The Project Gutenberg eBook ofThe Verbalist

The Project Gutenberg eBook ofThe VerbalistThis ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online atwww.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.Title: The VerbalistAuthor: Alfred AyresRelease date: August 30, 2007 [eBook #22457]Language: EnglishCredits: Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Stephen Blundelland the Online Distributed Proofreading Team athttp://www.pgdp.net*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE VERBALIST ***

This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online atwww.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

Title: The VerbalistAuthor: Alfred AyresRelease date: August 30, 2007 [eBook #22457]Language: EnglishCredits: Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Stephen Blundelland the Online Distributed Proofreading Team athttp://www.pgdp.net

Title: The Verbalist

Author: Alfred Ayres

Release date: August 30, 2007 [eBook #22457]

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Stephen Blundelland the Online Distributed Proofreading Team athttp://www.pgdp.net

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE VERBALIST ***

A MANUAL

DEVOTED

TO BRIEF DISCUSSIONS OF THE RIGHT AND THEWRONG USE OF WORDS

AND

TO SOME OTHER MATTERS OF INTEREST TO THOSE WHOWOULD SPEAK AND WRITE WITH PROPRIETY.

We remain shackled by timidity till we have learned to speak with propriety.—Johnson.As a man is known by his company, so a man's company may be known by his manner of expressing himself.—Swift.

We remain shackled by timidity till we have learned to speak with propriety.—Johnson.

As a man is known by his company, so a man's company may be known by his manner of expressing himself.—Swift.

NEW YORK:D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,1, 3, AND 5 BOND STREET.1887.

Transcriber's NoteMinor typographical errors have been corrected without note. Archaic spellings have been retained as printed.All Greek words have mouse-hover transliterations,γενόμενος, and appear as printed in the original publication.

Transcriber's Note

Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. Archaic spellings have been retained as printed.

All Greek words have mouse-hover transliterations,γενόμενος, and appear as printed in the original publication.

The title-page sufficiently sets forth the end this little book is intended to serve.

For convenience' sake I have arranged in alphabetical order the subjects treated of, and for economy's sake I have kept in mind that "he that uses many words for the explaining of any subject doth, like the cuttle-fish, hide himself in his own ink."

The curious inquirer who sets himself to look for the learning in the book is advised that he will best find it in such works as George P. Marsh's "Lectures on the English Language," Fitzedward Hall's "Recent Exemplifications of False Philology," and "Modern English," Richard Grant White's "Words and Their Uses," Edward S. Gould's "Good English,"William Mathews' "Words: their Use and Abuse," Dean Alford's "The Queen's English," George Washington Moon's "Bad English," and "The Dean's English," Blank's "Vulgarisms and Other Errors of Speech," Alexander Bain's "English Composition and Rhetoric," Bain's "Higher English Grammar," Bain's "Composition Grammar," Quackenbos' "Composition and Rhetoric," John Nichol's "English Composition," William Cobbett's "English Grammar," Peter Bullions' "English Grammar," Goold Brown's "Grammar of English Grammars," Graham's "English Synonymes," Crabb's "English Synonymes," Bigelow's "Handbook of Punctuation," and other kindred works.

Suggestions and criticisms are solicited, with the view of profiting by them in future editions.

If "The Verbalist" receive as kindly a welcome as its companion volume, "The Orthoëpist," has received, I shall be content.

A. A.

New York,October, 1881.

Eschew fine words as you would rouge.—Hare.Cant is properly a double-distilled lie; the second power of a lie.—Carlyle.If a gentleman be to study any language, it ought to be that of his own country.—Locke.In language the unknown is generally taken for the magnificent.—Richard Grant White.He who has a superlative for everything, wants a measure for the great or small.—Lavater.Inaccurate writing is generally the expression of inaccurate thinking.—Richard Grant White.To acquire a few tongues is the labor of a few years; but to be eloquent in one is the labor of a life.—Anonymous.Words and thoughts are so inseparably connected that an artist in words is necessarily an artist in thoughts.-Wilson Flagg.It is an invariable maxim that words which add nothing to the sense or to the clearness must diminish the force of the expression.—Campbell.Propriety of thought and propriety of diction are commonly found together. Obscurity of expression generally springs from confusion of ideas.—Macaulay.He who writes badly thinks badly. Confusedness in words can proceed from nothing but confusedness in the thoughts which give rise to them.—Cobbett.

Eschew fine words as you would rouge.—Hare.

Cant is properly a double-distilled lie; the second power of a lie.—Carlyle.

If a gentleman be to study any language, it ought to be that of his own country.—Locke.

In language the unknown is generally taken for the magnificent.—Richard Grant White.

He who has a superlative for everything, wants a measure for the great or small.—Lavater.

Inaccurate writing is generally the expression of inaccurate thinking.—Richard Grant White.

To acquire a few tongues is the labor of a few years; but to be eloquent in one is the labor of a life.—Anonymous.

Words and thoughts are so inseparably connected that an artist in words is necessarily an artist in thoughts.-Wilson Flagg.

It is an invariable maxim that words which add nothing to the sense or to the clearness must diminish the force of the expression.—Campbell.

Propriety of thought and propriety of diction are commonly found together. Obscurity of expression generally springs from confusion of ideas.—Macaulay.

He who writes badly thinks badly. Confusedness in words can proceed from nothing but confusedness in the thoughts which give rise to them.—Cobbett.

A—An.The second form of the indefinite article is used for the sake of euphony only. Herein everybody agrees, but what everybody does not agree in is, that it is euphonious to useanbefore a word beginning with an aspiratedh, when the accented syllable of the word is the second. For myself, so long as I continue to aspirate theh'sin such words asheroic,harangue, andhistorical, I shall continue to useabefore them; and when I adopt the Cockney mode of pronouncing such words, then I shall useanbefore them. To my ear it is just as euphonious to say, "I will crop off from the top of his young twigs a tender one, and will plant it uponanhigh mountain and eminent," as it is to sayanharangue,anheroic, oranhistorical.Anis well enough before the doubtful British aspiration, but before the distinct American aspiration it is wholly out of place. The reply will perhaps be, "But theseh'sare silent; the change of accent from the first syllable to the second neutralizes their aspiration." However true this may be in England, it is not at all true in America; hence we Americans should useaand notanbefore suchh'suntil we decide to ape the Cockney mode of pronouncing them.

Errors are not unfrequently made by omitting to repeat the article in a sentence. It should always be repeatedwhen a noun or an adjective referring to a distinct thing is introduced; take, for example, the sentence, "He has a black and white horse." If two horses are meant, it is clear that it should be, "He has a black andawhite horse." SeeThe.

Ability—Capacity.The distinctions between these two words are not always observed by those who use them. "Capacityis the power of receiving and retaining knowledge with facility;abilityis the power of applying knowledge to practical purposes. Both these faculties are requisite to form a great character: capacity to conceive, and ability to execute designs. Capacity is shown in quickness of apprehension. Ability supposes something done; something by which the mental power is exercised in executing, or performing, what has been perceived by the capacity."—Graham's "English Synonymes."

Abortive.An outlandish use of this word may be occasionally met with, especially in the newspapers. "A lad was yesterday caught in the act ofabortivelyappropriating a pair of shoes." That is abortive that is untimely, that has not been borne its full time, that is immature. We often hearabortionused in the sense of failure, but never by those that study to express themselves in chaste English.

Above.There is little authority for using this word as an adjective. Instead of, "theabovestatement," say, "theforegoingstatement."Aboveis also used very inelegantly formore than; as, "above a mile," "above a thousand"; also, forbeyond; as, "above his strength."

Accident.SeeCasualty.

Accord."He [the Secretary of the Treasury] was shown through the building, and the information he desired wasaccordedhim."—Reporters' English.

"The heroes prayed, and Pallas from the skiesAccordstheir vow."—Pope.

The goddess of wisdom, when she granted the prayers of her worshipers, may be said to haveaccorded; not so, however, when the clerks of our Sub-Treasury answer the inquiries of their chief.

Accuse.SeeBlame it on.

Acquaintance.SeeFriend.

Ad.This abbreviation for the wordadvertisementis very justly considered a gross vulgarism. It is doubtful whether it is permissible under any circumstances.

Adapt—Dramatize.In speaking and in writing of stage matters, these words are often misused. Toadapta play is to modify its construction with the view of improving its form for representation. Plays translated from one language into another are usually more or lessadapted; i. e., altered to suit the taste of the public before which the translation is to be represented. Todramatizeis to change the form of a story from the narrative to the dramatic; i. e., to make a drama out of a story. In the first instance, the product of the playwright's labor is called anadaptation; in the second, adramatization.

Adjectives."Very often adjectives stand where adverbs might be expected; as, 'drinkdeep,' 'this looksstrange,' 'standingerect.'

"We have also examples of one adjective qualifying another adjective; as, 'wideopen,' 'redhot,' 'thepaleblue sky.' Sometimes the corresponding adverb is used, but with a different meaning; as, 'I found the wayeasy—easily'; 'it appearsclear—clearly.' Although there is a propriety in the employment of the adjective in certain instances, yet such forms as 'indifferentwell,' 'extremebad,' are grammatical errors. 'He was interrogatedrelativeto that circumstance,'should berelatively, orin relation to. It is not unusual to say, 'I would have done itindependentof that circumstance,' butindependentlyis the proper construction.

"The employment of adjectives for adverbs is accounted for by the following considerations:

"(1.) In the classical languages the neuter adjective may be used as an adverb, and the analogy would appear to have been extended to English.

"(2.) In the oldest English the adverb was regularly formed from the adjective by adding 'e,' as 'soft, softe,' and the dropping of the 'e' left the adverb in the adjective form; thus, 'clæne,' adverb, became 'clean,' and appears in the phrase 'cleangone'; 'fæste, fast,' 'to stickfast.' By a false analogy, many adjectives that never formed adverbs in-ewere freely used as adverbs in the age of Elizabeth: 'Thou didst itexcellent,' 'equal(forequally) good,' 'excellentwell.' This gives precedent for such errors as those mentioned above.

"(3.) There are cases where the subject is qualified rather than the verb, as with verbs of incomplete predication, 'being,' 'seeming,' 'arriving,' etc. In 'the matter seemsclear,' 'clear' is part of the predicate of 'matter.' 'They arrivedsafe': 'safe' does not qualify 'arrived,' but goes with it to complete the predicate. So, 'he satsilent,' 'he stoodfirm.' 'It comesbeautiful' and 'it comesbeautifully' have different meanings. This explanation applies especially to the use of participles as adverbs, as in Southey's lines on Lodore; the participial epithets applied there, although appearing to modify 'came,' are really additional predications about 'the water,' in elegantly shortened form. 'The church stoodgleamingthrough the trees': 'gleaming' is a shortened predicate of 'church'; and the full form would be, 'the church stoodand gleamed.' The participle retainsits force as such, while acting the part of a coördinating adjective, complement to 'stood'; 'stood gleaming' is little more than 'gleamed.' The feeling of adverbial force in 'gleaming' arises from the subordinate participial form joined with a verb, 'stood,' that seems capable of predicating by itself. 'Passingstrange' is elliptical: 'passing (surpassing)what isstrange.'"—Bain.

"The comparative adjectiveswiser,better,larger, etc., and the contrasting adjectivesdifferent,other, etc., are often so placed as to render the construction of the sentence awkward; as, 'That is a muchbetterstatement of the casethanyours,' instead of, 'That statement of the case is muchbetter thanyours'; 'Yours is alargerplot of groundthanJohn's,' instead of, 'Your plot of ground islarger thanJohn's'; 'This is adifferentcourse of proceedingfromwhat I expected,' instead of, 'This course of proceeding isdifferent fromwhat I expected'; 'I could take noothermethod of silencing himthanthe one I took,' instead of, 'I could take no method of silencing himother thanthe one I took.'"—Gould's "Good English," p. 69.

Administer."Carson died from blowsadministeredby policeman Johnson."—"New York Times." If policeman Johnson was as barbarous as is this use of the verbto administer, it is to be hoped that he was hanged. Governments, oaths, medicine, affairs—such as the affairs of the state—areadministered, but not blows:theyaredealt.

Adopt.This word is often used instead ofto decide upon, and ofto take; thus, "The measuresadopted[by Parliament], as the result of this inquiry, will be productive of good." Better, "The measuresdecided upon," etc. Instead of, "What course shall youadoptto get your pay?" say, "What course shall youtake," etc.Adoptis properly used in a sentence like this: "The course (or measures)proposed by Mr. Blank wasadoptedby the committee." That is, what was Blank's wasadoptedby the committee—a correct use of the word, asto adopt, means, to assume as one's own.

Adoptis sometimes so misused that its meaning is inverted. "Wanted to adopt," in the heading of advertisements, not unfrequently is intended to mean that the advertiser wishes to berelievedof the care of a child, not that he wishes toassumethe care of one.

Aggravate.This word is often used when the speaker means to provoke, irritate, or anger. Thus, "Itaggravates[provokes] me to be continually found fault with"; "He is easilyaggravated[irritated]." Toaggravatemeans to make worse, to heighten. We therefore very properly speak ofaggravatingcircumstances. To say of a person that he isaggravatedis as incorrect as to say that he ispalliated.

Agriculturist.This word is to be preferred toagriculturalist. SeeConversationist.

Alike.This word is often most bunglingly coupled withboth. Thus, "These bonnets are both alike," or, worse still, if possible, "both just alike." This reminds one of the story of Sam and Jem, who were very like each other, especially Sam.

All.SeeUniversal.

All over."The disease spreadall overthe country." It is more logical and more emphatic to say, "The disease spreadover allthe country."

Allegory.An elaborated metaphor is called anallegory; both are figurative representations, the words used signifying something beyond their literal meaning. Thus, in the eightieth Psalm, the Jews are represented under the symbol of a vine:

"Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt: thou hastcast out the heathen, and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it, and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent out her boughs unto the sea, and her branches unto the river. Why hast thou then broken down her hedges, so that all they which pass by the way do pluck her? The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and the wild beast of the field doth devour it."

An allegory is sometimes so extended that it makes a volume; as in the case of Swift's "Tale of a Tub," Arbuthnot's "John Bull," Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress," etc. Fables and parables are short allegories.

Allow.This word is frequently misused in the West and South, where it is made to do service forassertorto be of opinion. Thus, "Heallowsthat he has the finest horse in the country."

Allude.The treatment this word has received is to be specially regretted, as its misuse has well-nigh robbed it of its true meaning, which is, to intimate delicately, to refer to without mentioning directly.Alludeis now very rarely used in any other sense than that of to speak of, to mention, to name, which is a long way from being its legitimate signification. This degradation is doubtless a direct outcome of untutored desire to be fine and to use big words.

Alone.This word is often improperly used foronly. That isalonewhich is unaccompanied; that isonlyof which there is no other. "Virtuealonemakes us happy," means that virtue unaided suffices to make us happy; "Virtueonlymakes us happy," means that nothing else can do it—that that, and that only (not alone), can do it. "This means of communication is employed by manalone."Dr. Quackenbos should have written, "By manonly". See alsoOnly.

Amateur—Novice.There is much confusion in the use of these two words, although they are entirely distinct from each other in meaning. Anamateuris one versed in, or a lover and practicer of, any particular pursuit, art, or science, butnotengaged in it professionally. Anoviceis one who is new or inexperienced in any art or business—a beginner, a tyro. A professional actor, then, who is new and unskilled in his art, is anoviceand not anamateur. An amateur may be an artist of great experience and extraordinary skill.

Ameliorate."The health of the Empress of Germany is greatlyameliorated." Why not sayimproved?

Among.SeeBetween.

Amount of Perfection.The observant reader of periodical literature often notes forms of expression which are perhaps best characterized by the wordbizarre. Of these queer locutions,amount of perfectionis a very good example. Mr. G. F. Watts, in the "Nineteenth Century," says, "Anamount of perfectionhas been reached which I was by no means prepared for." What Mr. Watts meant to say was, doubtless, that adegree of excellencehad been reached. There are not a few who, in their prepossession for everything transatlantic, seem to be of opinion that the English language is generally better written in England than it is in America. Those who think so are counseled to examine the diction of some of the most noted English critics and essayists, beginning, if they will, with Matthew Arnold.

And.Few vulgarisms are more common than the use ofandforto. Examples: "Comeandsee me before you go"; "Tryanddo what you can for him"; "Goandseeyour brother, if you can." In such sentences as these, the proper particle to use is clearlytoand notand.

Andis sometimes improperly used instead ofor; thus, "It is obvious that a language like the GreekandLatin" (language?), etc., should be, "a language like the Greekor theLatin" (language), etc. There is no such thing as a Greek and Latin language.

Answer—Reply.These two words should not be used indiscriminately. Anansweris given to a question; areply, to an assertion. When we are addressed, weanswer; when we are accused, wereply. Weanswerletters, andreplyto any arguments, statements, or accusations they may contain. Crabb is in error in saying thatreplies"are used in personal discourse only."Replies, as well asanswers, are written. We very properly write, "I have now, I believe,answeredall your questions andrepliedto all your arguments." Arejoinderis made to areply. "Who goes there?" he cried; and, receiving noanswer, he fired. "The advocaterepliedto the charges made against his client."

Anticipate.Lovers of big words have a fondness for making this verb do duty forexpect.Anticipateis derived from two Latin words meaningbeforeandto take, and, when properly used, means, to take beforehand; to go before so as to preclude another; to get the start or ahead of; to enjoy, possess, or suffer, in expectation; to foretaste. It is, therefore, misused in such sentences as, "Her death is hourlyanticipated"; "By this means it isanticipatedthat the time from Europe will be lessened two days."

Antithesis.A phrase that opposes contraries is called anantithesis.

"I see a chief who leads my chosen sons,All armed with points,antitheses, and puns."

The following are examples:

"Though gentle, yet not dull;Strong, without rage; without o'erflowing, full.""Contrasted faults through all their manners reign;Though poor, luxurious; though submissive, vain;Though grave, yet trifling; zealous, yet untrue;And e'en in penance planning sins anew."

"Though gentle, yet not dull;Strong, without rage; without o'erflowing, full."

"Contrasted faults through all their manners reign;Though poor, luxurious; though submissive, vain;Though grave, yet trifling; zealous, yet untrue;And e'en in penance planning sins anew."

The following is an excellent example ofpersonificationandantithesiscombined:

"Talent convinces; Genius but excites:That tasks the reason; this the soul delights.Talent from sober judgment takes its birth,And reconciles the pinion to the earth;Genius unsettles with desires the mind,Contented not till earth be left behind."

In the following extract from Johnson's "Life of Pope," individual peculiarities are contrasted by means of antitheses:

"Of genius—that power which constitutes a poet; that quality without which judgment is cold, and knowledge is inert; that energy which collects, combines, amplifies, and animates—the superiority must, with some hesitation, be allowed to Dryden. It is not to be inferred that of this poetical vigor Pope had only a little, because Dryden had more; for every other writer, since Milton, must give place to Pope; and even of Dryden it must be said that, if he has brighter paragraphs, he has not better poems. Dryden's performances were always hasty, either excited by some external occasion or extorted by domestic necessity; he composed without consideration and published without correction. What his mind could supply at call or gather in one excursion was all that he sought and all that he gave. The dilatory caution of Pope enabled him to condensehis sentiments, to multiply his images, and to accumulate all that study might produce or chance might supply. If the flights of Dryden, therefore, are higher, Pope continues longer on the wing. If of Dryden's fire the blaze is brighter, of Pope's the heat is more regular and constant. Dryden often surpasses expectation, and Pope never falls below it. Dryden is read with frequent astonishment, and Pope with perpetual delight. Dryden's page is a natural field, rising into inequalities, and diversified by the varied exuberance of abundant vegetation; Pope's is a velvet lawn, shaven by the scythe, and leveled by the roller."

There are forms of antithesis in which the contrast is only of a secondary kind.

Any.This word is sometimes made to do service forat all. We say properly, "She is notanybetter"; but we can not properly say, "She does not seeany," meaning that she is blind.

Anybody else."Public School Teachers are informed thatanybody else'sis correct."—"New York Times," Sunday, July 31, 1881. An English writer says: "In such phrases as anybody else, and the like,elseis often put in the possessive case; as, 'anybody else's servant'; and some grammarians defend this use of the possessive case, arguing thatsomebody elseis a compound noun." It is better grammar and more euphonious to considerelseas being an adjective, and to form the possessive by adding the apostrophe andsto the word thatelsequalifies; thus, anybody's else, nobody's else, somebody's else.

Anyhow."An exceedingly vulgar phrase," says Professor Mathews, in his "Words: Their Use and Abuse." "Its use,in any manner, by one who professes to write and speak the English tongue with purity, is unpardonable."Professor Mathews seems to have a special dislike for this colloquialism. It is recognized by the lexicographers, and I think is generally accounted, even by the careful, permissible in conversation, though incompatible with dignified diction.

Anxiety of Mind.SeeEquanimity of Mind.

Apostrophe.Turning from the person or persons to whom a discourse is addressed and appealing to some person or thing absent, constitutes what, in rhetoric, is called theapostrophe. The following are some examples:

"O gentle sleep,Nature's soft nurse, how have I frighted thee,That thou no more wilt weigh my eyelids down,And steep my senses in forgetfulness?""Sail on, thou lone imperial birdOf quenchless eye and tireless wing!""Help, angels, make assay!Bow, stubborn knees! and heart with strings of steel,Be soft as sinews of the new-born babe:All may yet be well!"

"Help, angels, make assay!Bow, stubborn knees! and heart with strings of steel,Be soft as sinews of the new-born babe:All may yet be well!"

Appear.SeeSeem.

Appreciate.If any word in the language has cause to complain of ill-treatment, this one has.Appreciatemeans, to estimatejustly—to set thetruevalue on men or things, their worth, beauty, or advantages of any sort whatsoever. Thus, an overestimate is no moreappreciationthan is an underestimate; hence it follows that such expressions as, "I appreciate it, or her, or him,highly," can not be correct. Wevalue, orprize, things highly, notappreciatethem highly. This word is also very improperly made to do service forrise, orincrease, in value; thus, "Landappreciatesrapidly in the West." Dr. L. T. Townsendblunders in the use ofappreciatein his "Art of Speech," vol. i, p. 142, thus: "The laws of harmony ... may allow copiousness ... in parts of a discourse ... in order that the condensation of other parts may be themore highly appreciated."

Apprehend—Comprehend.The English often use the first of these two words where we use the second. Both express an effort of the thinking faculty; but toapprehendis simply to take an idea into the mind—it is the mind's first effort—while tocomprehendisfully to understand. We are dull or quick ofapprehension. Childrenapprehendmuch that they do notcomprehend. Trench says: "Weapprehendmany truths which we do notcomprehend." "Apprehend," says Crabb, "expresses the weakest kind of belief, the having [of] the least idea of the presence of a thing."

Apt.Often misused forlikely, and sometimes forliable. "What is heaptto be doing?" "Where shall I beaptto find him?" "If properly directed, it will beaptto reach me." In such sentences as these,likelyis the proper word to use. "If you go there, you will beaptto get into trouble." Here eitherlikelyorliableis the proper word, according to the thought the speaker would convey.

Arctics.SeeRubbers.

Artist.Of late years this word has been appropriated by the members of so many crafts, that it has well-nigh been despoiled of its meaning. Your cook, your barber, your tailor, your boot-maker, and so on to satiety, are allartists. Painters, sculptors, architects, actors, and singers, nowadays, generally prefer being thus called, rather than to be spoken of asartists.

As."NotasI know": read, "notthatI know." "This is notasgood as the last": read, "notsogood.""It may be completesofar as the specification is concerned": correctly, "asfar as."

As, preceded bysuchor bysame, has the force of a relative applying to persons or to things. "He offered me thesameconditionsashe offered you." "The same conditionsthat" would be equally proper. See, also,Like.

Ascribe.SeeImpute.

At.Things are soldby, notat, auction. "The scene is more beautifulatnight than by day": say, "bynight."

At all."It is not strange, for my uncle is King of Denmark." Had Shakespeare written, "It is notat allstrange," it is clear that his diction would have been much less forcible. "I do not wish for anyat all"; "I saw no oneat all"; "If he had any desireat allto see me, he would come where I am." Theat allin sentences like these is superfluous. Yet there are instances in which the phrase is certainly a very convenient one, and seems to be unobjectionable. It is much used, and by good writers.

At best.Instead ofat bestandat worst, we should say atthebest and attheworst.

At last.SeeAt length.

At least.This adverbial phrase is often misplaced. "'The Romans understood libertyat leastas well as we.' This must be interpreted to mean, 'The Romans understood libertyas well as weunderstand liberty.' The intended meaning is, 'that whatever things the Romans failed to understand, they understoodliberty.' To express this meaning we might put it thus: 'The Romans understoodat leastliberty as well as wedo'; 'liberty,at least, the Romans understood as well as we do.' 'A tear,at least, is due to the unhappy'; 'at leasta tear is due to the unhappy'; 'a tear is dueat leastto the unhappy'; 'a tear is due to the unhappyat least'—all express different meanings.'This can not,often at least, be done'; 'this can not be doneoften, at least.' (1. 'It often happens that this can not be done.' 2. 'It does not often happen that this can be done.') So, 'man isalwayscapable of laughing'; 'man is capable of laughingalways.'"—Bain.

At length.This phrase is often used instead ofat last. "At lengthwe managed to get away": read, "at last." "At lengthwe heard from him." To hear from any oneat lengthis to hear fully; i. e., in detail.

Authoress.With regard to the use of this and certain other words of like formation, Mr. Gould, in his "Good English," says: "Poetmeans simply a person who writes poetry; andauthor, in the sense under consideration, a person who writes poetry or prose—not amanwho writes, but apersonwho writes. Nothing in either word indicates sex; and everybody knows that the functions of both poets and authors are common to both sexes. Hence,authoressandpoetessare superfluous. And they are superfluous, also, in another respect—that they are very rarely used, indeed they hardlycanbe used, independently of thenameof the writer, as Mrs., or Miss, or a female Christian name. They are, besides, philological absurdities, because they are fabricated on the false assumption that their primaries indicatemen. They are, moreover, liable to the charge of affectation and prettiness, to say nothing of pedantic pretension to accuracy.

"If theessis to be permitted, there is no reason for excluding it fromanynoun that indicates a person; and the next editions of our dictionaries may be made complete by the addition ofwritress,officeress,manageress,superintendentess,secretaryess,treasureress,walkeress,talkeress, and so on to the end of the vocabulary."

Avocation.SeeVocation.

Bad cold.Inasmuch as colds are nevergood, why say abadcold? We may talk aboutslightcolds andseverecolds, but not aboutbadcolds.

Baggage.SeeLuggage.

Balance.This word is very frequently and very erroneously used in the sense ofrest,remainder. It properly meansthe excess of one thing over another, and in this sense and in no other should it be used. Hence it is improper to talk about thebalanceof the edition, of the evening, of the money, of the toasts, of the men, etc. In such cases we should say therestor theremainder.

Barbarism.Defined as an offense against good usage, by the use of an improper word, i. e., a word that is antiquated or improperly formed.Preventative,enthuse,agriculturalist,donate, etc., are barbarisms. See alsoSolecism.

Been to.We not unfrequently hear a superfluoustotacked to a sentence; thus, "Where have you beento?"

Beg.We often see letters begin with the words, "Ibegto acknowledge the receipt of your favor," etc. We should write, "Ibeg leaveto acknowledge," etc. No one would say, "I beg to tell you," instead of, "I begleaveto tell you."

Begin—Commence.These words have the same meaning; careful speakers, however, generally prefer to use the former. Indeed, there is rarely any good reason for giving the preference to the latter. See alsoCommence.

Being built.SeeIs being built.

Belongings.An old idiomatic expression now coming into use again.

Beside—Besides.In the later unabridged editions of Webster's dictionary we find the following remarks concerning the use of these two words: "Besideandbesides,whether used as prepositions or adverbs, have been considered synonymous from an early period of our literature, and have been freely interchanged by our best writers. There is, however, a tendency in present usage to make the following distinction between them: 1. Thatbesidebe used only and always as a preposition, with the original meaningby the side of; as, to sitbesidea fountain; or with the closely allied meaningaside from, orout of; as, this isbesideour present purpose: 'Paul, thou artbesidethyself.' The adverbial sense to be wholly transferred to the cognate word. 2. Thatbesides, as a preposition, take the remaining sense,in addition to; as,besidesall this;besidesthe consideration here offered: 'There was a famine in the landbesidesthe first famine.' And that it also take the adverbial sense ofmoreover,beyond, etc., which had been divided between the words; as,besides, there are other considerations which belong to this case."

Best.SeeAt best.

Between.This word is often misused foramong; thus, "The wordfellow, however much in use it may bebetweenmen, sounds very objectionable from the lips of women."—"London Queen." Should be, "amongmen."Betweenis used in reference to two things, parties, or persons;among, in reference to a greater number. "Castor and Pollux with one soulbetweenthem." "You haveamongyou many a purchased slave."

Blame it on.Here is a gross vulgarism which we sometimes hear from persons of considerable culture. They use it in the sense ofaccuseorsuspect; thus, "Heblames it onhis brother," meaning that heaccusesorsuspectshis brother of having done it, or of being at fault for it.

Bogus.A colloquial term incompatible with dignified diction.

Both.We sometimes hear such absurd sentences as, "Theybothresemble each other very much"; "They arebothalike"; "Theybothmet in the street."Bothis likewise redundant in the following sentence: "It performs at the same time the officesbothof the nominative and objective cases."

Bound.The use of this word in the sense ofdeterminedis not only inelegant but indefensible. "I amboundto have it," should be, "I amdeterminedto have it."

Bravery—Courage.The careless often use these two words as though they were interchangeable.Braveryis inborn, is instinctive;courageis the product of reason, calculation. There is much merit in being courageous, little merit in being brave. Men who are simplybraveare careless, while the courageous man is always cautious.Braveryoften degenerates into temerity.Moral courageis that firmness of principle which enables a man to do what he deems to be his duty, although his action may subject him to adverse criticism. Truemoral courageis one of the rarest and most admirable of virtues.

Alfred the Great, in resisting the attacks of the Danes, displayedbravery; in entering their camp as a spy, he displayedcourage.

Bring—Fetch—Carry.The indiscriminate use of these three words is very common. Tobringis to convey to or toward—a simple act; tofetchmeans togoand bring—a compound act; tocarryoften implies motion from the speaker, and is followed byawayoroff, and thus is opposed tobringandfetch. Yet one hears such expressions as, "Go to Mrs. D.'s andbringher this bundle; and here, you mayfetchher this book also." We use the words correctly thus: "Fetch, orgo bring, me an apple from the cellar";"When you come homebringsome lemons"; "Carrythis book home with you."

British against American English."The most important peculiarity of American English is a laxity, irregularity, and confusion in the use of particles. The same thing is, indeed, observable in England, but not to the same extent, though some gross departures from idiomatic propriety, such asdifferent tofordifferent from, are common in England, which none but very ignorant persons would be guilty of in America.... In the tenses of the verbs, I am inclined to think that well-educated Americans conform more closely to grammatical propriety than the corresponding class in England.... In general, I think we may say that, in point of naked syntactical accuracy, the English of America is not at all inferior to that of England; but we do not discriminate so precisely in the meaning of words, nor do we habitually, in either conversation or in writing, express ourselves so gracefully, or employ so classic a diction, as the English. Our taste in language is less fastidious, and our licenses and inaccuracies are more frequently of a character indicative of want of refinement and elegant culture than those we hear in educated society in England."—George P. Marsh.

British against American Orthoëpy."The causes of the differences in pronunciation [between the English and the Americans] are partly physical, and therefore difficult, if not impossible, to resist; and partly owing to a difference of circumstances. Of this latter class of influences, the universality of reading in America is the most obvious and important. The most marked difference is, perhaps, in the length or prosodical quantity of the vowels; and both of the causes I have mentioned concur to produce this effect. We are said to drawl our words by protracting thevowels and giving them a more diphthongal sound than the English. Now, an Englishman who reads will habitually utter his vowels more fully and distinctly than his countryman who does not; and, upon the same principle, a nation of readers, like the Americans, will pronounce more deliberately and clearly than a people so large a proportion of whom are unable to read, as in England. From our universal habit of reading, there results not only a greater distinctness of articulation, but a strong tendency to assimilate the spoken to the written language. Thus, Americans incline to give to every syllable of a written word a distinct enunciation; and the popular habit is to saydic-tion-ar-y,mil-it-ar-y, with a secondary accent on the penultimate, instead of sinking the third syllable, as is so common in England. There is, no doubt, something disagreeably stiff in an anxious and affected conformity to the very letter of orthography; and to those accustomed to a more hurried utterance we may seem to drawl, when we are only giving a full expression to letters which, though etymologically important, the English habitually slur over, sputtering out, as a Swedish satirist says, one half of the word, and swallowing the other. The tendency to make the long vowels diphthongal is noticed by foreigners as a peculiarity of the orthoëpy of our language; and this tendency will, of course, be strengthened by any cause which produces greater slowness and fullness of articulation. Besides the influence of the habit of reading, there is some reason to think that climate is affecting our articulation. In spite of the coldness of our winters, our flora shows that the climate of even our Northern States belongs, upon the whole, to a more southern type than that of England. In southern latitudes, at least within the temperate zone, articulation is generally much more distinct than in the northern regions. Witnessthe pronunciation of Spanish, Italian, Turkish, as compared with English, Danish, and German. Participating, then, in the physical influences of a southern climate, we have contracted something of the more distinct articulation that belongs to a dry atmosphere and a clear sky. And this view of the case is confirmed by the fact that the inhabitants of the Southern States incline, like the people of southern Europe, to throw the accent toward the end of the word, and thus, like all nations that use that accentuation, bring out all the syllables. This we observe very commonly in the comparative Northern and Southern pronunciation of proper names. I might exemplify by citing familiar instances; but, lest that should seem invidious, it may suffice to say that, not to mention more important changes, many a Northern member of Congress goes to Washington adactylor atrochee, and comes home anamphibrachor aniambus. Why or how external physical causes, as climate and modes of life, should affect pronunciation, we can not say; but it is evident that material influences of some sort are producing a change in our bodily constitution, and we are fast acquiring a distinct national Anglo-American type. That the delicate organs of articulation should participate in such tendencies is altogether natural; and the operation of the causes which give rise to them is palpable even in our handwriting, which, if not uniform with itself, is generally, nevertheless, so unlike common English script as to be readily distinguished from it.

"To the joint operation, then, of these two causes—universal reading and climatic influences—we must ascribe our habit of dwelling upon vowel and diphthongal sounds, or of drawling, if that term is insisted upon.... But it is often noticed by foreigners as both making us more readily understood by them when speaking our own tongue, and asconnected with a flexibility of organ, which enables us to acquire a better pronunciation of other languages than is usual with Englishmen. In any case, as, in spite of the old adage, speech is given us that we may make ourselves understood, our drawling, however prolonged, is preferable to the nauseous, foggy, mumbling thickness of articulation which characterizes the cockney, and is not unfrequently affected by Englishmen of a better class."—George P. Marsh.

Bryant's Prohibited Words.SeeIndex Expurgatorius.

But.This word is misused in various ways. "I do not doubtbuthe will be here": read, doubtthat. "I should not wonderbut": read,if. "I have no doubtbutthat he will go": suppressbut. "I do not doubtbutthat it is true": suppressbut. "There can be no doubtbutthat the burglary is the work of professional cracksmen."—"New York Herald." Doubtthat, and notbut that. "A careful canvass leaves no doubtbutthat the nomination," etc.: suppressbut. "There is no reasonable doubtbutthat it is all it professes to be": suppressbut. "The mind no sooner entertains any propositionbutit presently hastens," etc.: read,than. "No other resourcebutthis was allowed him": read,than.

By.SeeAt.

Calculate.This word means to ascertain by computation, to reckon, to estimate; and, say some of the purists, it never means anything else when properly used.If this is true, we can not say a thing iscalculatedto do harm, but must, if we are ambitious to have our English irreproachable, choose some other form of expression, or at least some other word,likelyorapt, for example. Cobbett, however, says, "That, to Her, whose great example is so wellcalculatedto inspire," etc.; and, "The first two of the three sentences are well enoughcalculatedfor ushering," etc.Calculateis sometimes vulgarly used forintend,purpose,expect; as, "Hecalculatesto get off to-morrow."

Caliber.This word is sometimes used very absurdly; as, "Brown's Essays are of a much highercaliberthan Smith's." It is plain that the proper word to use here isorder.

Cant.Cantis a kind of affectation; affectation is an effort to sail under false colors; an effort to sail under false colors is a kind of falsehood; and falsehood is a term of Latin origin which we often use instead of the stronger Saxon termlying!

"Who is not familiar," writes Dr. William Matthews, "with scores of pet phrases and cant terms which are repeated at this day apparently without a thought of their meaning? Who ever attended a missionary meeting without hearing 'the Macedonian cry,' and an account of some 'little interest' and 'fields white for the harvest'? Who is not weary of the ding-dong of 'our Zion,' and the solecism of 'in our midst'; and who does not long for a verbal millennium when Christians shall no longer 'feel to take' and 'grant to give'?"

"How much I regret," says Coleridge, "that so many religious persons of the present day think it necessary to adopt a certain cant of manner and phraseology [and of tone of voice] as a token to each other [one another]! Theyimprovethis and that text, and they must do so and so in a prayerful way; and so on."

Capacity.SeeAbility.

Caption.This word is often used forheading, but, thus used, it is condemned by careful writers. The true meaning ofcaptionis a seizure, an arrest. It does not come froma Latin word meaninga head, but from a Latin word meaningto seize.

Caret.Cobbett writes of the caret to his son: "The last thing I shall mention under this head is thecaret[^], which is used to point upward to a part which has been omitted, and which is inserted between the line where the caret is placed and the line above it. Things should be called by their right names, and this should be called theblunder-mark. I would have you, my dear James, scorn the use of the thing.Thinkbefore you write; let it be your custom towrite correctlyand ina plain hand. Be careful that neatness, grammar, and sense prevail when you write to a blacksmith about shoeing a horse as when you write on the most important subjects. Habit is powerful in all cases; but its power in this case is truly wonderful. When you write, bear constantly in mind that some one is toreadand tounderstandwhat you write. This will make your handwriting and also your meaningplain. Far, I hope, from my dear James will be the ridiculous, the contemptible affectation of writing in a slovenly or illegible hand, or that of signing his name otherwise than in plain letters."

Carry.SeeBring.

Case.Many persons of considerable culture continually make mistakes in conversation in the use of the cases, and we sometimes meet with gross errors of this kind in the writings of authors of repute. Witness the following: "And everybody is to know him exceptI."—George Merideth in "The Tragic Comedies," Eng. ed., vol. i, p. 33. "Let's you andIgo": say,me. We can not say, LetIgo. Properly, Let's go, i. e., let us go, or, let you andmego. "He is as good asme": say, asI. "She is as tall ashim": say, ashe. "You are older thanme": say, thanI. "Nobody said so buthe": say, buthim. "Every one canmaster a grief buthethat hath it": correctly, buthim. "John went out with James andI": say, andme. "You are stronger thanhim": say, thanhe. "Between you andI": say, andme. "Between you andthey": say, andthem. "He gave it to John andI": say, andme. "You told John andI": say, andme. "He sat between him andI": say, andme. "He expects to see you andI": say, andme. "You were a dunce to do it. Who?me?" say,I. Supply the ellipsis, and we should have, Who?mea dunce to do it? "Where are you going? Who?me?" say,I. We can't say,megoing. "Whodo you mean?" say,whom. "Was itthem?" say,they. "If Iwas him, I would do it": say,were he. "If Iwas her, I would not go": say,were she. "Was ithim?" say,he. "Was ither?" say,she. "For the benefit of thosewhomhe thought were his friends": say,who. This error is not easy to detect on account of the parenthetical words that follow it. If we drop them, the mistake is very apparent; thus, "For the benefit of thosewhomwere his friends."

"On the supposition," says Bain, "that the interrogativewhohaswhomfor its objective, the following are errors: 'whodo you take me to be?' 'whoshould I meet the other day?' 'whois it by?' 'whodid you give it to?' 'whoto?' 'whofor?' But, considering that these expressionsoccur with the best writers and speakers, that theyare more energeticthan the other form, and that theylead to no ambiguity, it may be doubted whether grammarians have not exceeded their province in condemning them."

Cobbett, in writing of the pronouns, says: "When the relatives are placed in the sentence at a distance from their antecedents or verbs or prepositions, the ear gives us no assistance. 'Who, of all the men in the world, do youthink Isawto-day?' 'Who, for the sake of numerous services, the office was given to.' In both these cases it should bewhom. Bring the verb in the first and the preposition in the second case closer to the relative, as,who I saw,to who the office was given, and you see the error at once. But take care! 'Whom, of all the men in the world, do you think,waschosen to be sent as an ambassador?' 'Whom, for the sake of his numerous services,hadan office of honor bestowed upon him.' These are nominative cases, and ought to havewho; that is to say,who was chosen,who had an office."

"Most grammarians," says Dr. Bain, in his "Higher English Grammar," "have laid down this rule: 'The verbto behas the same case after as before it.' Macaulay censures the following as a solecism: 'It washimthat Horace Walpole called a man who never made a bad figure but as an author.' Thackeray similarly adverts to the same deviation from the rule: '"Is thathim?" said the lady inquestionable grammar.' But, notwithstanding this," continues Dr. Bain, "we certainly hear in the actual speech of all classes of society such expressions as 'it wasme,' 'it washim,' 'it washer,' more frequently than the prescribed form.[1]'This shy creature, my brother says, isme'; 'were itme, I'd show him the difference.'—Clarissa Harlowe. 'It is notme[2]you are in love with.'—Addison. 'If there is one character more base than another, it ishimwho,' etc.—Sydney Smith. 'If I werehim'; 'if I had beenher,' etc. The authority of good writers is strong on the side of objective forms.There is also the analogy of the French language; for while 'I am here' isje suis ici, the answer to 'who is there?' ismoi(me); andc'est moi(it isme) is the legitimate phrase—neverc'est je(it is I)."

Butmoi, according to all French grammarians, is very often in the nominative case.Moiis in the nominative case when used in reply to "Who is there?" and also in the phrase "C'est moi," which makes "It isI" the correct translation of the phrase, and not "It isme." The French equivalent of "I! I am here," is "Moi! je suis ici." The Frenchman usesmoiin the nominative case whenjewould be inharmonious. Euphony with him is a matter of more importance than grammatical correctness. Bescherelle gives many examples ofmoiin the nominative. Here are two of them: "Mon avocat et moi sommes de cet avis. Qui veut aller avec lui? Moi." If we use such phraseology as "It isme," we must do as the French do—considermeas being in the nominative case, and offereuphonyas our reason for thus using it.

When shall we put nouns (or pronouns) preceding verbal, or participial, nouns, as they are called by some grammarians—infinitives ining, as they are called by others—in the possessive case?

"'I am surprised atJohn's(orhis,your, etc.)refusingto go.' 'I am surprised atJohn(orhim,you, etc.)refusingto go.' [In the latter sentencerefusingis a participle.] The latter construction is not so common with pronouns as with nouns, especially with such nouns as do not readily take the possessive form. 'They preventedhim goingforward': better, 'They preventedhis goingforward.' 'He was dismissed without anyreason beingassigned.' 'The boy died through hisclothes beingburned.' 'We hear little of anyconnection beingkept up between the two nations.''The men rowed vigorously for fear of thetide turningagainst us.'But most examples of the construction without the possessive form areobviously due to mere slovenliness.... 'In case ofyour beingabsent': herebeingis an infinitive [verbal, or participial, noun] qualified by the possessiveyour. 'In case ofyou beingpresent': herebeingwould have to be construed as a participle.The possessive construction is, in this case, the primitive and regular construction;the other is a mere lapse. The difficulty of adhering to the possessive form occurs when the subject is not a person: 'It does not seem safe to rely on the rule ofdemandcreating supply': in strictness, 'Demand'screating supply.' 'A petition was presented against thelicense beinggranted.' But for the awkwardness of extending the possessive to impersonal subjects, it would be right to say, 'against thelicense's beinggranted.' 'He had conducted the ball without anycomplaint beingurged against him.' The possessive would be suitable, but undesirable and unnecessary."—Professor Alexander Bain.

"Though theordinarysyntax of the possessive case is sufficiently plain and easy, there is, perhaps, among all the puzzling and disputable points of grammar, nothing more difficult of decision than are some questions that occur respecting the right management of this case. The observations that have been made show that possessives before participles are seldom to be approved. The following example is manifestly inconsistent with itself; and,in my opinion, the three possessives are all wrong: 'The kitchen, too, now begins to give dreadful note of preparation; not fromarmorersaccomplishing the knights, but from theshopmaid'schopping force-meat, theapprentice'scleaning knives, and thejourneyman'sreceiving a practical lesson inthe art of waiting at table.' 'The daily instances ofmen'sdying around us.' Say rather, 'Ofmendying around us.' The leading word in sense ought not to be made the adjunct in construction."—Goold Brown.

Casualty.This word is often heard with the incorrect addition of a syllable,casuality, which is not recognized by the lexicographers. Some writers object to the word casualty, and always use its synonymaccident.

Celebrity."A number ofcelebritieswitnessed the first representation." This word is frequently used, especially in the newspapers, as a concrete term; but it would be better to use it in its abstract sense only, and in sentences like the one above to saydistinguished persons.

Character—Reputation.These two words are not synonyms, though often used as such.Charactermeans the sum of distinguishing qualities. "Actions, looks, words, steps, form the alphabet by which you may spell characters."—Lavater.Reputationmeans the estimation in which one is held. One's reputation, then, is what is thought of one's character; consequently, one may have a good reputation and a bad character, or a good character and a bad reputation. Calumny may injurereputation, but notcharacter. Sir Peter does not leave hischaracterbehind him, but hisreputation—hisgood name.

Cheap.The dictionaries define this adjective as meaning, bearing a low price, or to be had at a low price; but nowadays good usage makes it mean that a thing may be had, or has been sold, at a bargain. Hence, in order to make sure of being understood, it is better to saylow-priced, when one means low-priced, than to use the wordcheap. What is low-priced, as everybody knows, is oftendear, and what is high-priced is oftencheap. A diamond necklacemight becheapat ten thousand dollars, and a pinchbeck necklace dear at ten dollars.

Cherubim.The Hebrew plural ofcherub. "We are authorized," says Dr. Campbell, "both by use and analogy, to say eithercherubsandseraphs, according to the English idiom, orcherubimandseraphim, according to the Oriental. The former suits better the familiar, the latter the solemn, style. As the wordscherubimandseraphimare plural, the termscherubimsandseraphims, as expressing the plural, are quite improper."—"Philosophy of Rhetoric."

Citizen.This word properly means one who has certain political rights; when, therefore, it is used, as it often is, to designate persons who may be aliens, it, to say the least, betrays a want of care in the selection of words. "Severalcitizenswere injured by the explosion." Here some other word—persons, for example—should be used.

Clever.In this country the wordcleveris most improperly used in the sense of good-natured, well-disposed, good-hearted. It is properly used in the sense in which we are wont most inelegantly to use the wordsmart, though it is a less colloquial term, and is of wider application. In England the phrase "acleverman" is the equivalent of the French phrase, "un homme d'esprit." The word is properly used in the following sentences: "Every work of Archbishop Whately must be an object of interest to the admirers ofcleverreasoning"; "Cobbett's letter ... veryclever, but very mischievous"; "Bonaparte was certainly asclevera man as ever lived."

Climax.A clause, a sentence, a paragraph, or any literary composition whatsoever, is said to end with aclimaxwhen, by an artistic arrangement, the more effective is made to follow the less effective in regular gradation. Any great departure from the order of ascending strengthis called ananti-climax. Here are some examples of climax:

"Give all diligence; add to your faith, virtue; and to virtue, knowledge; and to knowledge, temperance; and to temperance, patience; and to patience, godliness; and to godliness, brotherly kindness; and to brotherly kindness, charity."

"What is every year of a wise man's life but a criticism on the past! Those whose life is the shortest live long enough to laugh at one half of it; the boy despises the infant, the man the boy, the sage both, and the Christian all."

"What a piece of work is man! how noble in reason! how infinite in faculties! in form and moving, how express and admirable! in action, how like an angel! in apprehension, how like a god!"

Co.The prefixcoshould be used only when the word to which it is joined begins with a vowel, as inco-eval,co-incident,co-operate, etc.Conis used when the word begins with a consonant, as incon-temporary,con-junction, etc.Co-partneris an exception to the rule.

Commence.The Britons use or misuse this word in a manner peculiar to themselves. They say, for example, "commenced merchant," "commenced actor," "commenced politician," and so on. Dr. Hall tells us thatcommencehas been employed in the sense of "begin to be," "become," "set up as," by first-class writers, for more than two centuries. Careful speakers make small use ofcommencein any sense; they prefer to use its Saxon equivalent,begin. See, also,Begin.

Comparison.When only two objects are compared, the comparative and not the superlative degree should be used; thus, "Mary is theolderof the two"; "John is thestrongerof the two"; "Brown is thericherof the two, and therichestman in the city"; "Which is themoredesirable, health or wealth?" "Which is themostdesirable, health, wealth, or genius?"

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