Chapter 5

"'Alack!oneliesoneselfEven in the stating thatone'send was truth,Truth only, ifonestates so much in words.'

"The representative 'I' or 'we' occasionally acts the part of 'one.' The following sentence presents a curiousalternation of 'we' with 'one'—possibly not accidental (George Eliot): 'It's a desperately vexatious thing that, after allone'sreflections and quiet determinations,weshould be ruled by moods thatonecan't calculate on beforehand.' By the use of 'we' here, a more pointed reference is suggested, while the vagueness actually remains.

"Fenimore Cooper, like Scott, is not very particular; an example may be quoted: 'Modesty is a poor man's wealth; but, aswegrow substantial in the world, patroon,onecan afford to begin to speak truth ofhimselfas well as ofhisneighbor.' Were Cooper a careful writer, we might persuade ourselves that he chose 'we' and 'one' with a purpose: 'we' might indicate that the speaker had himself and the patroon directly in his eye, although at the same time he wanted to put it generally; and 'one' might hint that modesty succeeded in getting the better of him. But 'himself' and 'his' would alone show that such speculations are too refined for the occasion.

"The form 'a man,' which was at one time common, seems to be reviving. In 'Adam Bede' we have, 'A mancan never do anything at variance with his own nature.' We might substitute 'one.'

"'Men' was more frequent in good writing formerly than now. 'Neither domenlight a candle, and put it under a bushel.' 'Domengather grapes of thorns?' Hume is fond of expressing a general subject by 'men.'

"'Small birds are much more exposed to the cold than largeones.' This usage is hardly 'indefinite'; and it needs no further exemplification."

Only.This word, when used as an adjective, is more frequently misplaced than any other word in the language. Indeed, I am confident that it is not correctly placed half the time, either in conversation or in writing. Thus, "Inits pages, papers of sterling merit [only] willonlyappear" (Miss Braddon); "Things are getting dull down in Texas; theyonlyshot [only] three men down there last week"; "I haveonlygot [only] three."Onlyis sometimes improperly used forexceptorunless; thus, "The trains will not stoponlywhen the bell rings." The meaning here is clearly "exceptwhen the bell rings."

Dr. Bain, in his "Higher English Grammar," speaking of the order of words, says:

"The word requiring most attention isonly.

"According to the position ofonly, the same words may be made to express very different meanings.

"'Heonlylived for their sakes.' Hereonlymust be held as qualifying 'livedfor their sakes,' the emphasis being onlived, the word immediately adjoining. The meaning then is 'helived,' but did notwork, did notdie, did not do any other thing for their sakes.

"'He livedonlyfor their sakes.'Onlynow qualifies 'for their sakes,' and the sentence means he lived for this one reason, namely, for their sakes, and not for any other reason.

"'He lived for their sakesonly.' The force of the word when placed at the end is peculiar. Then it often has a diminutive or disparaging signification. 'He lived for their sakes,' and not for any more worthy reason. 'He gave sixpenceonly,' is an insinuation that more was expected.

"By the use ofalone, instead ofonly, other meanings are expressed. 'Healonelived for their sakes'; that is,he, and nobody else, did so. 'He lived for their sakesalone,' or, 'for the sake of themalone'; that is, not for the sake of any other persons. 'It wasaloneby the help of the Confederates that any such design could be carried out.' Betteronly.

"'When men grow virtuous in their old age, theyonlymake a sacrifice to God of the devil's leavings.'—Pope. Hereonlyis rightly placed. 'Thinkonlyof the past as its remembrance gives you pleasure,' should be, 'think of the past,onlyas its remembrance,' etc. 'As he did not leave his name, it wasonlyknown that a gentleman had called on business': it was knownonly. 'I canonlyrefute the accusation by laying before you the whole': this would mean, 'the only thing I am able to do is to refute; I may not retaliate, or let it drop, I mustrefuteit.' 'The negroes are to appear at churchonlyin boots'; that is, when the negroes go to church they are to have no clothing but boots. 'The negroes are to appearonlyat church in boots' might mean that they are not to appear anywhere but at church, whether in boots or out of them. The proper arrangement would be to connect the adverbial adjunct,in boots, with its verb,appear, and to makeonlyqualifyat churchand no more: 'the negroes are to appear in bootsonlyat church.'"

It thus appears very plain that we should look well to ouronlys.

Ought—Should.These two words, though they both imply obligation, should not be used indiscriminately.Oughtis the stronger term; what weoughtto do, we are morally bound to do. Weoughtto be truthful and honest, andshouldbe respectful to our elders and kind to our inferiors.

Overflown.Flownis the past participle ofto fly, andflowedofto flow. As, therefore, a river does notflyover its banks, butflowsover them, we should say of it that it has overflowed, and not that it has overflown.

Overly.This word is now used only by the unschooled.

Owing.SeeDue.

Pants.This abbreviation is not used by those who are careful in the choice of words. The purist does not use the wordpantaloonseven, buttrousers.Pantsare worn bygentswho eatlunchesandopenwine, andtrousersare worn bygentlemenwho eatluncheonsandorderwine.

Paraphernalia.This is a law term. In Roman law, it meant the goods which a woman brought to her husband besides her dowry. In English law, it means the goods which a woman is allowed to have after the death of her husband, besides her dower, consisting of her apparel and ornaments suitable to her rank. When used in speaking of the affairs of every-day life, it is generally misused.

Parlor.This word, in the sense ofdrawing-room, according to Dr. Hall, except in the United States and some of the English colonies, is obsolete.

Partake.This is a very fine word to use foreat; just the word for young women who hobble on French heels.

Partially—Partly."It is onlypartiallydone." This use of the adverbpartiallyis sanctioned by high authority, but that does not make it correct. A thing done in part ispartly, notpartially, done.

Participles.When the present participle is used substantively, in sentences like the following, it is preceded by the definite article and followed by the prepositionof. The omitting of the preposition is a common error. Thus, "Or, it isthe drawinga conclusion which was before either unknown or dark," should be, "the drawingofa conclusion." "Prompted by the most extreme vanity, he persisted in the writing bad verses," should be, "in writing bad verses," or "in the writingofbad verses." "There is a misuse of the articleawhich is very common. It isthe using it before the wordmost."—Moon. Most writers would have said "the usingofit." Mr. Moon argues for his construction.

Particles."Nothing but study of the best writers and practice in composition will enable us to decide what are the prepositions and conjunctions that ought to go with certain verbs. The following examples illustrate some common blunders:

"'It was characterizedwitheloquence': read, 'by.'

"'A testimonialofthe merits of his grammar': read, 'to.'

"'It was an example of the loveto formcomparisons': read, 'of forming.'

"'Repetition is always to be preferredbeforeobscurity': read, 'to.'

"'He made an effortfor meetingthem': read, 'to meet.'

"'They have nootherobjectbutto come': read, 'other object than,' or omit 'other.'

"Two verbs are not unfrequently followed by a single preposition, which accords with one only; e. g., 'This dutyis repeatedand inculcateduponthe reader.' 'Repeatupon' is nonsense; we must read 'is repeatedtoand inculcated upon.'"—Nichol's "English Composition," p. 39. We often seeforused with the substantivesympathy; the best practice, however, useswith; thus, "Words can not express the deep sympathy I feelwithyou."—Queen Victoria.

Party.This is a very good word in its place, but it is very much out of its place when used—as it often is by the vulgar—where good taste would use the wordperson.

Patronize.This word and its derivatives would bemuch less used by the American tradesman than they are, if he were better acquainted with their true meaning. Then he would solicit his neighbors'custom, not theirpatronage. A man can have nopatronswithout incurring obligations—without becoming aprotégé; while a man may have customers innumerable, and, instead of placing himself under obligations to them, he may place them under obligations to him. Princes are thepatronsof those tradesmen whom they allow to call themselves their purveyors; as, "John Smith, Haberdasher to H. R. H. the Prince of Wales." Here the PrincepatronizesJohn Smith.

Pell-mell.This adverb means mixed or mingled together; as, "Men, horses, chariots, crowdedpell-mell." It can not properly be applied to an individual. To say, for example, "He rushed pell-mell down the stairs," is as incorrect as it would be to say, "He rushed down the stairsmixed together."

Per.This Latin preposition is a good deal used in English, as, for example, in such phrases asperday,perman,perpound,perton, and so on. In all such cases it is better to use plain English, and say,aday,aman,apound,aton, etc.Peris correct before Latin nouns only; as, per annum, per diem, per cent., etc.

Perform."Sheperformson the piano beautifully." In how much better taste it is to say simply, "Sheplaysthe piano well," or, more superlatively, "exceedingly well," or "admirably"! If we talk aboutperformingon musical instruments, to be consistent, we should call those whoperform, piano-performers, cornet-performers, violin-performers, and so on.

Perpetually.This word is sometimes misused forcontinually. Dr. William Mathews, in his "Words, their Use and Abuse," says: "The Irish areperpetuallyusingshallforwill."Perpetualmeans never ceasing, continuing without intermission, uninterrupted; whilecontinualmeans that which is constantly renewed and recurring with perhaps frequent stops and interruptions. As the Irish do somethingbesidesmisuseshall, the Doctor should have said that theycontinuallyuseshallforwill. I might perhaps venture to intimate thatperpetuallyis likewise misused in the following sentence, which I copy from the "London Queen," if I were not conscious that the monster who can write and print such a sentence would not hesitate to cable a thunderbolt at an offender on the slightest provocation. Judge, if my fears are groundless: "But some few people contract the ugly habit of making use of these expressions unconsciously and continuously,perpetuallyinterlarding their conversation with them."

Person.SeeParty; also,Individual.

Personalty.This word does not, as some persons think, mean the articles worn on one's person. It is properly a law term, and meanspersonal property. "There is but one case on record of a peer of England leaving over $7,500,000 personalty."

Personification.That rhetorical figure which attributes sex, life, or action to inanimate objects, or ascribes to objects and brutes the acts and qualities of rational beings, is calledpersonificationorprosopopœia.

"The mountainssing together, the hills rejoice andclap their hands." "The worm,awareof his intent,haranguedhim thus."

"See,Wintercomes torulethe varied year,Sullenandsadwith all his rising train."—Thomson."So saying, her rash hand, in evil hour,Forth reaching to the fruit, she plucked, she ate!Earth felt the wound; and Nature from her seat,Sighing through all her works, gave signs of woe,That all was lost."—Milton."War and Love are strange compeers.War sheds blood, and Love sheds tears;War has swords, and Love has darts;War breaks heads, and Love breaks hearts."

"See,Wintercomes torulethe varied year,Sullenandsadwith all his rising train."—Thomson.

"So saying, her rash hand, in evil hour,Forth reaching to the fruit, she plucked, she ate!Earth felt the wound; and Nature from her seat,Sighing through all her works, gave signs of woe,That all was lost."—Milton.

"War and Love are strange compeers.War sheds blood, and Love sheds tears;War has swords, and Love has darts;War breaks heads, and Love breaks hearts."

"Levity is often less foolish and gravity less wise than each of them appears."

"The English language, by reserving the distinction of gender for living beings that have sex, gives especial scope for personification. The highest form of personification should be used seldom, and only when justified by the presence of strong feeling."—Bain.

"Knowledge and wisdom, far from being one,Have ofttimes no connection. Knowledge dwellsIn heads replete with thoughts of other men;Wisdom in minds attentive to their own.Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much;Wisdom is humble that he knows no more."—Cowper.

Phenomenon.Plural,phenomena.

Plead.The imperfect tense and the perfect participle of the verbto pleadare bothpleadedand notplead. "Hepleadednot guilty." "You should havepleadedyour cause with more fervor."

Plenty.In Worcester's Dictionary we find the following note: "Plentyis much used colloquially as an adjective, in the sense ofplentiful, both in this country and in England; and this use is supported by respectable authorities, though it is condemned by various critics. Johnson says: 'It is used barbarously, I think, forplentiful'; and Dr. Campbell, in his 'Philosophy of Rhetoric,' says: 'Plentyforplentifulappears to me so gross a vulgarism that I should not have thought it worthy of a place here if I hadnot sometimes found it in works of considerable merit.'" We should say, then, that money isplentiful, and not that it isplenty.

Pleonasm.Redundancy or pleonasm is the use of more words than are necessary to express the thought clearly. "They returnedback againto thesamecityfromwhence they cameforth": the five words in italics areredundantorpleonastic. "The different departments of science and of artmutuallyreflect lighton each other": either of the expressions in italics embodies the whole idea. "Theuniversalopinion ofallmen" is a pleonastic expression often heard. "I wrote youa letteryesterday": herea letteris redundant.

Redundancy issometimespermissible for the surer conveyance of meaning, for emphasis, and in the language of poetic embellishment.

Polite.This word is much used by persons of doubtful culture, where those of the better sort use the wordkind. We acceptkind, notpoliteinvitations; and, when any one has been obliging, we tell him that he has beenkind; and, when an interviewing reporter tells us of his having met with apolitereception, we may be sure that the person by whom he has been received deserves well for his considerate kindness. "I thank you and Mrs. Pope for mykindreception."—Atterbury.

Portion.This word is often incorrectly used forpart. Aportionis properly a part assigned, allotted, set aside for a special purpose; a share, a division. The verbto portionmeans to divide, to parcel, to endow. We ask, therefore, "In whatpart[not, in whatportion] of the country, state, county, town, or street do you live?"—or, if we prefer grandiloquence to correctness,reside. In the sentence, "A largeportionof the land is unfilled," the right wordwould be eitherpartorproportion, according to the intention of the writer.

Posted.A word very much and very inelegantly used forinformed. Such expressions as, "I willpostyou," "I mustpostmyself up," "If I had been betterposted," and the like, are, at the best, but one remove from slang.

Predicate.This word is often very incorrectly used in the sense ofto base; as, "Hepredicateshis opinion on insufficient data." Then we sometimes hear people talk about predicating an action upon certain information or upon somebody's statement. To predicate means primarilyto speak before, and has come to be properly used in the sense ofassumedor believed to be the consequence of. Examples: "Contentment ispredicatedof virtue"; "Good health may bepredicatedof a good constitution." He who is not very sure that he uses the word correctly would do better not to use it at all.

Prejudice—Prepossess.Both these words mean, to incline in one direction or the other for some reason not founded in justice; but by common consentprejudicehas come to be used in an unfavorable sense, andprepossessin a favorable one. Thus, we say, "He isprejudicedagainst him," and "He isprepossessedin his favor." We sometimes hear the expression, "He isprejudicedin his favor," but this can not be accounted a good use of the word.

Prepositions.The errors made in the use of the prepositions are very numerous. "The indolent child is one who [that?] has a strong aversionfromaction of any sort."—Graham's "English Synonymes," p. 236. The prevailing and best modern usage is in favor oftoinstead offromafteraverseandaversion, and before the object. "Clearness ... enables the reader to see thoughts without noticingthe languagewithwhich they are clothed."—Townsend's "Art of Speech." We clothe thoughtsinlanguage. "Shakespeare ... and the Bible are ... modelsforthe English-speaking tongue."—Ibid. If this means models of English, then it should beof; but if it means models for English organs of speech to practice on, then it should befor; or if it means models to model English tongues after, then also it should befor. "If the resemblance is too faint, the mind is fatiguedwhileattempting to trace the analogies." "Aristotle is in errorwhilethus describing governments."—Ibid. Here we have two examples, not of the misuse of the preposition, but of the erroneous use of the adverbwhileinstead of the prepositionin. "For my part I can not think that Shelley's poetry, exceptbysnatches and fragments, has the value of the good work of Wordsworth or Byron."—Matthew Arnold. Should be, "exceptinsnatches." "Taxes with us are collected nearly [almost] solelyfromreal and personal estate."—"Appletons' Journal." Taxes are leviedonestates and collectedfromthe owners.

"If I am not commendedforthe beauty of my works, I may hope to be pardoned for their brevity." Cobbett comments on this sentence as follows: "We may commend himforthe beauty of his works, and we maypardonhimfortheir brevity, if we deem the brevitya fault; but this is not what he means. He means that, at any rate, he shall have themeritof brevity. 'If I am not commended for the beauty of my works, I may hope to be pardonedon account oftheir brevity.' This is what the Doctor meant; but this would have marred a little the antithesis: it would have unsettled a little of the balance of thatseesawin which Dr. Johnson so much delighted, and which, falling into the hands of novel-writers and of members of Parliament,has, by moving unencumbered with any of the Doctor's reason or sense, lulled so many thousands asleep! Dr. Johnson created a race of writers and speakers. 'Mr. Speaker, that the state of the nation is very critical, all men will allow; but that it is wholly desperate, few will believe.' When you hear or see a sentence like this, be sure that the person who speaks or writes it has been reading Dr. Johnson, or some of his imitators. But, observe, these imitators go no further than the frame of the sentences. They, in general, take care not to imitate the Doctor in knowledge and reasoning."

The rhetoricians would have us avoid such forms of expression as, "The boy wenttoand asked the adviceofhis teacher"; "I calledonand had a conversationwithmy brother."

Very often the preposition is not repeated in a sentence, when it should be. We say properly, "He comes from Ohio orfromIndiana"; or, "He comeseitherfrom Ohio or Indiana."

Prepossess.SeePrejudice.

Present—Introduce.Few errors are more common, especially among those who are always straining to be fine, than that of usingpresent, in the social world, instead ofintroduce.Presentmeans to place in the presence of a superior;introduce, to bring to be acquainted. A person is presented at court, and on an official occasion to our President; but persons who are unknown to each other areintroducedby a common acquaintance. And in these introductions, it is the younger who is introduced to the older; the lower to the higher in place or social position; the gentleman to the lady. A lady should say, as a rule, that Mr. Blank was introduced to her, not that she was introduced to Mr. Blank.

Presumptive.This word is sometimes misused by the careless forpresumptuous.

Preventive.A useless and unwarranted syllable is sometimes added to this word—preventative.

Previous.This adjective is much used in an adverbial sense; thus, "Previousto my return," etc. Untilpreviousis recognized as an adverb, if we would speak grammatically, we must say, "Previouslyto my return." "Previouslyto my leaving England, I called on his lordship."

Procure.This is a word much used by people who strive to be fine. "Where did yougetit?" with them is, "Where did youprocureit?"

Profanity.The extent to which some men habitually interlard their talk with oaths is disgusting even to many who, on occasion, do not themselves hesitate to give expression to their feelings in oaths portly and unctuous. If these fellows could be made to know how offensive to decency they make themselves, they would, perhaps, be less profane.

Promise.This word is sometimes very improperly used forassure; thus, "Ipromiseyou I was very much astonished."

Pronouns of the First Person."The ordinary uses of 'I' and 'we,' as the singular and plural pronouns of the first person, would appear to be above all ambiguity, uncertainty, or dispute. Yet when we consider the force of the plural 'we,' we are met with a contradiction; for, as a rule, only one person can speak at the same time to the same audience. It is only by some exceptional arrangement, or some latitude or license of expression, that several persons can be conjoint speakers. For example, a plurality may sing together in chorus, and may join in the responses at church, or in the simultaneous repetition of the Lord'sPrayer or the Creed. Again, one person may be the authorized spokesman in delivering a judgment or opinion held by a number of persons in common. Finally, in written compositions, the 'we' is not unsuitable, because a plurality of persons may append their names to a document.

"A speaker using 'we' may speak for himself and one or more others; commonly he stands forward as the representative of a class, more or less comprehensive. 'As soon as my companion and I had entered the field,wesaw a man coming towardus'; 'welikeournew curate'; 'you douspoets the greatest injustice'; 'wemust see to the efficiency ofourforces.' The widest use of the pronoun will be mentioned presently.

"'We' is used for 'I' in the decrees of persons in authority; as when King Lear says:

'Know thatwehave dividedIn threeourkingdom.'

By the fiction of plurality a veil of modesty is thrown over the assumption of vast superiority over human beings generally. Or, 'we' may be regarded as an official form whereby the speaker personally is magnified or enabled to rise to the dignity of the occasion.

"The editorial 'we' is to be understood on the same principle. An author using 'we' appears as if he were not alone, but sharing with other persons the responsibility of his views.

"This representative position is at its utmost stretch in the practice of using 'we' for human beings generally; as in discoursing on the laws of human nature. The preacher, the novelist, or the philosopher, in dwelling upon the peculiarity of our common constitution, being himself an example of what he is speaking of, associates the rest of mankind with him, and speaks collectively by means of'we.' 'Weare weak and fallible'; 'weare of yesterday'; 'weare doomed to dissolution.' 'Here haveweno continuing city, butweseek one to come.'

"It is not unfrequent to have in one sentence, or in close proximity, both the editorial and the representative meaning, the effect being ambiguity and confusion. 'Letus[the author] now consider whywe[humanity generally] overrate distant good.' In such a case the author should fall back upon the singular for himself—'Iwill now consider—.' 'We[speaker] thinkwe[himself and hearers together] should come to the conclusion.' Say, either 'Ithink,' or 'youwould.'

"The following extract from Butler exemplifies a similar confusion: 'Supposewe[representative] are capable of happiness and of misery in degrees equally intense and extreme, yetwe[rep.] are capable of the latter for a much longer time, beyond all comparison.We[change of subject to a limited class] see men in the tortures of pain—. Such isour[back to representative] make that anything may become the instrument of pain and sorrow tous.' The 'we' at the commencement of the second sentence—'Wesee men in the tortures'—could be advantageously changed to 'you,' or the passive construction could be substituted; the remainingwe's would then be consistently representative.

"From the greater emphasis of singularity, energetic speakers and writers sometimes use 'I' as representative of mankind at large. Thus: 'The current impressions received through the senses are not voluntary in origin. WhatIsee in walking is seen becauseIhave an organ of vision.' The question of general moral obligation is forcibly stated by Paley in the individual form, 'Why amIobliged to keep my word?' It is sometimes well to confine the attentionof the hearer or reader to his own relation to the matter under consideration, more especially in difficult or non-popular argument or exposition. The speaker, by using 'I,' does the action himself, or makes himself the example, the hearer being expected to put himself in the same position."—Bain's "Composition Grammar."

Pronouns of the Second Person."Anomalous usages have sprung up in connection with these pronouns. The plural form has almost wholly superseded the singular; a usage more than five centuries old.[24]

"The motive is courtesy. The singling out of one person for address is supposed to be a liberty or an excess of familiarity; and the effect is softened or diluted by the fiction of taking in others. If our address is uncomplimentary, the sting is lessened by the plural form; and if the reverse, the shock to modesty is not so great. This is a refinement that was unknown to the ancient languages. The orators of Greece delighted in the strong, pointed, personal appeal implied in the singular 'thou.' In modern German, 'thou' (du) is the address of familiarity and intimacy; while the ordinary pronoun is the curiously indirect 'they' (Sie). On solemn occasions, we may revert to 'thou.' Cato, in his meditative soliloquy on reading Plato's views on the immortality of the soul before killing himself, says: 'Plato,thoureasonest well.' So in the Commandments, 'thou' addresses to each individual an unavoidable appeal: 'Thoushall not——.' But our ordinary means of making the personal appeal is, 'you,sir,' 'you,madam,' 'myLord, you——,' etc.; we reserve 'thou' for the special case of addressing the Deity. The application of the motive of courtesy is here reversed; it would beirreverent to merge this vast personality in a promiscuous assemblage.

"'You' is not unfrequently employed, like 'we,' as a representative pronoun. The action is represented with great vividness, when the person or persons addressed may be put forward as the performers: 'There is such an echo among the old ruins, and vaults, that ifyoustamp a little louder than ordinary,youhear the sound repeated'; 'Some practice is required to see these animals in the thick forest, even whenyouhear them close byyou.'

"There should not be a mixture of 'thou' and 'you' in the same passage. Thus, Thackeray (Adventures of Philip): 'So, asthysun rises, friend, over the humble house-tops round aboutyourhome, shallyouwake many and many a day to duty and labor.' So, Cooper (Water-Witch): 'Thouhast both master and mistress?Youhave told us of the latter, but we would know something of the former. Who isthymaster?' Shakespeare, Scott, and others might also be quoted.

"'Ye' and 'you' were at one time strictly distinguished as different cases; 'ye' was nominative, 'you' objective (dative or accusative). But the Elizabethan dramatists confounded the forms irredeemably; and 'you' has gradually ousted 'ye' from ordinary use. 'Ye' is restricted to the expression of strong feeling, and in this employment occurs chiefly in the poets."—Bain's "Composition Grammar."

Proof.This word is much and very improperly used forevidence, which is only the medium ofproof,proofbeing the effect ofevidence. "Whatevidencehave you to offer inproofof the truth of your statement?" See alsoEvidence.

Propose—Purpose.Writers and speakers often fail to discriminate properly between the respective meanings of these two verbs.Propose, correctly used, means, to putforward or to offer forthe consideration of others; hence,a proposalis a scheme or design offered for acceptance or consideration, a proposition.Purposemeans, to intend, to design, to resolve; hence,a purposeis an intention, an aim, that which one setsbefore one's self. Examples: "What do youpurposedoing in the matter?" "What do youproposethat we shall do in the matter?" "I will do" means "Ipurposedoing, or to do." "Ipurposeto write a history of England from the accession of King James the Second down to a time which is within the memory of men still living."—Macaulay. It will be observed that Macaulay says, "I purposeto write" and not, "I purposewriting," using the verb in the infinitive rather than in the participial form. "On which hepurposedto mount one of his little guns." SeeInfinitive.

Proposition.This word is often used whenproposalwould be better, for the reason thatproposalhas but one meaning, and is shorter by one syllable. "He demonstrated thepropositionof Euclid, and rejected theproposalof his friend."

Prosaist.Dr. Hall is of opinion that this is a word we shall do well to encourage. It is used by good writers.

Proven.This form for the past participle of the verbto proveis said to be a Scotticism. It is not used by careful writers and speakers. The correct form isproved.

Providing.The present participle of the verbto provideis sometimes vulgarly used for the conjunctionprovided, as in this sentence from the "London Queen": "Society may be congratulated, ...providingthat," etc.

Provoke.SeeAggravate.

Punctuation.The importance of punctuation can not be overestimated; it not only helps to make plain the meaning of what one writes, but it may prevent one's being misconstrued.Though no two writers could be found who punctuate just alike, still in the main those who pay attention to the art put in their stops in essentially the same manner. The difference that punctuation may make in the meaning of language is well illustrated by the following anecdote:

At Ramessa there lived a benevolent and hospitable prior, who caused these lines to be painted over his door:

"Be open evermore,O thou my door!To none be shut—to honest or to poor!"

In time the good prior was succeeded by a man as selfish as his predecessor was generous. The lines over the door of the priory were allowed to remain; one stop, however, was altered, which made them read thus:

"Be open evermore,O thou my door!To none—be shut to honest or to poor!"

He punctuates best who makes his punctuation contribute most to the clear expression of his thought; and that construction is best that has least need of being punctuated.

The Comma.—The chief difference in the punctuation of different writers is usually in their use of the comma, in regard to which there is a good deal of latitude; much is left to individual taste. Nowadays the best practice uses it sparingly. An idea of the extent to which opinions differ with regard to the use of the comma may be formed from the following excerpt from a paper prepared for private use:"In the following examples, gathered from various sources—chiefly from standard books—the superfluous commas are inclosed in parentheses:"1. 'It remains(,) perhaps(,) to be said(,) that, if any lesson at all(,) as to these delicate matters(,) is needed(,) in this period, it is not so much a lesson,' etc. 2. 'The obedience is not due to the power of a right authority, but to the spirit of fear, and(,) therefore(,) is(,) in reality(,) no obedience at all.' 3. 'The patriot disturbances in Canada ... awakened deep interest among the people of the United States(,) who lived adjacent to the frontier.' 4. 'Observers(,) who have recently investigated this point(,) do not all agree,' etc. 5. 'The wind did(,) in an instant(,) what man and steam together had failed to do in hours.' 6. 'All the cabin passengers(,) situated beyond the center of the boat(,) were saved.' 7. 'No other writer has depicted(,) with so much art or so much accuracy(,) the habits, the manners,' etc. 8. 'If it shall give satisfaction to those who have(,) in any way(,) befriended it, the author will feel,' etc. 9. 'Formed(,) or consisting of(,) clay.' 10. 'The subject [witchcraft] grew interesting; and(,) to examine Sarah Cloyce and Elizabeth Proctor, the deputy-governor(,) and five other magistrates(,) went to Salem.' 11. 'The Lusitanians(,) who had not left their home(,) rose as a man,' etc. 12. 'Vague reports ... had preceded him to Washington, and his Mississippi friends(,) who chanced to be at the capital(,) were not backward to make their boast of him.' 13. 'Our faith has acquired a new vigor(,) and a clearer vision.' 14. 'In 1819(,) he removed to Cambridge.' 15. 'Doré was born at Strasburg(,) in 1832, and labors,' etc. 16. 'We should never apply dry compresses, charpie, or wadding(,) to the wound.' 17. '—to stand idle, to look, act, or think(,) in a leisurely way.' 18. '—portraits taken from the farmers, schoolmasters, and peasantry(,) of the neighborhood.' 19. '—gladly welcomed painters of Flanders, Holland, and Spain(,) to their shores.'"In all these cases, the clauses between or following the inclosed commas are so closely connected grammatically with the immediately preceding words or phrases, that they should be read without a perceptible pause, or with only a slight one for breath, without change of voice. Some of the commas would grossly pervert the meaning if strictly construed. Thus, from No. 3 it would appear that the people of the United States in general lived adjacent to the frontier; from No. 4, that all observers have recently investigated the point in question; from No. 6, that all the cabin passengers were so situated that they were saved, whereas it is meant that only a certain small proportion of them were saved; from No. 10 (Bancroft), that somebody whose name is accidentally omitted went to Salem 'to examine Sarah Cloyce and Elizabeth Proctor, the deputy-governor, and five other magistrates'; from No. 11, that none of the Lusitanians had left their home, whereas it was the slaughter by the Romans of a great number of them whohadleft their home that caused the rising."Commas are frequently omitted, and in certain positions very generally, where the sense and correct reading require a pause. In the following examples, such commas, omitted in the works from which they were taken, are inclosed in brackets:"1. 'The modes of thought[,] and the types of character which those modes produce[,] are essentially and universally transformed.' 2. 'Taken by itself[,] this doctrine could have no effect whatever; indeed[,] it would amount to nothing but a verbal proposition.' 3. 'Far below[,] the little stream of the Oder foamed over the rocks.' 4. 'When the day returned[,] the professor, the artist[,] and I rowed to within a hundred yards of the shore.' 5. 'Proceeding into the interior of India[,] they passed through Belgaum.'6. 'If Loring is defeated in the Sixth District[,] it can be borne.'"In No. 3, the reader naturally enunciates 'the little stream of the Oder' as in the objective case after 'below'; but there he comes to a predicate which compels him to go back and read differently. In No. 4, it appears that 'the day returned the professor,' and then 'the artist and I rowed,' etc."All clauses should generally be isolated by commas; where, however, the connection is very close or the clause is very short, no point may be necessary. "But his pride is greater than his ignorance, and what he wants in knowledge he supplies by sufficiency." "A man of polite imagination can converse with a picture, and find an agreeable companion in a statue." "Though he slay me, yet will I trust him." "The prince, his father being dead, succeeded." "To confess the truth, I was much at fault." "As the heart panteth after the water-brooks, so panteth my soul after thee." "Where the bee sucks, there suck I." "His father dying, he succeeded to the estate." "The little that is known, and the circumstance that little is known, must be considered as honorable to him."The comma is used before and after a phrase when coördinating and not restrictive. "The jury, having retired for half an hour, brought in a verdict." "The stranger, unwilling to obtrude himself on our notice, left in the morning." "Rome, the city of the Emperors, became the city of the Popes." "His stories, which made everybody laugh, were often made to order." "He did not come, which I greatly regret." "The younger, who was yet a boy, had nothing striking in his appearance." "They passed the cup to the stranger, who drank heartily." "Peace at any price, which these orators seem to advocate,means war at any cost." "Sailors, who are generally superstitious, say it is unlucky to embark on Friday."Adverbs and short phrases,when they break the connection, should be between commas. Some of the most common words and phrases so used are the following: Also, too, there, indeed, perhaps, surely, moreover, likewise, however, finally, namely, therefore, apparently, meanwhile, consequently, unquestionably, accordingly, notwithstanding, in truth, in fact, in short, in general, in reality, no doubt, of course, as it were, at all events, to be brief, to be sure, now and then, on the contrary, in a word, by chance, in that case, in the mean time, for the most part. "History, in a word, is replete with moral lessons." "As an orator, however, he was not great." "There is, remember, a limit at which forbearance ceases to be a virtue." "Our civilization, therefore, is not an unmixed good." "This, I grant you, is not of great importance."If, however, the adverb does not break the connection, but readily coalesces with the rest of the sentence, the commas are omitted. "Morning will come at last, however dark the night may be." "We then proceeded on our way." "Our civilization is therefore not an unmixed good." "Patience, I say; your mind perhaps may change."Adverbial phrases and clauses beginning a sentence are set off by commas. "In truth, I could not tell." "To sum up, the matter is this." "Everything being ready, they set out." "By looking a little deeper, the reason will be found." "Finally, let me sum up the argument." "If the premises were admitted, I should deny the conclusion." "Where your treasure is, there will your heart be also."Words used in apposition should be isolated by commas."Newton, the great mathematician, was very modest." "And he, their prince, shall rank among my peers." In such sentences, however, as, "The mathematician Newton was very modest," and "The Emperor Napoleon was a great soldier," commas are not used.The name or designation of a person addressed is isolated by commas. "It touches you, my lord, as well as me." "John, come here." "Mr. President, my object is peace." "Tell me, boy, where do you live?" "Yes, sir, I will do as you say." "Mr. Brown, what is your number?"Pairs of words.—"Old and young, rich and poor, wise and foolish, were involved." "Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and heart to this vote." "Interest and ambition, honor and shame, friendship and enmity, gratitude and revenge, are the prime movers in public transactions."A restrictive clause is not separated by a comma from the noun. "Every one must love a boy who [that] is attentive and docile." "He preaches sublimely who [that] lives a holy life." "The things which [that] are seen are temporal." "A king depending on the support of his subjects can not rashly go to war." "The sailor who [that] is not superstitious will embark any day."The comma is used after adjectives, nouns, and verbs in sentences like the following:"Are all thy conquests, glories, triumphs, spoilsShrunk to this little measure?""He fills, he bounds, connects and equals all.""Who to the enraptured heart, and ear, and eyeTeach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody."[25]"He rewarded his friends, chastised his foes, set Justice on her seat, and made his conquest secure."The comma is used to separate adjectives in opposition, but closely connected. "Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull." "Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand." "Though black, yet comely; and though rash, benign."After a nominative, where the verb is understood. "To err is human; to forgive, divine." "A wise man seeks to shine in himself; a fool, in others." "Conversation makes a ready man; writing, an exact man; reading, a full man."A long subject is often separated from the predicate by a comma. "Any one that refuses to earn an honest livelihood, is not an object of charity." "The circumstance of his being unprepared to adopt immediate and decisive measures, was represented to the Government." "That he had persistently disregarded every warning and persevered in his reckless course, had not yet undermined his credit with his dupes." "That the work of forming and perfecting the character is difficult, is generally allowed."In a series of adjectives that precede their noun, a comma is placed after each except the last; there usage omits the point. "A beautiful, tall, willowy, sprightly girl." "A quick, brilliant, studious, learned man."[26]A comma is placed between short members of compoundsentences, connected byand,but,for,nor,or,because,whereas,thatexpressing purpose (so that, in order that), and other conjunctions. "Be virtuous, that you may be respected." "Love not sleep, lest you come to poverty." "Man proposes, but God disposes."A comma must not be placed beforethatexcept when it is equivalent toin order that. "He says that he will be here."A comma must not be placed beforeandwhen it connects two words only. "Time and tide wait for no man." "A rich and prosperous people." "Plain and honest truth wants no artificial covering."A comma is sometimes necessary to prevent ambiguity. "He who pursues pleasure only defeats the object of his creation." Without a comma before or afteronly, the meaning of this sentence is doubtful.The following sentences present some miscellaneous examples of the use of the comma by writers on punctuation: "Industry, as well as genius, is essential to the production of great works." "Prosperity is secured to a state, not by the acquisition of territory or riches, but by the encouragement of industry." "Your manners are affable, and, for the most part, pleasing."[27]"However fairly a bad man may appear to act, we distrust him." "Why, this is rank injustice." "Well, follow the dictates of your inclination." "The comma may be omitted in the case oftoo,also,therefore, andperhaps, when introduced so as not to interfere with the harmonious flow of the period; and, particularly, when the sentence is short."[28]"Robert Horton, M. D., F. R. S." "To those who labor, sleep is doubly pleasant"; "Sleepis doubly pleasant to those who labor." "Those who persevere, succeed." "To be overlooked, slighted, and neglected; to be misunderstood, misrepresented, and slandered; to be trampled under foot by the envious, the ignorant, and the vile; to be crushed by foes, and to be distrusted and betrayed even by friends—such is too often the fate of genius." "She is tall, though not so handsome as her sister." "Verily, verily, I say unto you." "Whatever is, is right." "What is foreordained to be, will be." "The Emperor Augustus was a patron of the fine arts." "Augustus, the Emperor, was a patron of the fine arts." "United, we stand; divided, we fall." "God said, Let there be light." "July 21, 1881." "President Garfield was shot, Saturday morning, July 2, 1881; he died, Monday night, Sept. 19, 1881." "I am, sir, very respectfully, your obedient servant, John Jones." "New York, August, 1881." "Room 20, Equitable Building, Broadway, New York.""When you are in doubt as to the propriety of inserting commas, omit them;it is better to have too few than too many."—Quackenbos.The Semicolon.—Reasons are preceded by semicolons; "Economy is no disgrace; for it is better to live on a little than to outlive a great deal." Clauses in opposition are separated by a semicolon when the second is introduced by an adversative: "Straws swim at the surface; but pearls lie at the bottom"; "Lying lips are an abomination to the Lord; but they that deal truly are his delight." Without the adversative, the colon is to be preferred: "Prosperity showeth vice: adversity, virtue." The great divisions of a sentence must be pointed with a semicolon when the minor divisions are pointed with commas: "Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, not the web; and wit the ornamentof the mind, not the furniture." The things enumerated must be separated by semicolons, when the enunciation of particulars is preceded by a colon: "The value of a maxim depends on four things: the correctness of the principle it embodies; the subject to which it relates; the extent of its application; and the ease with which it may be practically carried out." Whenasintroduces an example, it is preceded by a semicolon. When several successive clauses have a common connection with a preceding or following clause, they are separated by semicolons; as, "Children, as they gamboled on the beach; reapers, as they gathered the harvest; mowers, as they rested from using the scythe; mothers, as they busied themselves about the household—were victims to an enemy, who disappeared the moment a blow was struck." "Reason as we may, it is impossible not to read in such a fate much that we know not how to interpret; much of provocation to cruel deeds and deep resentment; much of apology for wrong and perfidy; much of doubt and misgiving as to the past; much of painful recollections; much of dark foreboding." "Philosophers assert that Nature is unlimited; that her treasures are endless; that the increase of knowledge will never cease."The Colon.—This point is less used now than formerly: its place is supplied by the period, the semicolon, or the dash; and sometimes, even by the comma. The colon is used very differently by different writers. "He was heard to say, 'I have done with this world.'" Some writers would put a colon, some a comma, aftersay. "When the quoted passage is brought in without any introductory word, if short," says Quackenbos, "it is generally preceded by a comma; if long, by a colon; as, 'A simpleton, meeting a philosopher, asked him, "What affords wise men thegreatest pleasure?" Turning on his heel, the sage replied, "To get rid of fools."'"Formal enumerations of particulars, and direct quotations, when introduced by such phrases asin these words,as follows,the following,namely,this,these,thus, etc., are properly preceded by a colon. "We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." "Lord Bacon has summed up the whole matter in the following words: 'A little philosophy inclineth men's minds to atheism; but depth in philosophy bringeth men's minds to religion.'" "The human family is composed of five races: first, the Caucasian; second, the Mongolian; third, the," etc."All were attentive to the godlike manWhen from his lofty couch he thus began:'Great queen,'" etc.—Dryden.When the quotation, or other matter, begins a new paragraph, the colon is, by many writers, followed with a dash; as, "The cloth being removed, the President rose and said:—"'Ladies and gentlemen, we are,'" etc.The colon is used to mark the greater breaks in sentences, when the lesser breaks are marked by semicolons. "You have called yourself an atom in the universe; you have said that you are but an insect in the solar blaze: is your present pride consistent with these professions?" "A clause is either independent or dependent: independent, if it forms an assertion by itself; dependent, if it enters into some other clause with the value of a part of speech." A colon is sometimes used instead of a period to separate two short sentences, which are closely connected. "Neverflatter people: leave that to such as mean to betray them." "Some things we can, and others we can not do: we can walk, but we can not fly."The Period.—Complete sentences are always followed either by a period, or by an exclamation or an interrogation point.[29]The period is also used after abbreviations; as, R. D. Van Nostrand, St. Louis, Mo.; Jno. B. Morris, M. D., F. R. S., London, Eng.; Jas. W. Wallack, Jr., New York City, N. Y.; Jas. B. Roberts, Elocutionist, Phila., Pa.Interrogation-point.—This point is used after questions put by the writer, and after questions reported directly. "What can I do for you?" "Where are you going?" "What do you say?" cried the General. "The child still lives?" It should not be used when the question is reported indirectly. "He asked me where I was going." "The Judge asked the witness if he believed the man to be guilty."Exclamation-point.—This mark is placed after interjections, after sentences and clauses of sentences of passionate import, and after solemn invocations and addresses. "Zounds! the man's in earnest." "Pshaw! what can we do?" "Bah! what's that to me?" "Indeed! then I must look to it." "Look, my lord, it comes!" "Rest, rest, perturbed spirit!" "O heat, dry up my brains!" "Dear maid, kind sister, sweet Ophelia!" "While in this part of the country, I once more revisited—and, alas, with what melancholy presentiments!—the home of my youth." "O rose of May!" "Oh, from this time forth, my thoughts be bloody or be nothing worth!" "O heavens! die two months ago, and not forgotten yet?""Night, sable goddess! from her ebon throne,In rayless majesty now stretches forthHer leaden scepter o'er a slumbering world.Silence, how dead! and darkness, how profound!"—Young."Hail, holy light! offspring of heaven just born!"—Milton."But thou, O Hope! with eyes so fair,What was thy delighted measure?"—Collins.It will be observed that the interjection O is an exception to the rule: it is often followed by a comma, but never by an exclamation-point.An exclamation-point sometimes gives the same words quite another meaning. The difference between "What's that?" and "What's that!" is obvious.The Dash.—Cobbett did not favor the use of this mark, as we see from the following: "Let me caution you against the use of what, by some, is called thedash. The dash is a stroke along the line; thus, 'I am rich—I was poor—I shall be poor again.' This is wild work indeed! Who is to know what is intended by thesedashes? Those who have thought proper, like Mr. Lindley Murray, to place thedashamongst thegrammatical points, ought to give us some rule relative to its different longitudinal dimensions in different cases. Theinch, thethree-quarter-inch, thehalf-inch, thequarter-inch: these would be something determinate; but 'the dash,' without measure, must be a perilous thing for the young grammarian to handle. In short, 'the dash' is a cover for ignorance as to the use of points, and it can answer no other purpose."This is one of the few instances in which Cobbett was wrong. Thedashis the proper point with which to mark an unexpected or emphatic pause, or a sudden break or transition. It is very often preceded by another point. "AndHuitzilopochtli—a sweet name to roll under one's tongue—for how many years has this venerable war-god blinked in the noonday sun!" "Crowds gathered about the newspaper bulletins, recalling the feverish scenes that occurred when the President's life was thought to be hanging by a thread. 'Wouldn't it be too bad,' said one, 'if, after all—no, I won't allow myself to think of it.'" "Was there ever—but I scorn to boast." "You are—no, I'll not tell you what you are.""He suffered—but his pangs are o'er;Enjoyed—but his delights are fled;Had friends—his friends are now no more;And foes—his foes are dead."—Montgomery."Greece, Carthage, Rome,—where are they?" "He chastens;—but he chastens to save."Dashes are much used where parentheses were formerly employed. "In the days of Tweed the expression to divide fair—forcible, if not grammatical—acquired much currency." "In truth, the character of the great chief was depicted two thousand five hundred years before his birth, and depicted—such is the power of genius—in colors which will be fresh as many years after his death." "To render the Constitution perpetual—which God grant it may be!—it is necessary that its benefits should be practically felt by all parts of the country."Parenthesis.—This mark is comparatively little used nowadays. The dash is preferred, probably because it disfigures the page less. The office of the parenthesis is to isolate a phrase which is merely incidental, and which might be omitted without detriment to the grammatical construction."Know then this truth (enough for man to know),Virtue alone is happiness below."—Pope."The bliss of man (could pride that blessing find)Is not to act or think beyond mankind."Brackets.—This mark is used principally to inclose words improperly omitted by the writer, or words introduced for the purpose of explanation or to correct an error. The bracket is often used in this book.The Apostrophe.—This point is used to denote the omission of letters and sometimes of figures; as, Jan'y, '81;I'veforI have;you'llforyou will;'tisforit is;don'tfordo not;can'tforcan not; It was in the year '93; the spirit of '76; It was in the years 1812, '13, and '14.Also to denote the possessive case; as, Brown's house; the king's command; Moses' staff; for conscience' sake; the boys' garden.Also withsto denote the plural of letters, figures, and signs; as, Cross yourt's, dot youri's, and mind yourp's andq's; make your 5's better, and take out thex's.Capitals.—A capital letter should begin every sentence, every line of verse, and every direct quotation.All names of the Deity, of Jesus Christ, of the Trinity, and of the Virgin Mary must begin with a capital. Pronouns are usually capitalized when they refer to the Deity.Proper names, and nouns and adjectives formed from proper names, names of streets, of the months, of the days of the week, and of the holidays, are capitalized.Titles of nobility and of high office, when used to designate particular persons, are capitalized; as, the Earl of Dunraven, the Mayor of Boston, the Baron replied, the Cardinal presided.The Paragraph.—In writing for the press, the division of matter into paragraphs is often quite arbitrary; in letter-writing, on the contrary, the several topics treated of should, as a rule, be isolated by paragraphic divisions. These divisionsgive one's letters a shapely appearance that they otherwise never have.

"In the following examples, gathered from various sources—chiefly from standard books—the superfluous commas are inclosed in parentheses:

"1. 'It remains(,) perhaps(,) to be said(,) that, if any lesson at all(,) as to these delicate matters(,) is needed(,) in this period, it is not so much a lesson,' etc. 2. 'The obedience is not due to the power of a right authority, but to the spirit of fear, and(,) therefore(,) is(,) in reality(,) no obedience at all.' 3. 'The patriot disturbances in Canada ... awakened deep interest among the people of the United States(,) who lived adjacent to the frontier.' 4. 'Observers(,) who have recently investigated this point(,) do not all agree,' etc. 5. 'The wind did(,) in an instant(,) what man and steam together had failed to do in hours.' 6. 'All the cabin passengers(,) situated beyond the center of the boat(,) were saved.' 7. 'No other writer has depicted(,) with so much art or so much accuracy(,) the habits, the manners,' etc. 8. 'If it shall give satisfaction to those who have(,) in any way(,) befriended it, the author will feel,' etc. 9. 'Formed(,) or consisting of(,) clay.' 10. 'The subject [witchcraft] grew interesting; and(,) to examine Sarah Cloyce and Elizabeth Proctor, the deputy-governor(,) and five other magistrates(,) went to Salem.' 11. 'The Lusitanians(,) who had not left their home(,) rose as a man,' etc. 12. 'Vague reports ... had preceded him to Washington, and his Mississippi friends(,) who chanced to be at the capital(,) were not backward to make their boast of him.' 13. 'Our faith has acquired a new vigor(,) and a clearer vision.' 14. 'In 1819(,) he removed to Cambridge.' 15. 'Doré was born at Strasburg(,) in 1832, and labors,' etc. 16. 'We should never apply dry compresses, charpie, or wadding(,) to the wound.' 17. '—to stand idle, to look, act, or think(,) in a leisurely way.' 18. '—portraits taken from the farmers, schoolmasters, and peasantry(,) of the neighborhood.' 19. '—gladly welcomed painters of Flanders, Holland, and Spain(,) to their shores.'

"In all these cases, the clauses between or following the inclosed commas are so closely connected grammatically with the immediately preceding words or phrases, that they should be read without a perceptible pause, or with only a slight one for breath, without change of voice. Some of the commas would grossly pervert the meaning if strictly construed. Thus, from No. 3 it would appear that the people of the United States in general lived adjacent to the frontier; from No. 4, that all observers have recently investigated the point in question; from No. 6, that all the cabin passengers were so situated that they were saved, whereas it is meant that only a certain small proportion of them were saved; from No. 10 (Bancroft), that somebody whose name is accidentally omitted went to Salem 'to examine Sarah Cloyce and Elizabeth Proctor, the deputy-governor, and five other magistrates'; from No. 11, that none of the Lusitanians had left their home, whereas it was the slaughter by the Romans of a great number of them whohadleft their home that caused the rising.

"Commas are frequently omitted, and in certain positions very generally, where the sense and correct reading require a pause. In the following examples, such commas, omitted in the works from which they were taken, are inclosed in brackets:

"1. 'The modes of thought[,] and the types of character which those modes produce[,] are essentially and universally transformed.' 2. 'Taken by itself[,] this doctrine could have no effect whatever; indeed[,] it would amount to nothing but a verbal proposition.' 3. 'Far below[,] the little stream of the Oder foamed over the rocks.' 4. 'When the day returned[,] the professor, the artist[,] and I rowed to within a hundred yards of the shore.' 5. 'Proceeding into the interior of India[,] they passed through Belgaum.'6. 'If Loring is defeated in the Sixth District[,] it can be borne.'

"In No. 3, the reader naturally enunciates 'the little stream of the Oder' as in the objective case after 'below'; but there he comes to a predicate which compels him to go back and read differently. In No. 4, it appears that 'the day returned the professor,' and then 'the artist and I rowed,' etc."

All clauses should generally be isolated by commas; where, however, the connection is very close or the clause is very short, no point may be necessary. "But his pride is greater than his ignorance, and what he wants in knowledge he supplies by sufficiency." "A man of polite imagination can converse with a picture, and find an agreeable companion in a statue." "Though he slay me, yet will I trust him." "The prince, his father being dead, succeeded." "To confess the truth, I was much at fault." "As the heart panteth after the water-brooks, so panteth my soul after thee." "Where the bee sucks, there suck I." "His father dying, he succeeded to the estate." "The little that is known, and the circumstance that little is known, must be considered as honorable to him."

The comma is used before and after a phrase when coördinating and not restrictive. "The jury, having retired for half an hour, brought in a verdict." "The stranger, unwilling to obtrude himself on our notice, left in the morning." "Rome, the city of the Emperors, became the city of the Popes." "His stories, which made everybody laugh, were often made to order." "He did not come, which I greatly regret." "The younger, who was yet a boy, had nothing striking in his appearance." "They passed the cup to the stranger, who drank heartily." "Peace at any price, which these orators seem to advocate,means war at any cost." "Sailors, who are generally superstitious, say it is unlucky to embark on Friday."

Adverbs and short phrases,when they break the connection, should be between commas. Some of the most common words and phrases so used are the following: Also, too, there, indeed, perhaps, surely, moreover, likewise, however, finally, namely, therefore, apparently, meanwhile, consequently, unquestionably, accordingly, notwithstanding, in truth, in fact, in short, in general, in reality, no doubt, of course, as it were, at all events, to be brief, to be sure, now and then, on the contrary, in a word, by chance, in that case, in the mean time, for the most part. "History, in a word, is replete with moral lessons." "As an orator, however, he was not great." "There is, remember, a limit at which forbearance ceases to be a virtue." "Our civilization, therefore, is not an unmixed good." "This, I grant you, is not of great importance."

If, however, the adverb does not break the connection, but readily coalesces with the rest of the sentence, the commas are omitted. "Morning will come at last, however dark the night may be." "We then proceeded on our way." "Our civilization is therefore not an unmixed good." "Patience, I say; your mind perhaps may change."

Adverbial phrases and clauses beginning a sentence are set off by commas. "In truth, I could not tell." "To sum up, the matter is this." "Everything being ready, they set out." "By looking a little deeper, the reason will be found." "Finally, let me sum up the argument." "If the premises were admitted, I should deny the conclusion." "Where your treasure is, there will your heart be also."

Words used in apposition should be isolated by commas."Newton, the great mathematician, was very modest." "And he, their prince, shall rank among my peers." In such sentences, however, as, "The mathematician Newton was very modest," and "The Emperor Napoleon was a great soldier," commas are not used.

The name or designation of a person addressed is isolated by commas. "It touches you, my lord, as well as me." "John, come here." "Mr. President, my object is peace." "Tell me, boy, where do you live?" "Yes, sir, I will do as you say." "Mr. Brown, what is your number?"

Pairs of words.—"Old and young, rich and poor, wise and foolish, were involved." "Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and heart to this vote." "Interest and ambition, honor and shame, friendship and enmity, gratitude and revenge, are the prime movers in public transactions."

A restrictive clause is not separated by a comma from the noun. "Every one must love a boy who [that] is attentive and docile." "He preaches sublimely who [that] lives a holy life." "The things which [that] are seen are temporal." "A king depending on the support of his subjects can not rashly go to war." "The sailor who [that] is not superstitious will embark any day."

The comma is used after adjectives, nouns, and verbs in sentences like the following:

"Are all thy conquests, glories, triumphs, spoilsShrunk to this little measure?""He fills, he bounds, connects and equals all.""Who to the enraptured heart, and ear, and eyeTeach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody."[25]

"Are all thy conquests, glories, triumphs, spoilsShrunk to this little measure?"

"He fills, he bounds, connects and equals all."

"Who to the enraptured heart, and ear, and eyeTeach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody."[25]

"He rewarded his friends, chastised his foes, set Justice on her seat, and made his conquest secure."

The comma is used to separate adjectives in opposition, but closely connected. "Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull." "Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand." "Though black, yet comely; and though rash, benign."

After a nominative, where the verb is understood. "To err is human; to forgive, divine." "A wise man seeks to shine in himself; a fool, in others." "Conversation makes a ready man; writing, an exact man; reading, a full man."

A long subject is often separated from the predicate by a comma. "Any one that refuses to earn an honest livelihood, is not an object of charity." "The circumstance of his being unprepared to adopt immediate and decisive measures, was represented to the Government." "That he had persistently disregarded every warning and persevered in his reckless course, had not yet undermined his credit with his dupes." "That the work of forming and perfecting the character is difficult, is generally allowed."

In a series of adjectives that precede their noun, a comma is placed after each except the last; there usage omits the point. "A beautiful, tall, willowy, sprightly girl." "A quick, brilliant, studious, learned man."[26]

A comma is placed between short members of compoundsentences, connected byand,but,for,nor,or,because,whereas,thatexpressing purpose (so that, in order that), and other conjunctions. "Be virtuous, that you may be respected." "Love not sleep, lest you come to poverty." "Man proposes, but God disposes."

A comma must not be placed beforethatexcept when it is equivalent toin order that. "He says that he will be here."

A comma must not be placed beforeandwhen it connects two words only. "Time and tide wait for no man." "A rich and prosperous people." "Plain and honest truth wants no artificial covering."

A comma is sometimes necessary to prevent ambiguity. "He who pursues pleasure only defeats the object of his creation." Without a comma before or afteronly, the meaning of this sentence is doubtful.

The following sentences present some miscellaneous examples of the use of the comma by writers on punctuation: "Industry, as well as genius, is essential to the production of great works." "Prosperity is secured to a state, not by the acquisition of territory or riches, but by the encouragement of industry." "Your manners are affable, and, for the most part, pleasing."[27]

"However fairly a bad man may appear to act, we distrust him." "Why, this is rank injustice." "Well, follow the dictates of your inclination." "The comma may be omitted in the case oftoo,also,therefore, andperhaps, when introduced so as not to interfere with the harmonious flow of the period; and, particularly, when the sentence is short."[28]"Robert Horton, M. D., F. R. S." "To those who labor, sleep is doubly pleasant"; "Sleepis doubly pleasant to those who labor." "Those who persevere, succeed." "To be overlooked, slighted, and neglected; to be misunderstood, misrepresented, and slandered; to be trampled under foot by the envious, the ignorant, and the vile; to be crushed by foes, and to be distrusted and betrayed even by friends—such is too often the fate of genius." "She is tall, though not so handsome as her sister." "Verily, verily, I say unto you." "Whatever is, is right." "What is foreordained to be, will be." "The Emperor Augustus was a patron of the fine arts." "Augustus, the Emperor, was a patron of the fine arts." "United, we stand; divided, we fall." "God said, Let there be light." "July 21, 1881." "President Garfield was shot, Saturday morning, July 2, 1881; he died, Monday night, Sept. 19, 1881." "I am, sir, very respectfully, your obedient servant, John Jones." "New York, August, 1881." "Room 20, Equitable Building, Broadway, New York."

"When you are in doubt as to the propriety of inserting commas, omit them;it is better to have too few than too many."—Quackenbos.

The Semicolon.—Reasons are preceded by semicolons; "Economy is no disgrace; for it is better to live on a little than to outlive a great deal." Clauses in opposition are separated by a semicolon when the second is introduced by an adversative: "Straws swim at the surface; but pearls lie at the bottom"; "Lying lips are an abomination to the Lord; but they that deal truly are his delight." Without the adversative, the colon is to be preferred: "Prosperity showeth vice: adversity, virtue." The great divisions of a sentence must be pointed with a semicolon when the minor divisions are pointed with commas: "Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, not the web; and wit the ornamentof the mind, not the furniture." The things enumerated must be separated by semicolons, when the enunciation of particulars is preceded by a colon: "The value of a maxim depends on four things: the correctness of the principle it embodies; the subject to which it relates; the extent of its application; and the ease with which it may be practically carried out." Whenasintroduces an example, it is preceded by a semicolon. When several successive clauses have a common connection with a preceding or following clause, they are separated by semicolons; as, "Children, as they gamboled on the beach; reapers, as they gathered the harvest; mowers, as they rested from using the scythe; mothers, as they busied themselves about the household—were victims to an enemy, who disappeared the moment a blow was struck." "Reason as we may, it is impossible not to read in such a fate much that we know not how to interpret; much of provocation to cruel deeds and deep resentment; much of apology for wrong and perfidy; much of doubt and misgiving as to the past; much of painful recollections; much of dark foreboding." "Philosophers assert that Nature is unlimited; that her treasures are endless; that the increase of knowledge will never cease."

The Colon.—This point is less used now than formerly: its place is supplied by the period, the semicolon, or the dash; and sometimes, even by the comma. The colon is used very differently by different writers. "He was heard to say, 'I have done with this world.'" Some writers would put a colon, some a comma, aftersay. "When the quoted passage is brought in without any introductory word, if short," says Quackenbos, "it is generally preceded by a comma; if long, by a colon; as, 'A simpleton, meeting a philosopher, asked him, "What affords wise men thegreatest pleasure?" Turning on his heel, the sage replied, "To get rid of fools."'"

Formal enumerations of particulars, and direct quotations, when introduced by such phrases asin these words,as follows,the following,namely,this,these,thus, etc., are properly preceded by a colon. "We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." "Lord Bacon has summed up the whole matter in the following words: 'A little philosophy inclineth men's minds to atheism; but depth in philosophy bringeth men's minds to religion.'" "The human family is composed of five races: first, the Caucasian; second, the Mongolian; third, the," etc.

"All were attentive to the godlike manWhen from his lofty couch he thus began:'Great queen,'" etc.—Dryden.

When the quotation, or other matter, begins a new paragraph, the colon is, by many writers, followed with a dash; as, "The cloth being removed, the President rose and said:—

"'Ladies and gentlemen, we are,'" etc.

The colon is used to mark the greater breaks in sentences, when the lesser breaks are marked by semicolons. "You have called yourself an atom in the universe; you have said that you are but an insect in the solar blaze: is your present pride consistent with these professions?" "A clause is either independent or dependent: independent, if it forms an assertion by itself; dependent, if it enters into some other clause with the value of a part of speech." A colon is sometimes used instead of a period to separate two short sentences, which are closely connected. "Neverflatter people: leave that to such as mean to betray them." "Some things we can, and others we can not do: we can walk, but we can not fly."

The Period.—Complete sentences are always followed either by a period, or by an exclamation or an interrogation point.[29]

The period is also used after abbreviations; as, R. D. Van Nostrand, St. Louis, Mo.; Jno. B. Morris, M. D., F. R. S., London, Eng.; Jas. W. Wallack, Jr., New York City, N. Y.; Jas. B. Roberts, Elocutionist, Phila., Pa.

Interrogation-point.—This point is used after questions put by the writer, and after questions reported directly. "What can I do for you?" "Where are you going?" "What do you say?" cried the General. "The child still lives?" It should not be used when the question is reported indirectly. "He asked me where I was going." "The Judge asked the witness if he believed the man to be guilty."

Exclamation-point.—This mark is placed after interjections, after sentences and clauses of sentences of passionate import, and after solemn invocations and addresses. "Zounds! the man's in earnest." "Pshaw! what can we do?" "Bah! what's that to me?" "Indeed! then I must look to it." "Look, my lord, it comes!" "Rest, rest, perturbed spirit!" "O heat, dry up my brains!" "Dear maid, kind sister, sweet Ophelia!" "While in this part of the country, I once more revisited—and, alas, with what melancholy presentiments!—the home of my youth." "O rose of May!" "Oh, from this time forth, my thoughts be bloody or be nothing worth!" "O heavens! die two months ago, and not forgotten yet?"

"Night, sable goddess! from her ebon throne,In rayless majesty now stretches forthHer leaden scepter o'er a slumbering world.Silence, how dead! and darkness, how profound!"—Young."Hail, holy light! offspring of heaven just born!"—Milton."But thou, O Hope! with eyes so fair,What was thy delighted measure?"—Collins.

"Night, sable goddess! from her ebon throne,In rayless majesty now stretches forthHer leaden scepter o'er a slumbering world.Silence, how dead! and darkness, how profound!"—Young.

"Hail, holy light! offspring of heaven just born!"—Milton.

"But thou, O Hope! with eyes so fair,What was thy delighted measure?"—Collins.

It will be observed that the interjection O is an exception to the rule: it is often followed by a comma, but never by an exclamation-point.

An exclamation-point sometimes gives the same words quite another meaning. The difference between "What's that?" and "What's that!" is obvious.

The Dash.—Cobbett did not favor the use of this mark, as we see from the following: "Let me caution you against the use of what, by some, is called thedash. The dash is a stroke along the line; thus, 'I am rich—I was poor—I shall be poor again.' This is wild work indeed! Who is to know what is intended by thesedashes? Those who have thought proper, like Mr. Lindley Murray, to place thedashamongst thegrammatical points, ought to give us some rule relative to its different longitudinal dimensions in different cases. Theinch, thethree-quarter-inch, thehalf-inch, thequarter-inch: these would be something determinate; but 'the dash,' without measure, must be a perilous thing for the young grammarian to handle. In short, 'the dash' is a cover for ignorance as to the use of points, and it can answer no other purpose."

This is one of the few instances in which Cobbett was wrong. Thedashis the proper point with which to mark an unexpected or emphatic pause, or a sudden break or transition. It is very often preceded by another point. "AndHuitzilopochtli—a sweet name to roll under one's tongue—for how many years has this venerable war-god blinked in the noonday sun!" "Crowds gathered about the newspaper bulletins, recalling the feverish scenes that occurred when the President's life was thought to be hanging by a thread. 'Wouldn't it be too bad,' said one, 'if, after all—no, I won't allow myself to think of it.'" "Was there ever—but I scorn to boast." "You are—no, I'll not tell you what you are."

"He suffered—but his pangs are o'er;Enjoyed—but his delights are fled;Had friends—his friends are now no more;And foes—his foes are dead."—Montgomery.

"Greece, Carthage, Rome,—where are they?" "He chastens;—but he chastens to save."

Dashes are much used where parentheses were formerly employed. "In the days of Tweed the expression to divide fair—forcible, if not grammatical—acquired much currency." "In truth, the character of the great chief was depicted two thousand five hundred years before his birth, and depicted—such is the power of genius—in colors which will be fresh as many years after his death." "To render the Constitution perpetual—which God grant it may be!—it is necessary that its benefits should be practically felt by all parts of the country."

Parenthesis.—This mark is comparatively little used nowadays. The dash is preferred, probably because it disfigures the page less. The office of the parenthesis is to isolate a phrase which is merely incidental, and which might be omitted without detriment to the grammatical construction.

"Know then this truth (enough for man to know),Virtue alone is happiness below."—Pope."The bliss of man (could pride that blessing find)Is not to act or think beyond mankind."

"Know then this truth (enough for man to know),Virtue alone is happiness below."—Pope.

"The bliss of man (could pride that blessing find)Is not to act or think beyond mankind."

Brackets.—This mark is used principally to inclose words improperly omitted by the writer, or words introduced for the purpose of explanation or to correct an error. The bracket is often used in this book.

The Apostrophe.—This point is used to denote the omission of letters and sometimes of figures; as, Jan'y, '81;I'veforI have;you'llforyou will;'tisforit is;don'tfordo not;can'tforcan not; It was in the year '93; the spirit of '76; It was in the years 1812, '13, and '14.

Also to denote the possessive case; as, Brown's house; the king's command; Moses' staff; for conscience' sake; the boys' garden.

Also withsto denote the plural of letters, figures, and signs; as, Cross yourt's, dot youri's, and mind yourp's andq's; make your 5's better, and take out thex's.

Capitals.—A capital letter should begin every sentence, every line of verse, and every direct quotation.

All names of the Deity, of Jesus Christ, of the Trinity, and of the Virgin Mary must begin with a capital. Pronouns are usually capitalized when they refer to the Deity.

Proper names, and nouns and adjectives formed from proper names, names of streets, of the months, of the days of the week, and of the holidays, are capitalized.

Titles of nobility and of high office, when used to designate particular persons, are capitalized; as, the Earl of Dunraven, the Mayor of Boston, the Baron replied, the Cardinal presided.

The Paragraph.—In writing for the press, the division of matter into paragraphs is often quite arbitrary; in letter-writing, on the contrary, the several topics treated of should, as a rule, be isolated by paragraphic divisions. These divisionsgive one's letters a shapely appearance that they otherwise never have.

Purchase.This word is much preferred to its synonymbuy, by that class of people who prefer the wordresidetolive,procuretoget,inauguratetobegin, and so on. They are generally of those who are great in pretense, and who would be greater still if they were to pretend to all they have to pretend to.

Purpose.SeePropose.

Quantity.This word is often improperly used fornumber.Quantityshould be used in speaking of what is measured or weighed;number, of what is counted. Examples: "Whatquantityof apples have you, and whatnumberof pineapples?" "Delaware produces a largequantityof peaches and a largenumberof melons."

Quit.—This word means, properly, to leave, to go away from, to forsake; as, "Avaunt!quitmy sight." This is the only sense in which the English use it. In America, it is generally used in the sense of to leave off, to stop; as, "Quityour nonsense"; "Quitlaughing"; "Quityour noise"; "He hasquitsmoking," and so on.

Quite.This word originally meant completely, perfectly, totally, entirely, fully; and this is the sense in which it was used by the early writers of English. It is now often used in the sense ofrather; as, "It isquitewarm"; "She isquitetall"; "He isquiteproficient." Sometimes it is incorrectly used in the sense ofconsiderable; as,quitean amount,quitea number,quitea fortune.Quite, according to good modern usage, may qualify an adjective, but not a noun. "She is quite the lady," is a vile phrase, meaning, "She is very orquiteladylike."

Railroad Depot.Few things are more offensive to fastidious ears than to hear a railwaystationcalled adepot.A depot is properly a place where goods or stores of any kind are kept; and the places at which the trains of a railroad—or, better, railway—stop for passengers, or the points from which they start and at which they arrive, are, properly, thestations.

Railway.The English prefer this word to railroad.

Raise the rent.An expression incorrectly used forincrease the rent.

Rarely.It is no uncommon thing to see this adverb improperly used in such sentences as, "It is veryrarelythat the puppets of the romancer assume," etc.—"Appletons' Journal," February, 1881, p. 177. "But," says the defender of this phraseology, "rarelyqualifies a verb—the verbto be." Not at all. The sentence, if written out in full, would be, "It is a very rare thing that," etc., or "The circumstance is a very rare one that," etc., or "It is a very rare occurrence that," etc. To those who contend for "It is veryrarelythat," etc., I would say, It is verysadlythat persons of culture will write and then defend—or rather try to defend—such grammar.

Ratiocinate.SeeEffectuate.

Real.—This adjective is often vulgarly used in the sense of the adverbvery; thus,realnice,realpretty,realangry,realcute, and so on.

Recommend.This word, which means to commend or praise to another, to declare worthy of esteem, trust, or favor, is sometimes put to strange uses. Example: "Resolved, that the tax-payers of the county berecommendedto meet," etc. What the resolving gentlemen meant was, that the tax-payers should becounseledto meet.

Redundancy.SeePleonasm.

Reliable.This is a modern word which is often metwith; but it is not used by our careful writers. They prefer its synonymtrustworthy, and argue that, in consequence of being ill-formed,reliablecan not possibly have the signification in which it is used.

Remainder.SeeBalance.

Rendition.This word is much misused forrendering. Example: "The excellence of Mr. Gilbert'srenditionof certain characters, Sir Peter and Sir Antony, for instance, is not equaled," etc.Renditionmeans the act of yielding possession, surrender, as therenditionof a town or fortress. The sentence above should read, "The excellence of Mr. Gilbert'srendering," etc.Renditionis also sometimes improperly used forperformance.

Reply.SeeAnswer.

Reputation.SeeCharacter.

Reside.A big word that Mr. Wouldbe uses where Mr. Is uses the little wordlive.

Residence.In speaking of a man's domicile, it is not only in better taste but more correct to use the termhousethanresidence. A man has aresidencein New York, when he has lived here long enough to have the right to exercise the franchise here; and he may have ahousein Fifth Avenue where helives. People whoarelive in houses; people whowould bereside in residences. The formerbuythings; the latterpurchasethem.

Rest.SeeBalance.

Restive.Some of the dictionaries, Richard Grant White, and some other writers, contend that this word, when properly used, means unwilling to go, standing still stubbornly, obstinate, stubborn, and nothing else. In combating this opinion, Fitzedward Hall says: "Very few instances, I apprehend, can be produced, from our literature, of this use ofrestive." Webster gives impatient, uneasy,as a second meaning; and this is the sense in which the word is nearly always used.

Retire.It is only the over-nice who useretirein the sense ofgo to bed.

Reverend—Honorable.Many persons are in doubt whether they should or should not putthebefore these adjectives. Emphatically, yes, they should. See "Words and Their Uses," by Richard Grant White, for a full discussion of the question; also "Good English," by Edward S. Gould.

Rhetoric.The art which has for its object the rendering of language effective is calledrhetoric. Without some study of the art of composition, no one can expect to write well, or to judge the literary work of others.

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