inside the door, and that the household consisted of nine hundred servants, he would merely convey to his hearers the impression that the house was somewhat above the common order of houses, and nothing more.

Bayard Taylor, in one of his books, describes an interview with a certain prince or titled individual from one of the interior kingdoms of Africa. The prince, in describing the wealth and resources of the kingdom of Dahomey, said that the king never walked out unless accompanied by at least ten thousand attendants, and that when he chose to ride, forty thousand horses were led to the door of his palace, from which he could make his selection. He continued in the same strain, and when he had finished his story, he askeda question in regard to Mr. Taylor’s country. Mr. Taylor replied, that the United States were so large that it took two years to travel from one end of the country to the other; that it required six weeks of rapid riding to go round the walls of the capital; and that our Sultan, who was called the President, had a wardrobe of sixty thousand coats, from which he made his selection to dress himself for breakfast. In this manner each person conveyed to the other the proper idea of the country, and nothing more. The prince substantially informed the American that Dahomey was a rich country, and the king powerful; while the American, on the other hand, informed the prince that America was a very large country, and that the president’s wealth was personal, rather than national.

But we are getting away from silver, a substance which it is not desirable at any time to see far from us.

ANCIENT SILVER MINES.

The locality of the ancient silver mines is buried in obscurity; but it is known that silver was obtained, together with gold, from various parts of Africa, and also from Asia. The Spanish silver mines were developed at a very early period, and were the basis of the extensive commerce which Spain conducted for a long time with other countries. Hannibal is said to have opened a mine which furnished three hundred pounds of silver daily, and was worked by horizontal tunnels extending a mile and a half into a mountain. During the middle ages the production of silver fell off very greatly, and until the fifteenth century comparatively little silver mining was carried on. The production of Spanish mines was greatly decreased, and the wealth of Spain fell off in a proportionate degree.

GREAT MINES OF MEXICO.

Rich mines of silver existed in the new world, particularly in Mexico and Peru. The conquest of Mexico by Cortes in 1519 was speedily followed by the development of the rich silver mines of that country. From a very early period the Aztecs had been familiar with silver, and wrought it into many ornamental and useful articles. The mines were opened and extensively worked by the Peruvians in Guanajuato, Zacatecas, and other districts, and their production was greatlyincreased by the abundance of quicksilver, and its employment in the reduction of ores. Quicksilver is used for this purpose to a greater extent in Mexico and Peru than in other countries.

At the time of the visit of Humboldt in the early part of this century, it was estimated that three thousand distinct mines were in operation. The greatest of all the mines of Mexico are those of Guanajuato and Zacatecas. They were opened in 1558, upon the great vein known as Veta Madra. The great vein is chiefly in clay slate. It is of wonderful thickness, sometimes more than one hundred and fifty feet across, and is said to have been traced for about twelve miles.

The vein is made up of half a dozen substances, the most important of which are native silver, sulphuret of silver, and red silver. Near the surface they are partly decomposed, but in their unchanged condition, farther down, they are known as “black ores.” The vein has been penetrated downward more than two thousand feet, and is found to be very rich at that depth. The mine of Valenciana, upon a rich portion of this vein, has averaged at times a product of two million dollars, or about one fifteenth part of the total product of all the mines of Mexico. At the present time no work is carried on in these mines. Operations were suspended some years ago by floods of water, and the unsettled state of the country, added to other disadvantages, prevented a renewal of work. Before any productive operations could be prosecuted, it would be necessary to erect powerful machinery; and to set it up and put it in operation would cost enormously; so great, in fact, would be the cost, as to deter any body of men, or any association of capitalists, from entering upon the enterprise.

Until the present century the ores of the silver mines of Mexico have been worked by rude processes, very little in advance of those of the native Indians. Little or no mining machinery was used. The ores had to be transported out of the mines upon the backs of Indians, climbing up a series of long steps over slippery rocks, and working in a nude state.When the mines were troubled with water, rude pumps were set up, and in many cases there were no pumps, but the water was carried out on the backs of men.

HOW TO SECURE A PIG SKIN.

A traveller who visited one of these mines, where operations on a small scale were going on, says the sight of the men carrying their burdens, some laden with ore, and some with water, formed a curious picture. The ore was carried in sacks or baskets slung across the shoulders of the men, while the water was carried in pig-skins. These skins were in the natural shape of the animal, and were supposed to have been removed without cutting. When slung over the shoulders of the men in the dim light of the mine, the man and the pig clinging to his back appeared to form a single animal. An unsophisticated traveller, who accompanied the narrator, was curious to ascertain how the skins were obtained in that condition, as the ordinary mode of skinning pigs, oxen, or any other beasts requires a liberal use of the knife. He was informed that the animal was starved for several days, so that his skin became quite loose. Then a stout cord was tied to his tail, and by this mode he was securely fastened to a tree. A potato or an ear of corn was then held a few feet in front of his nose, and the pig was finally coaxed out of his skin, and induced to walk away from it. The man seemed to have his doubts as to the truth of the statement, but finally concluded to accept it as correct.

ENTRANCE TO A SILVER MINE OF CENTRAL AMERICA.

INDIAN SILVER MINERS AT WORK.

In 1821 the Mexican government offered facilities for foreigners to become interested with the natives in the mines. Several English companies were formed, and operations were undertaken upon a new system, in order to work the mines with powerful machinery, and with all the advantages of capital and mining skill. In nearly every instance these operations were unsuccessful, partly owing to the enormous expenses attending the management of a silver mine in Mexico, and partly owing to the dishonesty of the natives in official and private capacities. Whenever a mine yielded handsomely, the government surrounded it with absurd restrictions, or old titles were discovered to it, that made the claims of the new occupant valueless.

The English capitalists and gentlemen who went to Mexico were worried and wearied out in a few years, and returned with unpleasant recollections.

INSECURITY OF PROPERTY IN MEXICO.

At the present day nearly every foreigner who visits Mexico to engage in a business enterprise has very nearly the same story to tell. The instability of the government naturally leads to insecurity, both to life and property; and where the property is that of a foreigner, it is not very likely to be regarded with great respect.

From the opening of the Mexican mines, in the sixteenth century, their production of silver has exceeded that of all other countries. From the annual yield of two or three millions of dollars, it rose, in the eighteenth century, to twenty millions, and continued so for about ten years of the present century, when it was changed by the war of independence. It remained at a low rate until 1850, when it again increased, and in 1856 it was not far from forty millions.

Latterly, as already stated, the product has been greatly diminished, and accurate statistics are very difficult to be obtained in regard to it.

The total product of the Mexican mines from the time of the conquest by Cortes up to the expulsion of the Spanish in 1827, is said, according to official records, to have been considerably more than two thousand millions of dollars. The silver mines of Northern Mexico, near the boundary of the United States, are supposed to be very rich; but the disturbed state of the country prevented their successful exploitation.

Mining operations to some extent have been carried on in some of these districts, and in Arizona, but under many disadvantages.

Arizona is a delightful country in every respect, except in climate, soil, production, and inhabitants. The natives have a pleasant way of slaughtering every stranger who attempts to stay there; and sometimes, when they refrain from their amusement for a few months, the strangers fall to killing each other.

Until very recently it was said that no white man had everdied in Arizona with his boots off,—meaning that he had never died in bed. The cemeteries at two or three settlements in Arizona are said to contain no graves except those of persons who had died violent deaths at the hands of either white men or Indians. The Indians make travelling very insecure; and the Peons, or native Mexican laborers, in the mines vary the monotony of their employment by an occasional massacre of the superintendent and every other white man about the place. I was at one time acquainted with a superintendent who had twice escaped assassination by reason of accidental absence. He did not take warning by his luck on these occasions, but continued on in his usual way till on the occurrence of another conspiracy he was killed.

Closely rivalling the mines of Mexico are those of Peru. They are scattered in various parts of the country, but the richest and most famous are in Potosi, formerly belonging to Peru, but now a part of Bolivia. The story is, that these mines were discovered in 1545, by an Indian hunter, who accidentally exposed lumps of the precious metal in the roots of a bush which he pulled from the ground. His discovery led to careful and extensive explorations, and in a short time the city of Potosi sprung up in a barren and almost inaccessible district.

Potosi is among mountains generally of volcanic formation, and more than five thousand mines have been opened in its vicinity. The country is barren, and much of it is more than ten thousand feet above the level of the sea.

THE HIGHEST CITY IN THE WORLD.

The city of Potosi is more than two miles up in the air; that is to say, more than two miles above the sea level. It has a population at the present day of less than fifty thousand, though it contained at one period more than three times that number. It has been repeatedly shaken by earthquakes, and in some of these earthquakes a great many people have lost their lives. All supplies must be brought from a distance, as the country in the immediate neighborhood produces absolutely nothing.

It is not a beautiful place of residence, and those whodwell there are almost entirely devoted to the production and preparation of silver.

An idea of the richness of the mines may be formed, when it is known that between 1556 and 1800 the mines of Potosi alone yielded nine hundred and twenty-five million dollars’ worth of silver.

PROCESS OF AMALGAMATION.

Silver mines are pretty much alike in all parts of the world. They are also not much unlike mines of other metals. They are opened by shafts, tunnels, and the like, the same as other mines, though each locality has some processes of operations peculiar to itself. The ordinary methods of separating silver from its ores are based either upon forming an amalgam of the metal with the mercury, or in bringing it into combination with lead, and afterwards separating it. The ores of Mexico and Peru are treated by both processes. Some of the richest ores are picked out and thrown into the furnace. The amalgamating process, which was long used in the silver mines of Mexico and Peru, and is still generally practised there, was invented more than three hundred years ago. The ores are crushed by stamping machines, and then ground with water, in machines called arastras, a sort of circular mill, run by mule power. It is ground to as fine a condition as possible, and, after being allowed several days to dry, is spread out in circular heaps, about fifty feet in diameter and a foot in depth. To every ton of this substance three bushels of salt are added, and the whole is then carefully mixed. A chemical substance, of a coppery character, is then added, and a sort of fermentation takes place, in which great heat is thrown out. Quicksilver is then added, in small quantities at a time, and crudely mixed in, until the whole mass forms an amalgam. The whole process occupies from four to six weeks. The amalgam is then separated from the mass of ore by a system of washing similar to that practised in collecting gold. The mercury is then separated from the amalgam by the ordinary process of evaporation, and in the same manner as if removing it from gold.

Sometimes silver is found in masses which are nearly pure;but this is very rarely the case. The largest quantities have been discovered in the copper mines of Lake Superior, and in some of the mines of Norway and Saxony. Some of these masses exceed five hundred pounds in weight, but ordinarily they weigh but a few ounces or pounds.

Specimens of native silver are frequently found in the beds of rivers, very far from any other deposits of this metal. The richest mines of this metal, at the present day, are in the United States, particularly in Nevada and Utah. The great Comstock lode has already been referred to. In November, 1859, the discovery of silver mines at Lake Washoe became known, and in the following year the products of the mines were sent out in such large quantities as to lead many people to suppose that the commercial value of silver would be greatly cheapened.

SILVER MINES OF NEVADA.

Mines have been opened in various localities throughout Nevada, but the richest of them, and, in fact, almost the only ones, of any great value, are on the Comstock lode. Its ores are very rich. The vein is of unusual width, and it has made fortunes for a great many men, and, on the other hand, has taken fortunes from a great many others. Some of the most extensive mining speculations ever known in California have been in these mines. Their value has greatly fluctuated; in some years the product has exceeded twenty millions of dollars, and the price of shares in the mines increased accordingly; then the product would suddenly fall off, and down would go the stock. Sometimes dividends would be made every month, and suddenly they would be followed by left-handed dividends, or assessments. In San Francisco a single day has witnessed the reduction to beggary of men who at sunrise could boast of considerable wealth; the following day might witness their return to wealth, or the return of others to poverty. Nearly all the men who made money in Nevada a few years ago, and did not kill themselves by riotous living, are now poor, and have a brilliant prospect of remaining so.

ONE METHOD OF WASHING FOR SILVER.

ANOTHER METHOD OF WASHING FOR SILVER.

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