The history, physique, disposition, and manners of the Chukches
The north coast of Siberia is now, with the exception of its westernmost and easternmost parts, literally a desert. In the west there projects between the mouth of the Ob and the southern portion of the Kara Sea the peninsula of Yalmal, which by its remote position, its grassy plains, and rivers abounding in fish, appears to form the earthly paradise of the Samoyed of the present day. Some hundred families belonging to this race wander about here with their numerous reindeer herds. During winter they withdraw to the interior of the country or southwards, and the coast is said then to be uninhabited. This is the case both summer and winter, not only with Beli Ostrov and the farthest portion of the peninsula between the Ob and the Yenisej (Mattesol), but also with the long stretch of coast between the mouth of the Yenisej and Chaun Bay. During the voyage of theVegain 1878 we did not see a single native. No trace of man could be discovered at the places where we landed, and though for a long time we sailed quite near land, we saw from the sea only a single house on the shore, viz, the before-mentioned wooden hut on the east side of Chelyuskin peninsula. Russiansimoviesand native encampments are indeed still found on the rivers some distance from their mouths, but the former coast population has withdrawn tothe interior of the country or died out,[271]and the north coast of Asia first begins again to be inhabited at Chaun Bay, namely, by the tribe with whom we came in contact during the latter part of the coast voyage of theVegain 1878 and during the wintering.
I have already, it is true, given an account of various traits of the Chukches' disposition and mode of life, but I believe at all events that a more exhaustive statement of what theVegamen experienced in this region will be interesting to my readers, even if in the course of it I am sometimes compelled to return to subjects of which I have already treated.
In West-European writings the race, which inhabits the north-easternmost portion of Asia, is mentioned for the first time, so far as I know, by WITSEN, who in the second edition of his work (1705, p. 671) quotes a statement by VOLODOMIR ATLASSOV, that the inhabitants of the northernmost portions of Siberia are calledTsjuktsi, without, however, giving any detailed description of the people themselves. In maps from the end of the seventeenth century names are still inscribed on this portion of land which were borrowed from the history of High Asia, as "Tenduc," "Quinsai," "Catacora," &c., but these are left out in VAN KEULEN'S atlas of 1709, and instead there stands hereZuczari. From about the same time we fall in with some accounts of the Chukches in the narrative of the distinguished painter CORNELIS DE BRUIN'S travels in Russia. A Russian merchant, MICHAEL OSTATIOF, who passed fourteen years in travelling in Siberia, gave de Bruin some information regarding the countries he had travelled through; among others he spoke ofKorakieandSocgtsieThe latter were sketched as a godless pack, who worship the devil and carry with them then fathers' bones to be used in their magical arts. The same Russian who made these statements had also come in contact with "stationary" (settled) Soegtsi, so called "because they pass the whole winter hibernating, lying or sitting in their tents."[272]I have found the first somewhat detailed accounts of the race in the note on p. 110 of the under-quoted work,Histoire généalogique des Tartares, Leyden, 1726. They are founded on the statements of Swedish prisoners of war in Siberia.
The Russians, however, had made a much earlier acquaintance with the Chukches; for during their conquest of Siberia they came in contact with this race before the middle of the seventeenth century. A company of hunters in 1646 sailed down theKolyma river to the Polar Sea. East of the Kolyma they fell in with the Chukches, with whom they dealt in this way they laid down their goods on the beach and then retired, on which the Chukches came thither, took the goods, and laid furs, walrus tusks, or carvings in walrus ivory, in their place.[273]How such journeys were repeated and finally led to the circumnavigation of the north-easternmost promontory of Asia belongs to a following chapter.
During these journeys the Russians often came in contact with the tribe which inhabited the north-eastern part of Asia, a contact which in general was not of a friendly nature. The bold hunters who contributed powerfully to the conquest of Siberia, and who even at their own hand entered into conflicts with whole armies from the heavenly empire, appear not to have behaved well when confronted with the warriors of the Chukch race. Even the attempts that were made with professional soldiers to conquer the land of the Chukches were without result, less however, perhaps, on account of the armed opposition which the Chukches made than from the nature of the country and the impossibility of even a small body of troops supporting themselves. The following may be quoted as examples of these campaigns which throw light upon the former disposition and mode of life of this tribe.
In 1701 some Yukagires who were tributary to Russia determined to make an attack on the Chukches, and requested from the commandant at Anadyrsk assistance against these enemies. A body of troops numbering twenty-four Russians and 110 Yukagires, was accordingly sent on a campaign along the coastfrom Anadyrsk to Chukotskojnos. By the way they fell in with thirteen tents, inhabited by Chukches who owned no reindeer. The inhabitants were required to submit and pay tribute. This the Chukches refused to do, on which the Russians killed most of the men and took the women and children prisoners. The men who were not cut down killed one another, preferring death to the loss of freedom. Some days after there was another fight with 300 Chukches, which, however, was so unfortunate for the latter that 200 are said to have fallen. The rest fled, but returned next day with a force ten times as strong, which finally compelled the Russo-Yukagnean troop to return with their object unaccomplished.
A similar campaign on a small scale was undertaken in 1711, but with the same issue. On a demand for tribute the Chukches answered: "the Russians have before come to us to demand tribute and hostages, but this we have refused to give, and thus we also intend to do in future."[274]
About fifteen years after this resultless campaign the Cossack colonel AFFANASSEJ SCHESTAKOV proposed to the Government again to subdue this obstinate race, intending also to go over to the American side, yet known only by report, in order to render the races living there tributary to the Russians. The proposal was accepted. A mate, JACOB HENS, a land-measurer, MICHAEL GVOSDEV, an ore-tester, HERDEBOL, and ten sailors were ordered by the Admiralty to accompany the expedition. At Yekaterinenburg Schestakov was provided with some small cannon and mortars with ammunition, and at Tobolsk with 400 Cossacks. In consequence of a great number of misfortunes, among them shipwreck in the sea of Okotsk, there stood however but a small portion of this force at his disposal when hebegan his campaign by marching into the country from the bottom of Penschina Bay. This campaign too was exceedingly unfortunate. After only a few days' march he came unexpectedly on a large body of Chukches, who themselves had gone to war with the Koryäks. A fight took place on the 25th/14th March, 1730, in which Schestakov himself fell, hit by an arrow, and his followers were killed or put to flight.
Among those who were ordered to accompany Schestakov in this unfortunate campaign was Captain DMITRI PAULUTSKI. Under his command a new campaign was undertaken against the Chukches With a force of 215 Russians, 160 Cossacks and 60 Yukagires, Paulutski left Anadyrsk on the 23rd/12th March, 1731, and marched east of the sources of the Anadyr to the Polar Sea, which was only reached after two mouths' march. Then he went along the coast, partly by land, partly on the ice, to the eastward. After fourteen days he fell in with a large Chukch army, and having in vain summoned it to surrender, he delivered a blow on the 18/7th June, and obtained a complete victory over the enemy. During the continuation of the campaign along the coast he was compelled to fight on two other occasions, one on the 11th July/30th June and the other on the 26/11th July, at Chukotskojnos itself, over which promontory he wished to march to the mouth of the Anadyr. In both cases the victory lay with the Russians, who, according to Müller's account based on the official documents, in all three engagements lost only three Cossacks, one Yukagire and five Koryäks. But notwithstanding all these defeats the Chukches refused to submit and pay tribute to the Russians, on which account the only gain of the campaign was the honour of avenging Schestakov's defeat and of marching in triumph over Chukotskojnos. For this, ten days were required. On the promontory, hills of considerable height had to be passed. It appears as if Paulutski followed the shore of Kolyutschin Bay to the south, and then marched over the tongue of land which separates this bay from Anadyr Bay,or to express it otherwise, which unites the Chukch peninsula to the mainland of Siberia.
Many mistakes in comprehending the accounts of old travels to these regions have arisen from our ignorance of the great southern extension of Kolyutschin Bay, and from the same name being frequently used to distinguish different places on the coasts of Siberia. Thus we find on the map by A. ARROW-SMITH annexed to Sauer's account of Billings' travels a Seidze Kamen on the south side of Chukch peninsula, and it was perhaps just this Seidze Kamen, known and so named by the dwellers on the Anadyr, that is mentioned in Müller's account of Paulutski's campaign.
On the 1st Nov./21st Oct. Paulutski returned to Anadyrsk, crowned with victory indeed, but without having brought his adversaries to lasting submission. No new attempt was made to induce the Chukches to submit, perhaps because Paulutski's campaign had rendered it evident that it was easier to win victories over the Chukches than to subdue them, and that the whole treasures of walrus tusks and skins belonging to the tribe would scarcely suffice to pay the expenses of the most inconsiderable campaign.
Perhaps too the accounts of Paulutski's victories may not be quite correct, at least the old repute of Chukches as a brave and savage race remained undiminished. Thus we read in a note already quoted at page 110 of theHistoire généalogique des Tartares[275]"The north-eastern part of Asia is inhabited by two allied races,TzuktzchiandTzchalatzki, and south of them on the Eastern Ocean by a third, calledOlutorski. They are the most savage tribe in the whole north of Asia, andwill have nothing to do with the Russians, whom they inhumanly kill when they fall in with them, and when any of them fall into the hands of the Russians they kill themselves". On the map of LOTTERUS (1765) the Chukch Peninsula is coloured in a way differing from Russian Siberia, and there is the following inscriptionTjukzchi natio ferocissima et bellicosa Russorum inimica, qui capti se invicem interficiunt. In 1777 GEORGIUS says in hisBeschreibung aller Nationen des Russischen Reichs(part ii., p. 350) of the Chukches "They are more savage, coarse, proud, refractory, thievish, false, and revengeful, than the neighbouring nomads the Koryäks. They are as bad and dangerous as the Tunguses are friendly. Twenty Chukches will beat fifty Koryäks. TheOstrogs(fortified places) lying in the neighbourhood of their country are even in continual fear of them, and cost so much that the Government has recently withdrawn the oldest Russian settlement in those regions, Anadyrsk". Other statements to the same effect might be quoted, and even in our day the Chukches are, with or without justification, known in Siberia for stubbornness, courage, and love of freedom.
But what violence could not effect has been completely accomplished in a peaceful way.[276]The Chukches indeed do not pay any other taxes than some small market tolls, but a very active traffic is now carried on between them and the Russians, and many travellers have without inconvenience traversed their country, or have sailed along its pretty thickly inhabited coast.
Among former travellers on the Chukch peninsula, who visited the encampments of the coast Chukches, besides Behring, Cook, and other seafarers, the following may be mentioned:—
The Cossack, PETER ILIIN SIN POPOV, was sent in 1711 with two interpreters to examine the country of the Chukches, and has left some interesting accounts of his observations there (MÜLLER,Sammlung Russischer Geschichten, iii. p. 56).[277]
BILLINGS, with his companions SAUER, SARYTSCHEV, &c., visited Chukch-land in 1791. Among other things, accompanied by Dr. MERK, two interpreters and eight men, he made a journey from Metschigme Bay over the interior of Chukch-land to Yakutsk. Unfortunately the account we have of this remarkable journey is exceedingly incomplete.[278]
FERDINAND VON WRANGEL during his famous Siberian travels was much in contact with the Chukches, and among his other journeys travelled in the winter of 1823 in dog sledges along the coast of the Polar Sea from the Kolyma to Kolyutschin Island (Wrangel,Reise, ii. pp. 176-231). There are besides many notices of the Chukches at other places in the same work (i. pp. 267-293, ii. pp. 156, 168, &c.).
FRIEDRICH VON LÜTKÉ in the course of his circumnavigation of the globe in 1826-29, came in contact with the population of the Chukch peninsula, whom he described in detail in Erman'sArchiv(iii. pp. 446-464). Here it ought to be noted that, while the population on the North coast consists of true Chukches, the coast population of the region which Lütké visited,the stretch between the Anadyr and Cape Deschnev consists of a tribe,Namollo, which differs from the Chukches, and is nearly allied to the Eskimo on the American side of Behring's Straits.
The English Franklin Expedition in thePlover, commanded by Captain MOORE, wintered in 1848-49 at Chukotskojnos, and, both at the winter station and in the course of extensive excursions with dogs along the coast and to the interior of the country, came much into contact with the natives. The observations made during the wintering were published in a work of great importance for a knowledge of the tribes in question by Lieutenant W.H. HOOPER,Ten Months among the Tents of the Tuski, London, 1853.
C VON DITTMAR[279]travelled in 1853 in the north part of Kamchatka, and there came in contact with the reindeer nomads, especially with the Koryäks. The information he gives us about the Chukches (p. 126) he had obtained from the Nischni-Kolymsk merchant, TRIFONOV, who had traded with them for twenty-eight years, and had repeatedly travelled in the interior of the country.
Interesting contributions to a knowledge of the mode of living of the reindeer-Chukches were also collected by Baron G. VON MAYDELL, who, in 1868 and 1869, along with Dr. CARL VON NEUMANN and others, made a journey from Yakutsk by Sredni-Kolymsk and Anjui to Kolyutschin Bay. Unfortunately, with regard to this expedition, I have only had access to some notices in theProceedings of the Royal Geographical Society(vol. 21, London 1877, p. 213), andDas Ausland(1880, p. 861). The proper sketch of the journey is to be found inIsvestija, published by the Siberian division of the Russian Geographical Society, parts 1 and 2.
With reference to the other travellers whose writings are usually quoted as sources for a knowledge of the Chukches, it may be mentioned that STELLER and KRASCHENINNIKOV only touch in passing on the true Chukches, but instead give very instructive and detailed accounts of the Koryäks, who are as nearly allied to the Chukches as the Spaniards to the Portuguese, but yet differ considerably in their mode of life, also that a part of these authors' statements regarding the Chukches do not at all refer to that tribe, but to the Eskimo. It appears indeed that recently, after the former national enmity had ceased, mixed races have arisen among these tribes. But it ought not to be forgotten that they differ widely in origin, although the Chukches as coming at a later date to the coast of the Polar Sea have adopted almost completely the hunting implements and household furniture of the Eskimo; and the Eskimo again, in the districts where they come in contact with the Chukches, have adopted various things from their language.
Like the Lapps and most other European and Asiatic Polar races, the Chukches fall into two divisions speaking the same language and belonging to the same race, but differing considerably in their mode of life. One division consists of reindeer nomads, who, with their often very numerous reindeer herds, wander about between Behring's Straits, and the Indigirka and the Penschina Bays. They live by tending reindeer and by trade, and consider themselves the chief part of the Chukch tribe. The other division of the race are the coast Chukches, who do not own any reindeer, but live in fixed but easily moveable and frequently moved tents along the coast between Chaun Bay and Behring's Status. But beyond East Cape there is found along the coast of Behring's Sea another tribe, nearly allied to the Eskimo. This is Wrangel'sOnkilon, Lütké'sNamollo. Now, however, Chukches also have settled at several points on this line of coast, and a portion of the Eskimo have adopted the language of the superior Chukch race. Thus theinhabitants at St. Lawrence Bay spoke Chukch, with little mixture of foreign words, and differed in their mode of life and appearance only inconsiderably from the Chukches, whom during the course of the winter we learned to know from nearly all parts of the Chukch peninsula. The same was the case with the natives who came on board theVegawhile we sailed past East Cape, and with the two families we visited in Konyam Bay. But the natives in the north-west part of St. Lawrence Island talked an Eskimo dialect, quite different from Chukch. There were, however, many Chukch words incorporated with it. At Port Clarence on the contrary there lived pure Eskimo. Among them we found a Chukch woman who informed us that there were Chukch villages also on the American side of Behring's Strait, north of Prince of Wales Cape. These cannot, however, be very numerous or populous, as they are not mentioned in the accounts of the various English expeditions to those regions, they die not noticed for instance in Dr. JOHN SIMPSON'S instructive memoir on the Eskimo at Behring's Straits.
We were unable during the voyage of theVegato obtain any data for estimating the number of the reindeer-Chukches. But the number of the coast Chukches may be arrived at in the following way. Lieutenant Nordquist collected from the numerous foremen who rested at theVegainformation as to the names of the encampments which are to be found at present on the coast between Chaun Bay and Behring's Straits, and the number of tents at each village. He thus ascertained that the number of the tents in the coast villages amounts to about 400. The number of inhabitants in every tent may be, according to our experience, averaged at five. The population on the line of coast in question may thus amount to about 2,000, at most to 2,500, men, women, and children. The number of the reindeer-Chukches appears to be about the same. The whole population of Chukch Land may thus now amount to 4,000 or 5,000 persons. The Cossack Popov already mentioned, reckoned in 1711 that all theChukches, both reindeer-owning and those with fixed dwellings, numbered 2,000 persons. Thus during the last two centuries, if these estimates are correct, this Polar race has doubled its numbers.
In order to give the reader an idea of the language of the Chukches, I have in a preceding chapter given an extract from the large vocabulary which Nordquist has collected. There appear to be no dialects differing very much from each other. Whether foreign words borrowed from other Asiatic languages have been adopted in Chukch we have not been able to make out. It is certain that no Russian words are used. The language strikes me as articulate and euphonious. It is nearly allied to the Koryäk, but so different from other, both East-Asiatic and American, tongues, that philologists have not yet succeeded in clearing up the relationship of the Chukches to other races.
Like most other Polar tribes, the Chukches now do not belong to any unmixed race. This one is soon convinced of, if he considers attentively the inhabitants of a large tent-village. Some are tall, with tallowlike, raven-black hair, brown complexion, high aquiline nose—in short, with an exterior that reminds us of the descriptions we read of the North American Indians. Others again by their dark hair, slight beard, sunk nose or rather projecting cheek-bones and oblique eyes, remind us distinctly of the Mongolian race, and finally we meet among them with very fair faces, with features and complexion which lead us to suspect that they are descendants of runaways or prisoners of war of purely Russian origin. The most common type is—straight, coarse, black hair of moderate length, the brow tapering upwards, the nose finely formed, but with its root often flattened eyes by no means small, well-developed black eyebrows, projecting cheeks often swollen by frostbite, which is specially observable when the face is looked at from the side, light, slightly brown complexion, which in the young women is often nearly as red and white as in Europeans. The beard is
TYPICAL CHUKCH FACES.TYPICAL CHUKCH FACES.1. Manschetsko a man from Pitlekaj. 2. Young man from Irgunnuk. 3. Chajdodlin a man from Irgunnuk. 4. Reindeer Chukch. 5. Old man from Irgunnuk. 6. Man from Yinretlen.(After photographs by L. Palander.)
TYPICAL CHUKCH FACES.TYPICAL CHUKCH FACES.1., 2. Nautsing, a woman from Pitlekaj. 3., 4. Rotschitlen. 5. Young man from Vankarema.6. Young man from Irgunnuk.(After photographs by L. Palander.)
always scanty. Nearly all are stout and well grown, we saw no cripples among them. The young women often strike one as very pretty if one can rid oneself of the unpleasant impression of the dirt, which is never washed away but by the drifting snow of winter, and of the nauseous train-oil odour which in winter they carry with them from the close tent-chamber. The children nearly always make a pleasant impression by their healthy appearance, and their friendly and becoming behaviour.
The Chukches are a hardy race, but exceedingly indolent when want of food does not force them to exertion. The men during their hunting excursions pass whole days in a cold of -30° to -40° out upon the ice, without protection and without carrying with them food or fuel. In such cases they slake their thirst with snow, and assuage their hunger, if they have been successful in hunting, with the blood and flesh of the animals they have killed. Women nearly naked often during severe cold leave for a while the inner tent, or tent-chamber, where the train-oil lamp maintains a heat that is at times oppressive. A foreigner's visit induces the completely naked children to half creep out from under the curtain of reindeer skin which separates the sleeping chamber from the exterior tent, in which, as it is not heated, the temperature is generally little higher than that of the air outside. In this temperature the mothers do not hesitate to show their naked children, one or two years of age, to visitors for some moments.
Diseases are notwithstanding uncommon, with the exception that in autumn, before the severe cold commences, nearly all suffer from a cough and cold. Very bad skin eruptions and sores also occur so frequently that a stay in the inner tent is thereby commonly rendered disgusting to Europeans. Some of the sores however are merely frostbites, which most Chukches bring on themselves by the carelessness with which during high winds they expose the bare neck, breast and wrists to the lowest temperature. When frostbite has happened it istreated, even though of considerable extent, with extreme carelessness. They endeavour merely to thaw the frozen place as fast as possible partly by chafing, partly by heating. On the other hand we never saw anyone who had had a deep frostbite on the hands or feet, a circumstance which must be ascribed to the serviceable nature of their shoes and gloves. From the beginning of October 1878 to the middle of July 1879 no death appears to have happened at any of the encampments near us. During the same time the number of the inhabitants was increased by two or three births. During the wife's pregnancy the husband was very affectionate to her, gave her his constant company in the tent, kissed and fondled her frequently in the presence of strangers, and appeared to take a pride in showing her to visitors.
We had no opportunity of witnessing any burial or marriage. It appears as if the Chukches sometimes burn their dead, sometimes expose them on thetundraas food for beasts of prey, with weapons, sledges, and household articles. They have perhaps begun to abandon the old custom of burning the dead, since the hunting has fallen off so that the supply of blubber for burning has diminished. I have before described the pits filled with burned bones which Dr. Stuxberg found on the 9th September, 1878, by the bank of a dried-up rivulet. We took them for graves, but not having seen any more at our winter station, we began to entertain doubts as to the correctness of our observation[280]. It is at least certain that the inhabitants of Pitlekaj exclusively bury their dead by laying them out on thetundra.
Regarding the man, buried or exposed in this way, whom Johnsen found on the 15th October, Dr. Almquist, who himself visited the place the next day, makes the following statement—
PLAN OF A CHUKCH GRAVE.PLAN OF A CHUKCH GRAVE.(After a drawing by A. Stuxberg.)
"The place was situated five to seven kilometres from the village Yinretlen, near the bottom of the little valley which runs from this village in a southerly direction into the interior. The body was exposed on a little low knoll only two fathoms across. It was covered with loose snow, and was not frozen very hard. When it was loosened there was no proper pit to be seen in the underlying snow and ice. The corpse lay from true N.N.W. to S.S.E., with the head to the former quarter. Under the head lay two black rounded stones, such as the Chukches use in housekeeping. Besides these there was no trace of anything underlying or covering the corpse. The clothes had been torn by beasts of prey from the body, the back was quite untouched, but the face and breast were much wasted, and the arms and legs almost wholly eaten up. On the knoll evident traces of the wolf, the fox, and the raven were visible. Close to the right side of the corpse had lain the weapons which Johnson had brought home the day before. Near the feet was found a sledge completely broken in pieces, evidently new and smashed on the spot. Not far off, we found lying on the snow pieces of apeskand of foot-coverings, both new and of the finest quality. Beasts of prey had undoubtedly torn them off and pulled them about. On the knoll there were found besides five or six other graves, distinguished by small stones or a wooden block lying on the even ground. Two of the graves were ornamented by a collection of reindeer horns. The severe cold prevented me from ascertaining whether these stones concealed the remains of buried corpses. I considered that I might take the Chukch's head, as otherwise the wolves would doubtless have eaten it up. It was taken on board and skeletonised."
In the spring of 1879, after the snow was melted, we had further opportunities of seeing a large number of burying-places, or more correctly of places where dead Chukches had been laid out. They were marked by stones placed in a peculiar way, and were measured and examined in detail by Dr. Stuxberg, who gives the following description of them:—
TENT FRAME AT PITLEKAJ.TENT FRAME AT PITLEKAJ.(After a drawing by G. Bove.)
"The Chukch graves on the heights south of Pitlekaj and Yinretlen, which were examined by me on the 4th and 7th July, 1879, were nearly fifty in number. Every grave consisted of an oval formed of large lying stones. At one end there was generally a large stone raised on its edge, and from the opposite end there went out one or two pieces of wood lying on the ground. The area within the stone circle was sometimes over-laid with small stones, sometimes free and overgrown with grass. At all the graves, at a distance of four to seven paces from the stone standing on its edge in the longitudinal axis of the grave or a little to the side of it, there was another smaller circle of stones inclosing a heap of reindeer horns, commonly containing also broken seals' skulls and other fragments of bones. Only in one grave were found pieces of human bones. The graves were evidently very old, for the bits of wood at the ends were generally much decayed and almost wholly covered with earth,and the stones were completely overgrown with lichens on the upper side. I estimate the age of these graves at about two hundred years."
The Chukches do not dwell in snow huts, nor in wooden houses, because wood for building is not to be found in the country of the coast Chukches, and because wooden houses are unsuitable for the reindeer nomad. They live summer and winter in tents of a peculiar construction, not used by any other race. For in order to afford protection from the cold the tent is double, the outer envelope inclosing an inner tent or sleeping chamber. This has the form of a parallelopiped, about 3.5 metres long, 2.2 metres broad, and 1.8 metre high. It is surrounded by thick, warm, reindeer skins, and is further covered with a layer of grass. The floor consists of a walrus skin stretched over a foundation of twigs and straw. At night the floor is covered with a, carpet of reindeer skins, which is taken away during the day. The rooms at the sides of the inner tent are also shut off by curtains, and serve as pantries. The inner tent is warmed by three train-oil lamps, which together with the heat given off by the numerous human beings packed together in the tent, raise the temperature to such a height that the inhabitants even during the severest winter cold may be completely naked. The work of the women and the cooking are carried on in winter in this tent-chamber, very often also the calls of nature are obeyed in it. All this conduces to make the atmosphere prevailing there unendurable. There are also, however, cleanlier families, in whose sleeping chamber the air is not so disgusting.
In summer they live during the day, and cook and work, in the outer tent. This consists of seal and walrus skins sewed together, which however are generally so old, hairless, and full of holes, that they appear to have been used by several generations. The skins of the outer tent are stretched over wooden ribs, which are carefully bound together by thongs of skin. The ribs rest partly on posts, partly on tripods of driftwood.The posts are driven into the ground, and the tripods get the necessary steadiness by a heavy stone or a seal-skin sack filled with sand being suspended from the middle of them. In order further to steady the tent a yet heavier stone is in the same way suspended by a strap from the top of the tent-roof, or the summit of the roof is made fast to the ground by thick thongs. At one place a tackle from a wrecked vessel was used for this purpose, being tightened with a block between the top of the roof and an iron hook frozen into the ground. The ribs in every tent are besides supported by T-formed cross stays.
The entrance consists of a low door, which, when necessary, may be closed with a reindeer skin. The floor of the outer tent consists of the bare ground. This is kept very clean, and the few household articles are hung up carefully and in an orderly manner along the walls on the inner and outer sides of the tent. Near the tent are some posts, as high as a man, driven into the ground, with cross pieces on which skin boats, oars, javelins, &c., are laid, and from which fishing and seal nets are suspended.
In the neighbourhood of the dwellings the storehouse is placed. It consists of a cellar excavated at some suitable place. The sites of old Onkilon dwellings are often used for this purpose. The descent is commonly covered with pieces of driftwood which are loaded with stones, at one place the door, or rather the hatch, of the cellar consisted of a whale's shoulder-blade. In consequence of the unlimited confidence which otherwise was wont to prevail between the natives and us, we were surprised to find them unwilling to give theVegamen admittance to their storehouses. Possibly the report of our excavations for old implements at the sites of Onkilon dwellings at Irkaipij had spread to Kolyutschin, and been interpreted as attempts at plunder.
The tents were always situated on the sea shore, generally on the small neck of land which separates the strand lagoons from
CHUKCH OAR.CHUKCH OAR.One-sixteenth of the natural size.
the sea. They are erected and taken down in a few hours. A Chukch family can therefore easily change its place of residence, and does remove very often from one village to another. Sometimes it appears to own the wooden frame of a tent at several places, and in such cases at removal there are taken along only the tent covering, the dogs, and the most necessary skin and household articles. The others are left without inclosure, lock, or watch, at the former dwelling-place, and one is certain to find all untouched on his return. During short stays at a place there are used, even when the temperature of the air is considerably under the freezing-point, exceedingly defective tents or huts made with the skin boats that may happen to be available. Thus a young couple who returned in spring to Pitlekaj lived happy and content in a single thin and ragged tent or conical skin hut which below where it was broadest was only two and a half metres across. An accurate inventory, which I took during the absence of the newly married pair, showed that their whole household furniture consisted of a bad lamp, a good American axe, some reindeer skins, a small piece of mirror, a great many empty preserve tins from theVega, which among other things were used for cooking, a fire-drill, a comb, leather for a pair of moccassins, some sewing implements, and some very incomplete and defective tools.
The boats are made of walrus skin, sewed together and stretched over a light frame-work of wood and pieces of bone. The different parts of the frame-work are bound together with thongs of skin or strings of whalebone. In form and size the Chukches' large boat,atkuat, called by the Russiansbaydar,corresponds completely with the Greenlander'sumiakor woman's boat. It is so light that four men can take it upon their shoulders, and yet so roomy that thirty men can be conveyed in it. One seldom seesanatkuat, or boats intended for only one man; they are much worse built and uglier than the Greenlander'skayak. The large boats are rowed with broad-bladed oars, of which every man or woman manages only one. By means of these oars a sufficient number of rowers can for a little raise the speed of the boat to ten kilometres per hour. Like the Greenlanders, however, they often cease rowing in order to rest, laugh, and chatter, then row furiously for some minutes rest themselves again, row rapidly, and so on. When the sea is covered with thin newly formed ice they put two men in the fore of the boat with one leg over in order to trample the ice in pieces. During winter the boats are laid up, and instead the dog-sledges are put in order. These are of a different construction from the Greenland sledges, commonly very light and narrow, made of some flexible kind of wood, and shod with plates of whales' jawbones, whales' ribs, or whalebone. In order to improve the running, the runners before the start are carefully covered with a layer of ice from two or three millimetres in thickness by repeatedly pouring water over them.[281]The different parts of the sledge are not fastened together by nails, but are bound together by strips of skin or strings of whalebone. On the low uncomfortable seat there commonly lies a piece of skin, generally of the Polar bear. The number of dogs that are harnessed to each sledge is variable. I have seen a Chukch riding behind two small lean dogs, who however appeared to draw their heavy load over even hard snow without any extraordinary exertion. At other sledges I have seen ten or twelvedogs, and a sledge laden with goods was drawn by a team of twenty-eight. The dogs are generally harnessed one pair before another to a long line common to all,[282]sometimes in the case of short excursions more than two abreast, or so irregularly that their position in relation to the sledge appears to have depended merely on the accidental length of the draught-line and the caprice of the driver. The dogs are guided not by reins but by continual crying and shouting, accompanied by lashes from a long whip. There is, besides, in every properly equipped sledge a short and thick staff mounted with iron, with a number of iron rings attached to the upper end. When nothing else will do, this staff is thrown at the offending animal. The staff is so heavy that the animal may readily get its death by such a throw. The dogs know this, and in consequence are so afraid of this grim implement that the rattling of the rings is sufficient to induce them to put forth extreme efforts. During rests the team is tied to the staff, which is driven into the snow. The dog harness is made of inch-wide straps of skin, forming a neck or shoulder band, united on both sides by a strap to a girth, to one side of which the draught strap is fastened. Thanks to the excellent protection against the harness galling which the bushy coat of the dogs affords, little attention is needed for the harness, and I have never seen a single dog that was idle in consequence of sores from the harness. On the other hand, their feet are often hurt by the sharp snow. Onthis account the equipment of every sledge embraces a number of dog shoes of the appearance shown in the accompanying woodcut. They are used only in case of need.
DOG SHOE.DOG SHOE.One-third of natural size.
The Chukch dogs are of the same breed, but smaller, than the Eskimo dogs in Danish Greenland. They resemble wolves, are long-legged, long-haired, and shaggy. The ears are short, commonly upright, their colour very variable, from black or white, and black or white spotted, to grey or yellowish-brown. For innumerable generations they have been used as draught animals, while as watch dogs they have not been required in a country where theft or robbery appears never to take place. The power of barking they have therefore completely lost, or perhaps they never possessed it. Even a European may come into the outer tent without any of the dogs there informing their owners sleeping in the inner tent by a sound of the foreigner's arrival.
On the other hand, they are good though slow draught animals, being capable of long-continued exertion. They are as dirty and as peaceable as their owners. There are no fights made between dog-teams belonging to different tents, and they are rare between the dogs of an encampment and those of strangers. In Europe dogs are the friends of their masters and the enemies of each other, here they are the friends of each other and the slaves of their masters. In winter they appear in case of necessity to get along with very little food, they are then exceedingly lean, and for the most part are motionless in some snow-drift. They seldom leave the neighbourhood of the tent alone, not even to search for food or hunt at their own hand and for their own account. This appears to me so much the more remarkable, as they are often several days, I am inclined to say weeks, in succession without getting any food from theirmasters. A piece of a whale, with the skin and part of the flesh adhering, washed out of frozen sandy strata thus lay untouched some thousand paces from Pitlekaj, and the neighbourhood of the tents, where the hungry dogs were constantly wandering about, formed, as has been already stated, a favourite haunt for ptarmigan and hares during winter. Young dogs some months old are already harnessed along with the team in order that they may in time become accustomed to the draught tackle. During the cold season the dogs are permitted to live in the outer tent, the females with their young even in the inner. We had two Scotch collies with us on theVega. They at first frightened the natives very much with their bark. To the dogs of Chukches they soon took the same superior standing as the European claims for himself in relation to the savage. The dog was distinctly preferred by the female Chukch canine population, and that too without the fights to which such favour on the part of the fair commonly gives rise. A numerous canine progeny of mixed Scotch-Chukch breed has thus arisen at Pitlekaj. The young dogs had a complete resemblance to their father, and the natives were quite charmed with them.
When a dog is to be killed the Chukch stabs it with his spear, and then lets it bleed to death. Even when the scarcity was so great that the natives at Pitlekaj and Yinretlen lived mainly on the food we gave them, they did not eat the dogs they killed. On the other hand they had no objection to eating a shot crow.
When the Chukch goes out on the ice to hunt seals he takes his dogs with him, and it is these which take home the catch, commonly with the draught-line fastened directly to the head of the killed seal, which is then turned on its back and dragged over the ice without anything under it. One of the inhabitants of Yinretlen returned from the open water off the coast after a successful hunting expedition with five seals, of whichthe smallest was laid on the sledge, the others being fastened one behind the other in a long row. After the last was drawn a long pole, which was used in setting the net.
The dress of the Chukches is made of reindeer or seal-skin. The former, because it is warmer, is preferred as material for the winter dress. The men in winter are clad in twopesks, that which is worn next the body is of thin skin with the hair inwards, the outer is of thick skin with the hair outwards. Besides, they wear, when it rains or wet snow falls, a great coat of gut or of cotton cloth, which they callcalico. On one occasion I saw such an overcoat made of a kind of reindeer-chamois leather, which was of excellent quality and evidently of home manufacture. It had been originally white, but was ornamented with broad brown painted borders. Some red and blue woollen shirts which we gave them were also worn above the skin clothes, and by then showy colours awakened great satisfaction in the owners. The Chukchpeskis shorter than the Lapp one. It does not reach quite to the knees, and is confined at the waist with a belt. Under thepeskare worn two pairs of trousers, the inner pair with the hair inwards, and the outer with the hair outwards. The trousers are well made, close fitting, and terminate above the foot. The foot-covering consists of reindeer or seal-skin moccasins, which above the foot are fastened to the trousers in the way common among the Lapps. The soles are of walrus-skin or bear-skin, and have the hair side inwards. On the other parts of the moccasin the hair is outwards. Within the shoes are seal-skin stockings and hay. The head covering consists of a hood embroidered with beads, over which in severe cold is drawn an outer hood bordered with dog-skin. The outer hood is often quite close under the chin, and extends in a very well-fitting way over the shoulders. To a complete dress there also belong a skin neckerchief or boa, and a neck covering of multiple reindeer-skins, or of different kinds of skins sewn together in chess-board-like squares. In summer and far intothe autumn the men go bareheaded, although they clip the hair on the crown of the head close to the root.
During the warm season of the year a number of the winter wraps are laid off in proportion to the increase of the heat, so that the dress finally consists merely of apesk, an overcoat, and a pair of trousers. The summer moccassins are often as long in the leg as our sea-boots. In the tent the men wear only short trousers reaching to the hip, together with leather belts (health-belts) at the waist and on the arms. The man's dress is not much ornamented. On the other hand the men often wear strings of beads in the ears, or a skin band set with large, tastefully arranged beads or a leather band with some large beads on the brow. The leather band they will not willingly part with, and a woman told us that the beads in it indicate the number of enemies the wearer has killed. I am, however, quite certain that this was only an empty boast. Probably our informant referred to a tradition handed down from former warlike periods to the present time, and thus we have here only a Chukch form of the boasting about martial feats common even among civilised nations.
To the dress of the men there belongs further a screen for the eyes, which is often beautifully ornamented with beads and silver mounting. This screen is worn especially in spring as a protection from the strong sunlight reflected from the snow-plains. At this season of the year snow-blindness is very common, but notwithstanding this snow-spectacles of the kind which the Eskimo and even the Samoyeds use are unknown here.
The men are not tattooed, but have sometimes a black or red cross painted on the cheek. They wear the hair cut close to the root, with the exception of a short tuft right on the crown of the head and a short fringe above the brow. The women have long hair, parted right in the middle, and plaited along with strings of beads into plaits which hang down by theears. They are generally tattooed on the face, sometimes also on the arms or other parts of the body. The tattooing is done by degrees, possibly certain lines are first made at marriage.