CAMBRIDGE BIOLOGICAL SERIES.

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A Text-Book of Zoogeography.ByFrank E. Beddard,M.A., F.R.S., Prosector of the Zoological Society of London.With 5 Maps. Crown 8vo. 6s.The Elements of Botany.ByFrancis Darwin, M.A.,M.B., F.R.S., Fellow of Christ's College. With 94 Illustrations.Crown 8vo.Second Edition.4s.6d.Journal of Education.A noteworthy addition to our botanical literature.Practical Physiology of Plants.ByFrancis Darwin,M.A., F.R.S.,andE. Hamilton Acton, M.A.Crown 8vo. With45 Illustrations.Second Edition.4s.6d.Nature.The authors are much to be congratulated on their work, which fills a serious gap in the botanical literature of this country.Lectures on the History of Physiologyduring theSixteenth, Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. By SirM. Foster,K.C.B., M.P., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Fellow of Trinity College.Demy 8vo. With a Frontispiece. 9s.Nature.There is no more fascinating chapter in the history of science than that which deals with physiology, but a concise and at the same time compendious account of the early history of the subject has never before been presented to the English reader. Physiologists therefore owe a debt of gratitude to Sir Michael Foster for supplying a want which was widely felt.... No higher praise can be given to the book than to say that it is worthy of the reputation of its author.... It is by no means an easy task to do adequate justice to the mine of literary and historic research which the author has laid open to view.Guardian.We must urge not merely students of physiology, but all those interested in the history of modern thought, to buy and read the book.... The present volume has a charm and fascination which is too often wanting in historical studies. His portraits live, and live in a live world; they are not mere dead pictures set in a stereotyped, historical framework.Spectator.We can recommend this admirable and suggestive book with confidence to all, laymen or doctors, who wish to trace the gradual growth of man's knowledge of the physical basis of his life.

A Text-Book of Zoogeography.ByFrank E. Beddard,M.A., F.R.S., Prosector of the Zoological Society of London.With 5 Maps. Crown 8vo. 6s.

The Elements of Botany.ByFrancis Darwin, M.A.,M.B., F.R.S., Fellow of Christ's College. With 94 Illustrations.Crown 8vo.Second Edition.4s.6d.

Journal of Education.A noteworthy addition to our botanical literature.

Practical Physiology of Plants.ByFrancis Darwin,M.A., F.R.S.,andE. Hamilton Acton, M.A.Crown 8vo. With45 Illustrations.Second Edition.4s.6d.

Nature.The authors are much to be congratulated on their work, which fills a serious gap in the botanical literature of this country.

Lectures on the History of Physiologyduring theSixteenth, Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. By SirM. Foster,K.C.B., M.P., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Fellow of Trinity College.Demy 8vo. With a Frontispiece. 9s.

Nature.There is no more fascinating chapter in the history of science than that which deals with physiology, but a concise and at the same time compendious account of the early history of the subject has never before been presented to the English reader. Physiologists therefore owe a debt of gratitude to Sir Michael Foster for supplying a want which was widely felt.... No higher praise can be given to the book than to say that it is worthy of the reputation of its author.... It is by no means an easy task to do adequate justice to the mine of literary and historic research which the author has laid open to view.

Guardian.We must urge not merely students of physiology, but all those interested in the history of modern thought, to buy and read the book.... The present volume has a charm and fascination which is too often wanting in historical studies. His portraits live, and live in a live world; they are not mere dead pictures set in a stereotyped, historical framework.

Spectator.We can recommend this admirable and suggestive book with confidence to all, laymen or doctors, who wish to trace the gradual growth of man's knowledge of the physical basis of his life.

The Soluble Ferments and Fermentation.ByJ.Reynolds Green,Sc.D., F.R.S., Professor of Botany to thePharmaceutical Society of Great Britain.Second Edition.Demy8vo. 12s.Nature.It is not necessary to recommend the perusal of the book to all interested in the subject since it is indispensable to them, and we will merely conclude by congratulating the Cambridge University Press on having added to their admirable series of Natural Science Manuals an eminently successful work on so important and difficult a theme, and the author on having written a treatise cleverly conceived, industriously and ably worked out, and on the whole, well written.The Natural History of some Common Animals.ByOswald H. Latter, M.A., Senior Science Master at Charterhouse.Crown 8vo. 5s.net.The Classification of Flowering Plants.ByAlfredBarton Rendle, M.A. (Cantab.), D.Sc. (Lond.), F.L.S., Assistantin the Department of Botany, British Museum. Vol. I. Gymnospermsand Monocotyledons. Demy 8vo. With numerous illustrations.10s.6d.net.The Vertebrate Skeleton.BySidney H. Reynolds,M.A. Crown 8vo. With 110 Illustrations. 12s.6d.Manual of Practical Morbid Anatomy, being a Handbookfor the Post-mortem Room. ByH.D. Rolleston, M.A.,M.D., F.R.C.P., andA.A. Kanthack, M.D., M.R.C.P. Crown8vo. 6s.Fossil Plants: for students of Botany and Geology.ByA.C. Seward, M.A., F.R.S., Fellow of Emmanuel College.In 2 vols. Demy 8vo. Vol. I. 12s.[Vol. II.In the Press.]Revue Scientifique.Nous ne pouvons entrer dans le détail; mais il est évident que M. Seward, praticien distingué lui-même, est très au courant des travaux des autres, il les cite et utilise abondamment; et ceci est fait pour inspirer confiance. Au total, son œuvre est appuyée sur des bases solides, et elle restera sans doute longtemps le bréviaire, le manuel de ceux qui veulent, non pas seulement s'initier à la paléobotanique, mais retrouver les renseignements qui sont épars dans des centaines de monographies qu'on a souvent peine à se procurer. Le livre de M. Seward fait partie desCambridge Natural Science Manuals, et il est digne de cette collection, qui est elle-même digne du foyer scientifique universellement réputé, où il a vu le jour.Guardian.We have already alluded to the spirit of caution which characterises the book, and we may add that it promises to be most helpful to the botanist who would extend his researches into the past.Natural Science.A most successful treatment of a difficult subject. All of importance is brought forward and impartially discussed.... Such a book has long been a desideratum. Mr Seward's style is clear and concise, and the many pitfalls into which beginners are apt to stumble are clearly pointed out.

The Soluble Ferments and Fermentation.ByJ.Reynolds Green,Sc.D., F.R.S., Professor of Botany to thePharmaceutical Society of Great Britain.Second Edition.Demy8vo. 12s.

Nature.It is not necessary to recommend the perusal of the book to all interested in the subject since it is indispensable to them, and we will merely conclude by congratulating the Cambridge University Press on having added to their admirable series of Natural Science Manuals an eminently successful work on so important and difficult a theme, and the author on having written a treatise cleverly conceived, industriously and ably worked out, and on the whole, well written.

The Natural History of some Common Animals.ByOswald H. Latter, M.A., Senior Science Master at Charterhouse.Crown 8vo. 5s.net.

The Classification of Flowering Plants.ByAlfredBarton Rendle, M.A. (Cantab.), D.Sc. (Lond.), F.L.S., Assistantin the Department of Botany, British Museum. Vol. I. Gymnospermsand Monocotyledons. Demy 8vo. With numerous illustrations.10s.6d.net.

The Vertebrate Skeleton.BySidney H. Reynolds,M.A. Crown 8vo. With 110 Illustrations. 12s.6d.

Manual of Practical Morbid Anatomy, being a Handbookfor the Post-mortem Room. ByH.D. Rolleston, M.A.,M.D., F.R.C.P., andA.A. Kanthack, M.D., M.R.C.P. Crown8vo. 6s.

Fossil Plants: for students of Botany and Geology.ByA.C. Seward, M.A., F.R.S., Fellow of Emmanuel College.In 2 vols. Demy 8vo. Vol. I. 12s.[Vol. II.In the Press.]

Revue Scientifique.Nous ne pouvons entrer dans le détail; mais il est évident que M. Seward, praticien distingué lui-même, est très au courant des travaux des autres, il les cite et utilise abondamment; et ceci est fait pour inspirer confiance. Au total, son œuvre est appuyée sur des bases solides, et elle restera sans doute longtemps le bréviaire, le manuel de ceux qui veulent, non pas seulement s'initier à la paléobotanique, mais retrouver les renseignements qui sont épars dans des centaines de monographies qu'on a souvent peine à se procurer. Le livre de M. Seward fait partie desCambridge Natural Science Manuals, et il est digne de cette collection, qui est elle-même digne du foyer scientifique universellement réputé, où il a vu le jour.

Guardian.We have already alluded to the spirit of caution which characterises the book, and we may add that it promises to be most helpful to the botanist who would extend his researches into the past.

Natural Science.A most successful treatment of a difficult subject. All of importance is brought forward and impartially discussed.... Such a book has long been a desideratum. Mr Seward's style is clear and concise, and the many pitfalls into which beginners are apt to stumble are clearly pointed out.

Zoology. An Elementary Text-Book. ByA.E.Shipley, M.A., F.R.S., andE.W. MacBride, M.A. (Cantab.),D.Sc. (London), Professor of Zoology in McGill University, Montreal.Demy 8vo. With numerous Illustrations. 10s.6d.Net.Pilot.A very business-like and convenient manual of modern Zoology.School World.As a thoroughly trustworthy and instructive text-book for serious students, the work can be strongly recommended. Its value is enhanced by the large number of excellent illustrations, many of which are delightfully fresh.Oxford Magazine.It is readable, well arranged, well printed, copiously and admirably illustrated, and it covers the whole field of zoology.Nature.There pervades the pages of the work a freshness of style and unconventionality which render them pleasant reading and attractive; while, in the frequent allusion to the commonest occurrences of daily life and human affairs, the interest of the reader is assured.Pall Mall Gazette.Precisely the sort of book which, if it came into a thoughtful boy's hands, would turn him from a smatterer into a student.... One of the most instructive and attractive books that could be put into the hands of a young naturalist.Grasses: a Handbook for use in the Field and Laboratory.ByH. Marshall Ward, Sc.D., F.R.S., Fellow of Sidney SussexCollege, Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. With81 figures. Crown 8vo. 6s.Pilot.Brimful of matter.Field.The work is essentially suited to the requirements of those desirous of studying the grasses commonly grown in this country, and it can fairly be said that it furnishes an amount of information seldom obtained in more pretentious volumes.Athenaeum.Botanists and Agriculturists alike have reason to thank Prof. Ward for this very serviceable addition to the literature of grasses.Trees: A Handbook of Forest Botany for the Woodlandsand the Laboratory. ByH. Marshall Ward, Sc.D., F.R.S.,Fellow of Sidney Sussex College, Honorary Fellow of Christ's Collegeand Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. In sixvolumes. 1. Buds and Twigs, 2. Leaves, 3. Inflorescences andFlowers, 4. Fruits and Seeds, 5. Seedlings, 6. General Characters.Vol. I. Buds and Twigs. Crown 8vo. Illustrated. 4s.6d.net.A Treatise on the British Freshwater Algae.ByG.S. West, M.A., A.R.C.S., F.L.S., Professor of Natural Historyat the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. Demy 8vo. 10s.6d.net.A Manual and Dictionary of the Flowering Plantsand Ferns. ByJ.C. Willis, M.A., Director of the Royal BotanicGardens, Ceylon.Second Edition.Complete in one volume. Crown8vo. 10s.6d.

Pilot.A very business-like and convenient manual of modern Zoology.

School World.As a thoroughly trustworthy and instructive text-book for serious students, the work can be strongly recommended. Its value is enhanced by the large number of excellent illustrations, many of which are delightfully fresh.

Oxford Magazine.It is readable, well arranged, well printed, copiously and admirably illustrated, and it covers the whole field of zoology.

Nature.There pervades the pages of the work a freshness of style and unconventionality which render them pleasant reading and attractive; while, in the frequent allusion to the commonest occurrences of daily life and human affairs, the interest of the reader is assured.

Pall Mall Gazette.Precisely the sort of book which, if it came into a thoughtful boy's hands, would turn him from a smatterer into a student.... One of the most instructive and attractive books that could be put into the hands of a young naturalist.

Grasses: a Handbook for use in the Field and Laboratory.ByH. Marshall Ward, Sc.D., F.R.S., Fellow of Sidney SussexCollege, Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. With81 figures. Crown 8vo. 6s.

Pilot.Brimful of matter.

Field.The work is essentially suited to the requirements of those desirous of studying the grasses commonly grown in this country, and it can fairly be said that it furnishes an amount of information seldom obtained in more pretentious volumes.

Athenaeum.Botanists and Agriculturists alike have reason to thank Prof. Ward for this very serviceable addition to the literature of grasses.

Trees: A Handbook of Forest Botany for the Woodlandsand the Laboratory. ByH. Marshall Ward, Sc.D., F.R.S.,Fellow of Sidney Sussex College, Honorary Fellow of Christ's Collegeand Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. In sixvolumes. 1. Buds and Twigs, 2. Leaves, 3. Inflorescences andFlowers, 4. Fruits and Seeds, 5. Seedlings, 6. General Characters.Vol. I. Buds and Twigs. Crown 8vo. Illustrated. 4s.6d.net.

A Treatise on the British Freshwater Algae.ByG.S. West, M.A., A.R.C.S., F.L.S., Professor of Natural Historyat the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. Demy 8vo. 10s.6d.net.

A Manual and Dictionary of the Flowering Plantsand Ferns. ByJ.C. Willis, M.A., Director of the Royal BotanicGardens, Ceylon.Second Edition.Complete in one volume. Crown8vo. 10s.6d.

Elementary Palaeontology—Invertebrate.ByHenryWoods, M.A., F.G.S., University Lecturer in Palaeozoology. Crown8vo.Third Edition.Revised and enlarged, with 112 Illustrations.6s.Outlines of Vertebrate Palaeontology for studentsof Zoology.ByArthur Smith Woodward, M.A., F.R.S.,Keeper of the Department of Geology in the British Museum. Demy8vo. With numerous Illustrations. 14s.Athenaeum.The author is to be congratulated on having produced a work of exceptional value, dealing with a difficult subject in a thoroughly sound manner.In preparation.Morphology and Anthropology.ByW.L.H.Duckworth, M.A., Fellow and Lecturer of Jesus College, UniversityLecturer in Physical Anthropology.The Origin and Influence of the Thorough-bredHorse.ByW. Ridgeway, M.A., Disney Professor of Archaeologyand Fellow of Gonville and Caius College. With numerous Illustrations.Demy 8vo.The Morphology of Plants.ByJ.C. Willis, M.A.

Elementary Palaeontology—Invertebrate.ByHenryWoods, M.A., F.G.S., University Lecturer in Palaeozoology. Crown8vo.Third Edition.Revised and enlarged, with 112 Illustrations.6s.

Outlines of Vertebrate Palaeontology for studentsof Zoology.ByArthur Smith Woodward, M.A., F.R.S.,Keeper of the Department of Geology in the British Museum. Demy8vo. With numerous Illustrations. 14s.

Athenaeum.The author is to be congratulated on having produced a work of exceptional value, dealing with a difficult subject in a thoroughly sound manner.

In preparation.

Morphology and Anthropology.ByW.L.H.Duckworth, M.A., Fellow and Lecturer of Jesus College, UniversityLecturer in Physical Anthropology.

The Origin and Influence of the Thorough-bredHorse.ByW. Ridgeway, M.A., Disney Professor of Archaeologyand Fellow of Gonville and Caius College. With numerous Illustrations.Demy 8vo.

The Morphology of Plants.ByJ.C. Willis, M.A.

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FOOTNOTES:[1]The skin consists of an outer layer of epiblastic origin, the epidermis, and an inner layer of mesoblastic origin, the dermis. The epidermis is divided into two principal layers, an outer one, the horny layer orstratum corneum, and an inner one, thestratum Malpighii. The innermost part of the stratum corneum is distinguished as thestratum lucidum, and the outermost part of the stratum Malpighii as thestratum granulosum.[2]The enamel of the pharyngeal teeth of some Teleosteans is hypoblastic in origin.[3]See also p. 71.[4]It is usual to regard the clavicle as a membrane bone, but Kölliker has shown that in rabbit embryos of about the 17th day it is cartilaginous.[5]In compiling these paragraphs on Histology, free use has been made of Klein and Noble Smith'sAtlas of Histology, the small Histologies of Klein and Schäfer, Huxley'sElementary Physiology, and Lloyd Morgan'sAnimal Biology.[6]See Huxley'sElementary Physiology, Revised edition, London, 1886, p. 180.[7]Strictly speaking the jaws, visceral skeleton, ribs and sternum do not form part of the axis, but it is convenient to group them as parts of the axial skeleton.[8]F.M. Balfour,Comparative Embryology, vol.II., London, 1881, p. 465. W.K. Parker and G.T. Bettany,The Morphology of the Skull, London, 1877.[9]Sometimes also called ectethmoids or parethmoids.[10]Theproximalend of anything is the one nearest the point of origin or attachment, thedistalend is the one furthest from the point of origin or attachment.[11]W.K. Parker,A Monograph of the Shoulder Girdle and Sternum, Ray Soc. London, 1868.[12]See R. Wiedersheim,Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.vol.LIII.suppl. p. 43, 1892.[13]G. Baur,Beiträge zur Morphogenie des Carpus und Tarsus der Vertebraten, Theil 1. Batrachia. Jena, 1888, andAmer. Natural., vol.XIX.1885 (several papers).[14]This account is based on Chapter XX. of Flower'sOsteology of the Mammalia. London 1876.[15]A. Smith Woodward,Catalogue of Fossil Fishes in the British Museum, Part II., Introduction, p. xii.[16]This classification of reptiles is mainly based on that of Lydekker (Catalogue of Fossil Reptiles in the British Museum) but in some respects that of von Zittel has been followed.[17]This classification of birds is essentially that of Gadow and Selenka in Bronn'sClassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs, Bandvi., Abth.iv., Vögel. Leipzig, 1891.[18]The classification adopted is almost entirely that given in Flower and Lydekker'sMammals Living and Extinct. London, 1891.[19]The nameBalanoglossusis used here in its widest sense to include all the Enteropneusta.[20]See W. Bateson,Quart. J. Micr. Sci.n. s. vol.XXIV.1884, p. 208 and later; also E.W. Macbride,Ibid.vol.XXXVI.1894, p. 385.[21]See p. 52.[22]A.T. Masterman,P.R. Soc. Edinb.1895-96, p. 59; andAnat. Anz.1896, p. 266.[23]See E. Ray Lankester,Quart. J. Micr. Sci.vol.XXIX.n. s. 1889, p. 365. W.B. Benham,Ibid.vol.XXXV.n. s. 1893, p. 97. J.W. Kirkaldy,Ibid. vol.XXXVII.n. s. 1895, p. 303. The last-named writer divides the genus into three subgenera.[24]See W.K. Parker On the skeleton of the Marsipobranch fishes,Phil. Trans.1883, London.[25]See A. Smith Woodward,Catalogue of Fossil Fish in the British Museum, PartII., 1891. A. Smith Woodward,Nat. Sci.vol.I.1892, p. 596.[26]See R.H. Traquair,Ann. Nat. Hist., ser. 6, vol.II.1888, p. 485.[27]See p. 17.[28]R.H. Traquair,Ann. Nat. Hist.vol.VI.1890, p. 485;P. Phys. Soc. Edinb.vol.XII.1892-93, pp. 87-94, and 312-320. A. Smith Woodward,Nat. Sci.vol.III.p. 128, 1893.[29]See p. 79.[30]For this and other groups of extinct fish see A. Smith Woodward,Catalogue of Fossil Fish in the British Museum, PartsI.-III.London, 1889-95.[31]See p. 127.[32]See B. Dean,J. Morphol.vol.IX.pp. 87-114, 1894, andNat. Sci.vol.VIII.p. 245, 1896.[33]A. Günther,Phil. Trans.vol. 161, PartII.1871, p. 511. T.H. Huxley, "On Ceratodus and the classification of fishes,"P.Z.S.1876, p. 24.[34]See Marshall and Hurst'sPractical Zoology, 4th ed. London, 1895, p. 214.[35]See T.J. Parker'sZootomy, London, 1884, p. 86.[36]See W.K. Parker and G.T. Bettany,The Morphology of the Skull, London, 1877, chap. 3.[37]T.J. Parker,Zootomy, London, 1884, p. 91.[38]According to G. Swirski,Schultergurtel des Hechtes, Dorpat, 1880, the true coracoid is aborted, and the so-called coracoid of Teleosteans is really the precoracoid.[39]The following general works on fishes may be referred to: Bashford Dean,Fishes, Living and Fossil, New York, 1895. A. Günther,An Introduction to the Study of Fishes, Edinburgh, 1880. A.A.W. Hubrecht and M. Sagemehl,Fischein Bronn'sClassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs, BandVI.Leipzig, 1876.[40]See W.G. Ridewood,Nat. Sci.vol.VIII.1896, p. 380. Full references are there given to the literature of the subject.[41]See H. Gadow and E.C. Abbott,Phil. Trans.vol. 186 (1895)B.pp. 163-221.[42]C. Hasse,Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.LVII.1893, p. 76.[43]C. Hasse,Das natürliche System der Elasmobranchier auf Grundlage des Baues und der Entwickelung ihrer Wirbelsäule, Jena, 1879 and 1885, and "Die fossilen Wirbel, Morph. StudienI.-IV.,"Morphol. Jahrb. Bd.II.,III.andIV.1876-78.[44]See H.B. Pollard,Anat. Anz.X.1894.[45]T.W. Bridge, "The Cranial Osteology ofAmia calva,"J. Anat. Physiol. norm. path.1876, vol.XI.p. 605. R. Shufeldt, "The Osteology ofAmia calva,"Ann. Rep. of the Commissioner for Fish and Fisheries, Washington, 1885.[46]A. Smith Woodward,Nat. Sci.vol.I.1892, p. 28. Further references are here given on the literature of the subject.[47]C. Gegenbaur, Ueber das Archipterygium,Jena Zeitschr. der Wirbelthiere, 2eHeft, 1873, vol. 7, andMorphol. Jahrb.XXII.1894, p. 119.[48]The fins ofCeratodusare very variable, no two being exactly alike. Sometimes even the main axis bifurcates. See W.A. Haswell,Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, vol.VII.1882.[49]Some of these views with regard to the homologies of the parts of the fins are not accepted by all anatomists.[50]T.H. Huxley,Amphibia(Encyclopaedia Britannica).[51]See R. Wiedersheim,Morphol. Jahrb.Bd.III.1877, p. 459.[52]See A. Fritsch,Fauna der Gaskohle, Prague, 1883-85-86, also writings of Cope, Credner, Huxley, H. v. Meyer, Miall.[53]See R. Wiedersheim,Anatomie der Gymnophionen, Jena, 1879.[54]i.e. between one vertebra and the next.[55]See A. Ecker,Die anatomie des Frosches, Braunschweig 1864, translated by G. Haslam, Oxford, 1889, also A.M. Marshall,The Frog, 5th edition, Manchester and London, 1894.[56]W.K. Parker,Phil. Trans.161, 1871, p. 137, and W.K. Parker and G.T. Bettany,The Morphology of the Skull, London, 1877, p. 136.[57]See G.B. Howes and W. Ridewood,P.Z.S., 1888, p. 141.[58]See bottom of p. 187.[59]O. Hertwig. Ueber das Zahnsystem der Amphibien.Arch. mikr. Anat.supplem. Bd.XI.1875.[60]G.A. Boulenger,P.Z.S.1890, p. 664.[61]See p.15.[62]See many papers by W.K. Parker published in thePhil. Trans.of the Royal Soc.[63]Perhaps this bone includes supra-orbital and postorbital elements.[64]The first digit present is sometimes regarded as the pollex, but from analogy with Anura it is probable that the pollex is the missing digit.[65]According to Baur a distinct epi-otic is not recognisable in the reptilian skull.[66]H. Gadow,Phil. Trans., vol. 179, 1888.[67]See G. Baur,J. Morph., vol. I., 1887. R. Lydekker,Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia and Amphibia in the British Museum, PartsI.&II.C.K. Hoffmann,Reptilien, in Bronn'sClassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs, Bd.VI., 3 abth. 1879-90.[68]T.H. Huxley,Quart. J. Geol. Soc., vol.xv.p. 649, 1859. R. Owen,Catalogue of Fossil Reptiles of S. Africa in the British Museum, London, 1876. H.G. Seeley, various papers published in theP.R. Soc. London, andPhil. Trans.[69]See pp. 281-283.[70]An ent-epicondylar foramen is one piercing the humerus on its inner side just above the condyle.[71]According to Hulke they should be regarded as the omosternum,—the clavicles and interclavicle being wanting.[72]See p. 272.[73]R. Lydekker,Nat. Sci.vol.I.p. 514, 1892. Further references are there given.[74]The exact position of the suture between the prefrontal and postfrontal is not known.[75]A. Günther, On the Anatomy of Hatteria,Phil. Trans, vol. 157, 1867, p. 595.[76]Zygosphenesare extra articulating surfaces borne upon the anterior face of the neural arch; they fit into corresponding structures, thezygantra, which are borne on the posterior surface of the neural arch of the preceding vertebra. Ordinary zygapophyses always accompany them.[77]See E.D. Cope,P. Amer. Phil. Soc. vol. xxx. p. 185.[78]See W.K. Parker,Phil. Trans.vol. 170, 1879, p. 595.[79]See p. 281.[80]Often called the columella cranii.[81]See C.K. Hoffmann, in Bronn'sKlassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs, Bd.VI., 3 abth. 1885-90.[82]Some anatomists consider that the closing in of the brain case in front is entirely due to the frontals and parietals.[83]E.D. Cope,Rep. U.S. Geol. Surv., 1875, vol.II., The vertebrata of the Cretaceous formations of the west. E.D. Cope,P. Boston Soc.1862,XII.p. 250. O.C. Marsh,Amer. J. Sci., 1872, vol. 3. R. Owen,Quart. J. Geol. Soc., 1877, and 1878.[84]J.W. Hulke,Presidential address to the Geol. Soc. of London, 1883 and 1884. O.C. Marsh, many papers in theAmer. J. Sci.from 1878 onwards, also in theGeol. Mag.R. Owen,History of British fossil reptiles: Dinosauria(Palaeont. Soc.).[85]The diagnostic characters of the different groups of Dinosaurs are in the main those given by von Zittel.[86]See O.C. Marsh,Amer. J. Sci.(3), vol. 48, 1894, p. 85.[87]See C.B. Brühl,Das Skelet der Krokodiliden, Wien, 1862. C.K. Hoffmann in Bronn'sKlassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs, Bd.VI.Abth.III.1881-85. T.H. Huxley,Proc. Linn. Soc.(Zoology) 1860 vol.IV.p. 1. R. Owen,History of British fossil Reptiles.Crocodilia(Palaeont. Soc.). A. Smith Woodward,Geol. Mag.1885, 3rd dec.II.p. 496. A. Smith Woodward,Proc. of Geologists' Assoc.vol.IX.p. 288, 1886.[88]See H.G. Seeley, On the Organisation of the Ornithosauria,Journ. Linn. Soc.(Zoology) vol.XIII. p. 84. K.A. Zittel, Ueber Flugsaurier aus dem lithographischen schiefer,Palaeontograph.XXIX. p. 49.[89]Another view commonly held is that the neural and costal plates are respectively formed by the expanded neural arches and ribs.[90]Free use has been made of L.C. Miall'sStudies in Comparative Anatomy,I.,The Skull in Crocodilia, London, 1878. See also W.K. Parker,Tr. Z.S., vol.XI.1885, p. 263.[91]See pp. 214 and 215.[92]These terms are defined on p. 199.[93]E.T. Newton,Phil. Trans.vol.CLXXXIV,B, p. 431 (1893).[94]M. Fürbringer,Untersuchungen zur Morphologie und Systematik der Vögel, I. and II. Amsterdam, 1888. Cf. H. Gadow,Nature,XXXIX. 1888, pp. 150 and 177.T.H. Huxley, "On the classification of birds."P.Z.S., London, 1867.E. Selenka and H. Gadow,Vögelin Bronn'sClassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs1869-1890.[95]See p. 283.[96]R. Owen,Phil. Trans., vol.CLIII., p. 33; 1863. T.H. Huxley,P. R.S., vol.XVI., p. 243; 1868. C. Vogt,Rev. Scient., ser. 2, tom. 9, p. 241; 1879. C.H. Hurst,Nat. Sci., vol.III., p. 275; 1893; vol.VI., pp. 112, 180, 244; 1895. W.P. Pycraft,Nat. Sci., vol.V., pp. 350 and 437; 1894; and vol.VIII., p. 261; 1896.[97]According to Hurst the fourth and fifth digits are also present.[98]See C.W. Andrews,P.Z.S., 1894, p. 108.[99]See T.J. Parker,Tr. Zool. Soc. London, vol.XIII., pt. 2, 1895, and F.W. Hutton, several papers inTr. N. Zealand Inst., 1893 and 1895.[100]See O.C. Marsh.Odontornithes. A monograph of the extinct toothed birds of N. America.New Haven, 1880.[101]See R.S. Wray,P.Z.S., 1887, p. 343.[102]Often called the manubrium, but not homologous with the manubrium of the mammalian sternum.[103]Cp. fig. 63.[104]See p. 28.[105]W.K. Parker,Phil. Trans.vol. 179, p. 385, 1888; andIbis, 1888, p. 124.[106]See T.H. Huxley, "On the Classification of Birds,"P.Z.S.1867.[107]B. Lindsay,P.Z.S.1885, p. 684.[108]This is Gadow's view; according to Huxley the quadrate forms the malleus; according to Baur it forms the zygomatic process of the squamosal, and according to Broom the interarticular mandibular cartilage.[109]According to Leche,Morphol. Jahrb.XIX.p. 502, the molar teeth belong morphologically to the first series, i.e. they are milk teeth without vertical successors.[110]The researches of Bateson,P.Z.S.1892, p. 102, have shown that cases of individual variation in the number of teeth are common.[111]Baur, however, suggests (Anat. Anz.vol.IV.1889), that a tibial sesamoid found inProcavia, many rodents, edentates andOrnithorhynchusis a vestigial tibiale, and that the astragalus is the intermedium.[112]This perforation of the acetabulum inEchidnais a secondary character occurring late in development, and consequently is not of phylogenetic importance.[113]See R. Owen, "Monograph of the Fossil Mammalia of the Mesozoic Formation,"Pal. Soc. Mon.1871.H.F. Osborn, "Structure and Affinities of Mesozoic Mammals,"J. of Philad. Acad.1888, vol.IX.O.C. Marsh, "Jurassic Mammals,"Amer. J. Sci.1878et seq.[114]See Oldfield Thomas,Brit. Mus. Cat. of Marsupialia and Monotremata(1888).[115]W. Kükenthal,Anat. Anz.VI.p. 364, 1891. C. Röse,Anat. Anz.VII.p. 639.[116]These bones however have no connection with the marsupium, being nearly equally developed in both male and female. They are simply sesamoid bones forming ossifications in the inner tendon of the external oblique muscle, and are developed as supports for the abdominal wall. Very similar structures have been independently developed in various Amphibians, Reptiles and monodelphian Mammals. See W. Leche,Biol. Fören.III.p. 120.[117]See H. Gadow,P.Z.S.1892, p. 361.[118]See W.H. Flower, "On the Mutual Affinities of the Animals composing the order Edentata,"P.Z.S.1882, p. 358. For the fossil Edentates of N. America see E. Cope,Amer. Natural.1889; for those of S. America see various papers by F. Ameghino, H. Burmeister and R. Owen. Also T.H. Huxley, "On the Osteology of Glyptodon,"Phil. Trans.1865.[119]See J.F. Brandt,Symbolae Sirenologicae, St Petersburg, 1846, 1861, 1868.[120]Epiphyses are fully developed inHalitherium, and traces occur inManatus.[121]See P.J. van Beneden and P. Gervais,Ostéographie des Cétacés, 1869-80.[122]H. Wincza,Morphol. Jahrb.XVI., p. 647.[123]See M. Pavlow, "Études sur l'histoire paléontologique des Ongulés."Bull. Soc. Moscou, 1887—1890.[124]In aplantigradeanimal the whole of the foot is placed on the ground in walking. Adigitigradeanimal places only its toes on the ground. An intermediate condition is distinguished by the termsubplantigrade.[125]See p. 345.[126]See p. 401.[127]See E.D. Cope, "The Perissodactyla,"Amer. Natural., 1887.[128]See E.D. Cope, "The Condylarthra,"Amer. Natural., 1884, and "Synopsis of the Vertebrates of the Puerco series,"Tr. Amer. Phil. Soc., 1888. O.C. Marsh, "A new order of extinct Eocene Mammals (Mesodactyla),"Amer. J. Sci., 1892.[129]See O. Thomas, "On the species of Hyracoidea,"P.Z.S., 1892, p. 50.[130]See E.D. Cope, "The Amblypoda,"Amer. Natural., 1884 and 1885.[131]See O.C. Marsh, "The Dinocerata,"U.S. Geol. Survey, 1884, vol.X.[132]See O.C. Marsh,Amer. J. Sci., 1875 and 1876.[133]E.D. Cope, "The Creodonta,"Amer. Natural., 1884. W.B. Scott, "Revision of the N. American Creodonta,"P. Ac. Philad., 1892.[134]See next paragraph.[135]St G. Mivart,The Cat, London, 1881.[136]St G. Mivart,P.Z.S., 1885.[137]St G. Mivart, "On the Osteology of Insectivora,"J. Anat. Physiol. norm. path., 1867 and 1868, andP.Z.S., 1871. G.E. Dobson,Monograph of the Insectivora, London, 1882—90.[138]See G.E. Dobson,Brit. Mus. Catalogue of Chiroptera, 1878. See also other papers by the same author and by Oldfield Thomas.[139]W. Ellenberger and H. Baum,Anatomie des Hundes, Berlin, 1891.[140]T.H. Huxley, "Dental and cranial characters of the Canidae,"P.Z.S.1880.[141]See p. 392.[142]The dura mater is a membrane which lines the cranial cavity and is formed of tough connective tissue.[143]These are not strictly homologous with the basi-hyal and cerato-hyal of the Dogfish.[144]See note to p. 25.[145]See W.H. Flower, "Remarks on the homologies and notation of the teeth in Mammalia,"J. Anat. and Physiol. norm. path., Vol.III., p. 262; R. Owen,Odontography, London, 1840—45; C.S. Tomes,Manual of Dental Anatomy, London, 1876. See also H.F. Osborn, "Recent researches on succession of teeth in Mammals,"Amer. Natural.,XXVII., p. 493, and "Rise of Mammalia in N. America,"Stud. Biol. Lab. Columb. Coll., Zool.I., no. 2.[146]See E.B. Poulton,P.R.S., Feb. 1888, andQuart. J. Micr. Sci., Vol.XXIX.1889; also Oldfield Thomas,P.R.S.,XLVI.(1889).[147]W.H. Flower,Phil. Trans., vol. 156, pp. 631—641, 1867; also Oldfield Thomas,Phil. Trans., pp. 443—462, 1887.[148]C. Röse,Anat. Anz.VII., p. 639.[149]W. Kükenthal,Anat. Anz.VI., p. 364.[150]See p. 348.[151]W. Leche,Morph. Jahrb.XX., pp. 113—142 (1893).[152]E.C. Stirling,P.Z.S.1891, p. 327.[153]O. Thomas,P.Z.S., 1895, p. 870.[154]F. Ameghino,Bull. Ac. Argen.XII.p. 437. According to H. Burmeister,Annal. Mus. Buenos Aires,III.401 (1891), enamel does not occur, osteodentine having been mistaken for it.[155]E. Ballowitz,Arch. Mikr. Anat.XL.p. 133.[156]See Oldfield Thomas,P.R.S., vol.XLVII., p. 246 (1890).[157]J. Taeker, "Fur Kenntniss der Odontogenese bei Ungulaten." Dorpat, 1892.[158]See p. 345.[159]See p. 345.[160]According to H.F. Osborn,Amer. Natural.,XXVI.p. 763, a number of not very closely allied forms have been included underLophiodon.[161]C. Earle,J. Ac. Philad., vol.IX., 1892, p. 267.[162]Encyclopaedia Britannica, articleMammalia, p. 424.[163]See T.H. Huxley, "The dental and cranial characters of the Canidae,"P.Z.S., 1880, p. 238.[164]G.B. Howes,Journ. of Anat. and Phys.XXVII., p. 544.[165]The figure was drawn from a photograph and the size of the jaws relatively to the cranium is exaggerated.[166]See W.K. Parker, "On the Structure and Development of the Skull in the Pig."Phil. Trans.pp. 289-336, 1874.[167]See W.H. Flower, "On the value of the characters of the base of the cranium in the classification of the order Carnivora."P.Z.S.1869, p.[168]See W.K. Parker,Monograph of the shoulder-girdle and sternum of the Vertebrata,Ray Soc.1868.[169]See p. 405.[170]See E. Lydekker,P.Z.S.1895, p. 172.[171]See H. Wincza,Morph. Jahr.XVI.p. 647, 1890.[172]See K. Bardeleben,P.Z.S., 1889, p. 259.[173]See E. Cope, "The origin of the foot structures of Ungulata,"Journ. of Philad. Acad.1874. H.F. Osborn, "The evolution of the Ungulate foot,"T. Amer. Phil. Soc.1889.[174]See O.C. Marsh, various papers including "Fossil horses in America,"Amer. Natural.1874; "Polydactyl horses,"Amer. J. Sci.1879 and 1892. M. Pavlow, "Le développement des Equidés,"Bul. Soc. Moscou, 1887, and subsequent papers in the same. Osborn and Wortman, "On the Perissodactyls of the White River beds,"Bull. Amer. Mus.Dec. 23rd, 1895.[175]See H.F. Osborn,Chalicotherium and Macrotherium, Amer. Natural.1889—91—92.[176]See p. 409.[177]See p. 412.

[1]The skin consists of an outer layer of epiblastic origin, the epidermis, and an inner layer of mesoblastic origin, the dermis. The epidermis is divided into two principal layers, an outer one, the horny layer orstratum corneum, and an inner one, thestratum Malpighii. The innermost part of the stratum corneum is distinguished as thestratum lucidum, and the outermost part of the stratum Malpighii as thestratum granulosum.

[2]The enamel of the pharyngeal teeth of some Teleosteans is hypoblastic in origin.

[3]See also p. 71.

[4]It is usual to regard the clavicle as a membrane bone, but Kölliker has shown that in rabbit embryos of about the 17th day it is cartilaginous.

[5]In compiling these paragraphs on Histology, free use has been made of Klein and Noble Smith'sAtlas of Histology, the small Histologies of Klein and Schäfer, Huxley'sElementary Physiology, and Lloyd Morgan'sAnimal Biology.

[6]See Huxley'sElementary Physiology, Revised edition, London, 1886, p. 180.

[7]Strictly speaking the jaws, visceral skeleton, ribs and sternum do not form part of the axis, but it is convenient to group them as parts of the axial skeleton.

[8]F.M. Balfour,Comparative Embryology, vol.II., London, 1881, p. 465. W.K. Parker and G.T. Bettany,The Morphology of the Skull, London, 1877.

[9]Sometimes also called ectethmoids or parethmoids.

[10]Theproximalend of anything is the one nearest the point of origin or attachment, thedistalend is the one furthest from the point of origin or attachment.

[11]W.K. Parker,A Monograph of the Shoulder Girdle and Sternum, Ray Soc. London, 1868.

[12]See R. Wiedersheim,Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.vol.LIII.suppl. p. 43, 1892.

[13]G. Baur,Beiträge zur Morphogenie des Carpus und Tarsus der Vertebraten, Theil 1. Batrachia. Jena, 1888, andAmer. Natural., vol.XIX.1885 (several papers).

[14]This account is based on Chapter XX. of Flower'sOsteology of the Mammalia. London 1876.

[15]A. Smith Woodward,Catalogue of Fossil Fishes in the British Museum, Part II., Introduction, p. xii.

[16]This classification of reptiles is mainly based on that of Lydekker (Catalogue of Fossil Reptiles in the British Museum) but in some respects that of von Zittel has been followed.

[17]This classification of birds is essentially that of Gadow and Selenka in Bronn'sClassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs, Bandvi., Abth.iv., Vögel. Leipzig, 1891.

[18]The classification adopted is almost entirely that given in Flower and Lydekker'sMammals Living and Extinct. London, 1891.

[19]The nameBalanoglossusis used here in its widest sense to include all the Enteropneusta.

[20]See W. Bateson,Quart. J. Micr. Sci.n. s. vol.XXIV.1884, p. 208 and later; also E.W. Macbride,Ibid.vol.XXXVI.1894, p. 385.

[21]See p. 52.

[22]A.T. Masterman,P.R. Soc. Edinb.1895-96, p. 59; andAnat. Anz.1896, p. 266.

[23]See E. Ray Lankester,Quart. J. Micr. Sci.vol.XXIX.n. s. 1889, p. 365. W.B. Benham,Ibid.vol.XXXV.n. s. 1893, p. 97. J.W. Kirkaldy,Ibid. vol.XXXVII.n. s. 1895, p. 303. The last-named writer divides the genus into three subgenera.

[24]See W.K. Parker On the skeleton of the Marsipobranch fishes,Phil. Trans.1883, London.

[25]See A. Smith Woodward,Catalogue of Fossil Fish in the British Museum, PartII., 1891. A. Smith Woodward,Nat. Sci.vol.I.1892, p. 596.

[26]See R.H. Traquair,Ann. Nat. Hist., ser. 6, vol.II.1888, p. 485.

[27]See p. 17.

[28]R.H. Traquair,Ann. Nat. Hist.vol.VI.1890, p. 485;P. Phys. Soc. Edinb.vol.XII.1892-93, pp. 87-94, and 312-320. A. Smith Woodward,Nat. Sci.vol.III.p. 128, 1893.

[29]See p. 79.

[30]For this and other groups of extinct fish see A. Smith Woodward,Catalogue of Fossil Fish in the British Museum, PartsI.-III.London, 1889-95.

[31]See p. 127.

[32]See B. Dean,J. Morphol.vol.IX.pp. 87-114, 1894, andNat. Sci.vol.VIII.p. 245, 1896.

[33]A. Günther,Phil. Trans.vol. 161, PartII.1871, p. 511. T.H. Huxley, "On Ceratodus and the classification of fishes,"P.Z.S.1876, p. 24.

[34]See Marshall and Hurst'sPractical Zoology, 4th ed. London, 1895, p. 214.

[35]See T.J. Parker'sZootomy, London, 1884, p. 86.

[36]See W.K. Parker and G.T. Bettany,The Morphology of the Skull, London, 1877, chap. 3.

[37]T.J. Parker,Zootomy, London, 1884, p. 91.

[38]According to G. Swirski,Schultergurtel des Hechtes, Dorpat, 1880, the true coracoid is aborted, and the so-called coracoid of Teleosteans is really the precoracoid.

[39]The following general works on fishes may be referred to: Bashford Dean,Fishes, Living and Fossil, New York, 1895. A. Günther,An Introduction to the Study of Fishes, Edinburgh, 1880. A.A.W. Hubrecht and M. Sagemehl,Fischein Bronn'sClassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs, BandVI.Leipzig, 1876.

[40]See W.G. Ridewood,Nat. Sci.vol.VIII.1896, p. 380. Full references are there given to the literature of the subject.

[41]See H. Gadow and E.C. Abbott,Phil. Trans.vol. 186 (1895)B.pp. 163-221.

[42]C. Hasse,Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.LVII.1893, p. 76.

[43]C. Hasse,Das natürliche System der Elasmobranchier auf Grundlage des Baues und der Entwickelung ihrer Wirbelsäule, Jena, 1879 and 1885, and "Die fossilen Wirbel, Morph. StudienI.-IV.,"Morphol. Jahrb. Bd.II.,III.andIV.1876-78.

[44]See H.B. Pollard,Anat. Anz.X.1894.

[45]T.W. Bridge, "The Cranial Osteology ofAmia calva,"J. Anat. Physiol. norm. path.1876, vol.XI.p. 605. R. Shufeldt, "The Osteology ofAmia calva,"Ann. Rep. of the Commissioner for Fish and Fisheries, Washington, 1885.

[46]A. Smith Woodward,Nat. Sci.vol.I.1892, p. 28. Further references are here given on the literature of the subject.

[47]C. Gegenbaur, Ueber das Archipterygium,Jena Zeitschr. der Wirbelthiere, 2eHeft, 1873, vol. 7, andMorphol. Jahrb.XXII.1894, p. 119.

[48]The fins ofCeratodusare very variable, no two being exactly alike. Sometimes even the main axis bifurcates. See W.A. Haswell,Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales, vol.VII.1882.

[49]Some of these views with regard to the homologies of the parts of the fins are not accepted by all anatomists.

[50]T.H. Huxley,Amphibia(Encyclopaedia Britannica).

[51]See R. Wiedersheim,Morphol. Jahrb.Bd.III.1877, p. 459.

[52]See A. Fritsch,Fauna der Gaskohle, Prague, 1883-85-86, also writings of Cope, Credner, Huxley, H. v. Meyer, Miall.

[53]See R. Wiedersheim,Anatomie der Gymnophionen, Jena, 1879.

[54]i.e. between one vertebra and the next.

[55]See A. Ecker,Die anatomie des Frosches, Braunschweig 1864, translated by G. Haslam, Oxford, 1889, also A.M. Marshall,The Frog, 5th edition, Manchester and London, 1894.

[56]W.K. Parker,Phil. Trans.161, 1871, p. 137, and W.K. Parker and G.T. Bettany,The Morphology of the Skull, London, 1877, p. 136.

[57]See G.B. Howes and W. Ridewood,P.Z.S., 1888, p. 141.

[58]See bottom of p. 187.

[59]O. Hertwig. Ueber das Zahnsystem der Amphibien.Arch. mikr. Anat.supplem. Bd.XI.1875.

[60]G.A. Boulenger,P.Z.S.1890, p. 664.

[61]See p.15.

[62]See many papers by W.K. Parker published in thePhil. Trans.of the Royal Soc.

[63]Perhaps this bone includes supra-orbital and postorbital elements.

[64]The first digit present is sometimes regarded as the pollex, but from analogy with Anura it is probable that the pollex is the missing digit.

[65]According to Baur a distinct epi-otic is not recognisable in the reptilian skull.

[66]H. Gadow,Phil. Trans., vol. 179, 1888.

[67]See G. Baur,J. Morph., vol. I., 1887. R. Lydekker,Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia and Amphibia in the British Museum, PartsI.&II.C.K. Hoffmann,Reptilien, in Bronn'sClassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs, Bd.VI., 3 abth. 1879-90.

[68]T.H. Huxley,Quart. J. Geol. Soc., vol.xv.p. 649, 1859. R. Owen,Catalogue of Fossil Reptiles of S. Africa in the British Museum, London, 1876. H.G. Seeley, various papers published in theP.R. Soc. London, andPhil. Trans.

[69]See pp. 281-283.

[70]An ent-epicondylar foramen is one piercing the humerus on its inner side just above the condyle.

[71]According to Hulke they should be regarded as the omosternum,—the clavicles and interclavicle being wanting.

[72]See p. 272.

[73]R. Lydekker,Nat. Sci.vol.I.p. 514, 1892. Further references are there given.

[74]The exact position of the suture between the prefrontal and postfrontal is not known.

[75]A. Günther, On the Anatomy of Hatteria,Phil. Trans, vol. 157, 1867, p. 595.

[76]Zygosphenesare extra articulating surfaces borne upon the anterior face of the neural arch; they fit into corresponding structures, thezygantra, which are borne on the posterior surface of the neural arch of the preceding vertebra. Ordinary zygapophyses always accompany them.

[77]See E.D. Cope,P. Amer. Phil. Soc. vol. xxx. p. 185.

[78]See W.K. Parker,Phil. Trans.vol. 170, 1879, p. 595.

[79]See p. 281.

[80]Often called the columella cranii.

[81]See C.K. Hoffmann, in Bronn'sKlassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs, Bd.VI., 3 abth. 1885-90.

[82]Some anatomists consider that the closing in of the brain case in front is entirely due to the frontals and parietals.

[83]E.D. Cope,Rep. U.S. Geol. Surv., 1875, vol.II., The vertebrata of the Cretaceous formations of the west. E.D. Cope,P. Boston Soc.1862,XII.p. 250. O.C. Marsh,Amer. J. Sci., 1872, vol. 3. R. Owen,Quart. J. Geol. Soc., 1877, and 1878.

[84]J.W. Hulke,Presidential address to the Geol. Soc. of London, 1883 and 1884. O.C. Marsh, many papers in theAmer. J. Sci.from 1878 onwards, also in theGeol. Mag.R. Owen,History of British fossil reptiles: Dinosauria(Palaeont. Soc.).

[85]The diagnostic characters of the different groups of Dinosaurs are in the main those given by von Zittel.

[86]See O.C. Marsh,Amer. J. Sci.(3), vol. 48, 1894, p. 85.

[87]See C.B. Brühl,Das Skelet der Krokodiliden, Wien, 1862. C.K. Hoffmann in Bronn'sKlassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs, Bd.VI.Abth.III.1881-85. T.H. Huxley,Proc. Linn. Soc.(Zoology) 1860 vol.IV.p. 1. R. Owen,History of British fossil Reptiles.Crocodilia(Palaeont. Soc.). A. Smith Woodward,Geol. Mag.1885, 3rd dec.II.p. 496. A. Smith Woodward,Proc. of Geologists' Assoc.vol.IX.p. 288, 1886.

[88]See H.G. Seeley, On the Organisation of the Ornithosauria,Journ. Linn. Soc.(Zoology) vol.XIII. p. 84. K.A. Zittel, Ueber Flugsaurier aus dem lithographischen schiefer,Palaeontograph.XXIX. p. 49.

[89]Another view commonly held is that the neural and costal plates are respectively formed by the expanded neural arches and ribs.

[90]Free use has been made of L.C. Miall'sStudies in Comparative Anatomy,I.,The Skull in Crocodilia, London, 1878. See also W.K. Parker,Tr. Z.S., vol.XI.1885, p. 263.

[91]See pp. 214 and 215.

[92]These terms are defined on p. 199.

[93]E.T. Newton,Phil. Trans.vol.CLXXXIV,B, p. 431 (1893).

[94]M. Fürbringer,Untersuchungen zur Morphologie und Systematik der Vögel, I. and II. Amsterdam, 1888. Cf. H. Gadow,Nature,XXXIX. 1888, pp. 150 and 177.T.H. Huxley, "On the classification of birds."P.Z.S., London, 1867.E. Selenka and H. Gadow,Vögelin Bronn'sClassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs1869-1890.

[94]M. Fürbringer,Untersuchungen zur Morphologie und Systematik der Vögel, I. and II. Amsterdam, 1888. Cf. H. Gadow,Nature,XXXIX. 1888, pp. 150 and 177.

T.H. Huxley, "On the classification of birds."P.Z.S., London, 1867.

E. Selenka and H. Gadow,Vögelin Bronn'sClassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs1869-1890.

[95]See p. 283.

[96]R. Owen,Phil. Trans., vol.CLIII., p. 33; 1863. T.H. Huxley,P. R.S., vol.XVI., p. 243; 1868. C. Vogt,Rev. Scient., ser. 2, tom. 9, p. 241; 1879. C.H. Hurst,Nat. Sci., vol.III., p. 275; 1893; vol.VI., pp. 112, 180, 244; 1895. W.P. Pycraft,Nat. Sci., vol.V., pp. 350 and 437; 1894; and vol.VIII., p. 261; 1896.

[97]According to Hurst the fourth and fifth digits are also present.

[98]See C.W. Andrews,P.Z.S., 1894, p. 108.

[99]See T.J. Parker,Tr. Zool. Soc. London, vol.XIII., pt. 2, 1895, and F.W. Hutton, several papers inTr. N. Zealand Inst., 1893 and 1895.

[100]See O.C. Marsh.Odontornithes. A monograph of the extinct toothed birds of N. America.New Haven, 1880.

[101]See R.S. Wray,P.Z.S., 1887, p. 343.

[102]Often called the manubrium, but not homologous with the manubrium of the mammalian sternum.

[103]Cp. fig. 63.

[104]See p. 28.

[105]W.K. Parker,Phil. Trans.vol. 179, p. 385, 1888; andIbis, 1888, p. 124.

[106]See T.H. Huxley, "On the Classification of Birds,"P.Z.S.1867.

[107]B. Lindsay,P.Z.S.1885, p. 684.

[108]This is Gadow's view; according to Huxley the quadrate forms the malleus; according to Baur it forms the zygomatic process of the squamosal, and according to Broom the interarticular mandibular cartilage.

[109]According to Leche,Morphol. Jahrb.XIX.p. 502, the molar teeth belong morphologically to the first series, i.e. they are milk teeth without vertical successors.

[110]The researches of Bateson,P.Z.S.1892, p. 102, have shown that cases of individual variation in the number of teeth are common.

[111]Baur, however, suggests (Anat. Anz.vol.IV.1889), that a tibial sesamoid found inProcavia, many rodents, edentates andOrnithorhynchusis a vestigial tibiale, and that the astragalus is the intermedium.

[112]This perforation of the acetabulum inEchidnais a secondary character occurring late in development, and consequently is not of phylogenetic importance.

[113]See R. Owen, "Monograph of the Fossil Mammalia of the Mesozoic Formation,"Pal. Soc. Mon.1871.H.F. Osborn, "Structure and Affinities of Mesozoic Mammals,"J. of Philad. Acad.1888, vol.IX.O.C. Marsh, "Jurassic Mammals,"Amer. J. Sci.1878et seq.

[113]See R. Owen, "Monograph of the Fossil Mammalia of the Mesozoic Formation,"Pal. Soc. Mon.1871.

H.F. Osborn, "Structure and Affinities of Mesozoic Mammals,"J. of Philad. Acad.1888, vol.IX.

O.C. Marsh, "Jurassic Mammals,"Amer. J. Sci.1878et seq.

[114]See Oldfield Thomas,Brit. Mus. Cat. of Marsupialia and Monotremata(1888).

[115]W. Kükenthal,Anat. Anz.VI.p. 364, 1891. C. Röse,Anat. Anz.VII.p. 639.

[116]These bones however have no connection with the marsupium, being nearly equally developed in both male and female. They are simply sesamoid bones forming ossifications in the inner tendon of the external oblique muscle, and are developed as supports for the abdominal wall. Very similar structures have been independently developed in various Amphibians, Reptiles and monodelphian Mammals. See W. Leche,Biol. Fören.III.p. 120.

[117]See H. Gadow,P.Z.S.1892, p. 361.

[118]See W.H. Flower, "On the Mutual Affinities of the Animals composing the order Edentata,"P.Z.S.1882, p. 358. For the fossil Edentates of N. America see E. Cope,Amer. Natural.1889; for those of S. America see various papers by F. Ameghino, H. Burmeister and R. Owen. Also T.H. Huxley, "On the Osteology of Glyptodon,"Phil. Trans.1865.

[119]See J.F. Brandt,Symbolae Sirenologicae, St Petersburg, 1846, 1861, 1868.

[120]Epiphyses are fully developed inHalitherium, and traces occur inManatus.

[121]See P.J. van Beneden and P. Gervais,Ostéographie des Cétacés, 1869-80.

[122]H. Wincza,Morphol. Jahrb.XVI., p. 647.

[123]See M. Pavlow, "Études sur l'histoire paléontologique des Ongulés."Bull. Soc. Moscou, 1887—1890.

[124]In aplantigradeanimal the whole of the foot is placed on the ground in walking. Adigitigradeanimal places only its toes on the ground. An intermediate condition is distinguished by the termsubplantigrade.

[125]See p. 345.

[126]See p. 401.

[127]See E.D. Cope, "The Perissodactyla,"Amer. Natural., 1887.

[128]See E.D. Cope, "The Condylarthra,"Amer. Natural., 1884, and "Synopsis of the Vertebrates of the Puerco series,"Tr. Amer. Phil. Soc., 1888. O.C. Marsh, "A new order of extinct Eocene Mammals (Mesodactyla),"Amer. J. Sci., 1892.

[129]See O. Thomas, "On the species of Hyracoidea,"P.Z.S., 1892, p. 50.

[130]See E.D. Cope, "The Amblypoda,"Amer. Natural., 1884 and 1885.

[131]See O.C. Marsh, "The Dinocerata,"U.S. Geol. Survey, 1884, vol.X.

[132]See O.C. Marsh,Amer. J. Sci., 1875 and 1876.

[133]E.D. Cope, "The Creodonta,"Amer. Natural., 1884. W.B. Scott, "Revision of the N. American Creodonta,"P. Ac. Philad., 1892.

[134]See next paragraph.

[135]St G. Mivart,The Cat, London, 1881.

[136]St G. Mivart,P.Z.S., 1885.

[137]St G. Mivart, "On the Osteology of Insectivora,"J. Anat. Physiol. norm. path., 1867 and 1868, andP.Z.S., 1871. G.E. Dobson,Monograph of the Insectivora, London, 1882—90.

[138]See G.E. Dobson,Brit. Mus. Catalogue of Chiroptera, 1878. See also other papers by the same author and by Oldfield Thomas.

[139]W. Ellenberger and H. Baum,Anatomie des Hundes, Berlin, 1891.

[140]T.H. Huxley, "Dental and cranial characters of the Canidae,"P.Z.S.1880.

[141]See p. 392.

[142]The dura mater is a membrane which lines the cranial cavity and is formed of tough connective tissue.

[143]These are not strictly homologous with the basi-hyal and cerato-hyal of the Dogfish.

[144]See note to p. 25.

[145]See W.H. Flower, "Remarks on the homologies and notation of the teeth in Mammalia,"J. Anat. and Physiol. norm. path., Vol.III., p. 262; R. Owen,Odontography, London, 1840—45; C.S. Tomes,Manual of Dental Anatomy, London, 1876. See also H.F. Osborn, "Recent researches on succession of teeth in Mammals,"Amer. Natural.,XXVII., p. 493, and "Rise of Mammalia in N. America,"Stud. Biol. Lab. Columb. Coll., Zool.I., no. 2.

[146]See E.B. Poulton,P.R.S., Feb. 1888, andQuart. J. Micr. Sci., Vol.XXIX.1889; also Oldfield Thomas,P.R.S.,XLVI.(1889).

[147]W.H. Flower,Phil. Trans., vol. 156, pp. 631—641, 1867; also Oldfield Thomas,Phil. Trans., pp. 443—462, 1887.

[148]C. Röse,Anat. Anz.VII., p. 639.

[149]W. Kükenthal,Anat. Anz.VI., p. 364.

[150]See p. 348.

[151]W. Leche,Morph. Jahrb.XX., pp. 113—142 (1893).

[152]E.C. Stirling,P.Z.S.1891, p. 327.

[153]O. Thomas,P.Z.S., 1895, p. 870.

[154]F. Ameghino,Bull. Ac. Argen.XII.p. 437. According to H. Burmeister,Annal. Mus. Buenos Aires,III.401 (1891), enamel does not occur, osteodentine having been mistaken for it.

[155]E. Ballowitz,Arch. Mikr. Anat.XL.p. 133.

[156]See Oldfield Thomas,P.R.S., vol.XLVII., p. 246 (1890).

[157]J. Taeker, "Fur Kenntniss der Odontogenese bei Ungulaten." Dorpat, 1892.

[158]See p. 345.

[159]See p. 345.

[160]According to H.F. Osborn,Amer. Natural.,XXVI.p. 763, a number of not very closely allied forms have been included underLophiodon.

[161]C. Earle,J. Ac. Philad., vol.IX., 1892, p. 267.

[162]Encyclopaedia Britannica, articleMammalia, p. 424.

[163]See T.H. Huxley, "The dental and cranial characters of the Canidae,"P.Z.S., 1880, p. 238.

[164]G.B. Howes,Journ. of Anat. and Phys.XXVII., p. 544.

[165]The figure was drawn from a photograph and the size of the jaws relatively to the cranium is exaggerated.

[166]See W.K. Parker, "On the Structure and Development of the Skull in the Pig."Phil. Trans.pp. 289-336, 1874.

[167]See W.H. Flower, "On the value of the characters of the base of the cranium in the classification of the order Carnivora."P.Z.S.1869, p.

[168]See W.K. Parker,Monograph of the shoulder-girdle and sternum of the Vertebrata,Ray Soc.1868.

[169]See p. 405.

[170]See E. Lydekker,P.Z.S.1895, p. 172.

[171]See H. Wincza,Morph. Jahr.XVI.p. 647, 1890.

[172]See K. Bardeleben,P.Z.S., 1889, p. 259.

[173]See E. Cope, "The origin of the foot structures of Ungulata,"Journ. of Philad. Acad.1874. H.F. Osborn, "The evolution of the Ungulate foot,"T. Amer. Phil. Soc.1889.

[174]See O.C. Marsh, various papers including "Fossil horses in America,"Amer. Natural.1874; "Polydactyl horses,"Amer. J. Sci.1879 and 1892. M. Pavlow, "Le développement des Equidés,"Bul. Soc. Moscou, 1887, and subsequent papers in the same. Osborn and Wortman, "On the Perissodactyls of the White River beds,"Bull. Amer. Mus.Dec. 23rd, 1895.

[175]See H.F. Osborn,Chalicotherium and Macrotherium, Amer. Natural.1889—91—92.

[176]See p. 409.

[177]See p. 412.

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