HOW TO USE THE BOOK

When gathering flowers with a view to ascertaining their names with the help of the botany, the whole plant—root, stem, leaves, flowers, buds, and fruit—should be secured, if possible. This will avoid much uncertainty in the work.

The anthers are best seen in the unopened buds, and the ovary in old flowers or those gone to seed. A cross-section of the ovary will show the number of its cells.

The flowers should be sorted into colors, and each in turn looked for in its own color-section. In arranging the flowers according to color, some difficulty has been experienced, because the pink blends so gradually into the purple, and the purple into white, etc., that it has been impossible sometimes to say accurately to which section a flower rightly belongs. In such a case search must be made in the other probable section. Sometimes the same flower occurs in several colors, in which case it is usually put into the section in whose color it most frequently occurs. In the Red Section have been included flowers of a scarlet hue, not those of crimson or magenta hues, as these have a tendency to merge into pink or purple. Flowers of a greenish-white are usually put into the White Section, those of more decided green into the Miscellaneous.

It is an excellent plan for the student to write a careful description of his plant before beginning to look for it in the book; commencing with the root, passing on to stem, leaves, inflorescence, calyx, corolla, etc., taking the order of the technical descriptions in the book. This will serve to do away with that vacillating condition of mind which is often the result ofreading a number of plant-descriptions before fixing firmly in mind the characters of the specimen under consideration.

A magnifying-glass—or a small dissecting microscope and a good Zeiss lens, if more careful work is to be done,—a couple of dissecting needles, a pocket-knife, and a small three or four-inch measure, having one of the inches divided into lines, will be required for examining specimens.

It is also a good plan to make a note of the date and place of collection of all plants, as it is often of great interest to know these facts at some future time.

Plants are grouped into great orders, or families, which are made up of a number of genera, each genus consisting of a number of species. Every plant has two Latin names; the first a generic name, answering to the last name of a person; the second a specific name, answering to a person's given name. The latter is usually descriptive of some quality or character of the plant, the name of the place where found, or of its discoverer, or of some person in whose honor it is named. This dual name serves to clearly distinguish the species from all others, especially when the name of the person by whom the specific name was bestowed is added.

Each plant-family bears an English title, which is usually the name of its best-known genus. Thus the orderLeguminosæis known as the "Pea Family" becauseLathyrus, or the pea, is its best-known genus. In many instances the English names borne by orders in the Eastern States have no significance with us, as the type genus is not found in our flora. In such cases we have given the name of the genus best known among us, to which we have added the other; thus, "Baby-eyes or Waterleaf Family."

Most of our plants have common English names, and the same plant is often known by one name in one locality and by another in another. Hence, while these names are often pretty and apt, they cannot serve for the accurate identification of the plant. For this we must consult its Latin name, by which it is known all over the world.

Wherever the terms used are not understood, reference should be made to the "Explanation of Terms" or to the Glossary.

For identification of species not found in the present work, other books should be consulted. The two large volumes of the botany of the Geological Survey of California are the most complete of anything thus far published. In addition to these, "The Synoptical Flora of North America," as far as published (theGamopetalæ, theCompositæ, and some orders of thePolypetalæ), furnishes valuable aid. Professor E.L. Greene's works, "The Botany of the Bay Region," "Pittonia," and "Flora Franciscana," furnish excellent plant-descriptions for the more advanced botanist. The author's technical descriptions have in every instance been verified by comparison with one or more of the above works.

Miss Eastwood's little volume, recently published as Part Second of "Bergen's Elements of Botany," (and also issued in separate form), is recommended for use in connection with the present work, as it embodies in compact form a general view of the method of classification of plants, showing their places in the plant-world and their relations to one another. It also contains very clear descriptions of plant-families. To the student who becomes interested in knowing more about the structure of plants, Gray's "Structural Botany" will prove useful; and the large work of Oliver and Kerner (translated from the German) will prove a fascinating book.

[The following simple definitions of the more common terms used have been mostly taken or adapted from the works of Asa Gray and others, and will prove useful to those unacquainted with botany, or to those whose memories require refreshing.]

Therootis that portion of the plant which grows downward, fixing it to the soil, and absorbing nourishment from the latter. True roots produce nothing but root-branches or rootlets.

Simple or unbranched roots are named according to their shapes—

conical, when like the carrot;napiform, when like the turnip;fusiform, when like the long radish.

conical, when like the carrot;

napiform, when like the turnip;

fusiform, when like the long radish.

Multiple, or branched, roots may be—

fascicled, or bunched, as in the dahlia;tubercular, when furnished with small tubers;fibrous, when threadlike.

fascicled, or bunched, as in the dahlia;

tubercular, when furnished with small tubers;

fibrous, when threadlike.

Thestemis the ascending axis of the plant, which usually bears the leaves, flowers, and fruit. The points on the stem to which the leaves are fastened are called thenodes; and the portions of stem between the nodes are called theinternodes. The angle formed by the upper side of the leaf and the stem is called theaxil.

Stems aboveground are classed as—

erect, when growing upright;procumbent, when lying on the ground without rooting;decumbent, when lying on the ground with the tip ascending;diffuse, when loosely spreading;creeping, when growing on the ground and rooting.

erect, when growing upright;

procumbent, when lying on the ground without rooting;

decumbent, when lying on the ground with the tip ascending;

diffuse, when loosely spreading;

creeping, when growing on the ground and rooting.

Stems underground are classed asrhizomes(orrootstocks)tubers,corms, andbulbs, the forms passing into one another by gradations.

Arhizome, orrootstock, is a horizontal underground stem. It is sometimes thick, fleshy, or woody, as in the iris;atuberis a short, much thickened rootstock, having eyes or buds of which the potato is an example;acormis a depressed and rounded, solid rootstock; it may be called a solid bulb; the garden cyclamen is an example;abulbis a leaf-bud, commonly underground, with fleshy scales or coats; the lily is an example.

Arhizome, orrootstock, is a horizontal underground stem. It is sometimes thick, fleshy, or woody, as in the iris;

atuberis a short, much thickened rootstock, having eyes or buds of which the potato is an example;

acormis a depressed and rounded, solid rootstock; it may be called a solid bulb; the garden cyclamen is an example;

abulbis a leaf-bud, commonly underground, with fleshy scales or coats; the lily is an example.

Leavesare the green expansions borne by the stem, out-spread in the air and light, in which assimilation is carried on. They may be said to be the stomachs of the plant. A typical leaf consists of three parts—theblade, thefoot-stalk(orpetiole), and a pair ofstipules. Yet any one of these parts may be absent.

Thebladeis the expanded portion of the leaf and the part to which the wordleaf, in its commonest sense, is applied;thestipulesare small, usually leaflike bodies borne at the base of the petiole, usually one on either side;thepetioleis the stalk of the leaf.

Thebladeis the expanded portion of the leaf and the part to which the wordleaf, in its commonest sense, is applied;

thestipulesare small, usually leaflike bodies borne at the base of the petiole, usually one on either side;

thepetioleis the stalk of the leaf.

Leavesaresimple, when having but one blade;compound, when having more than one, when each blade is called aleaflet.

Compound leaves are said to be—

pinnate, when the leaflets are arranged along the sides of a petiole, or rather of its prolongation, the rachis;abruptly pinnate, with an even number of leaflets;odd-pinnate, with an odd leaflet at the end;palmate, ordigitate, when the leaflets all diverge from the summit of the petiole, like the fingers of a hand.

pinnate, when the leaflets are arranged along the sides of a petiole, or rather of its prolongation, the rachis;

abruptly pinnate, with an even number of leaflets;

odd-pinnate, with an odd leaflet at the end;

palmate, ordigitate, when the leaflets all diverge from the summit of the petiole, like the fingers of a hand.

The venation, or veining, of leaves relates to the mode in which the woody tissue, in the form of ribs, veins, etc., is distributed in the cellular tissue.

There are two principle modes—

theparallel-veined, of which the iris is an example;thereticulated-veined, ornetted-veined, of which the Elm is an example.

theparallel-veined, of which the iris is an example;

thereticulated-veined, ornetted-veined, of which the Elm is an example.

Small veins are calledveinlets.

As to general form, or outline, leaves are:—

Those broadest in the middle—

peltate, or shield-shaped, when rounded, with the stem attached to the center, or near it—as in the garden nasturtium;orbicular, when circular in outline, or nearly so;oval, when having a flowing outline, with the breadth considerably more than half the length, and both ends alike;elliptical, when having a flowing outline, twice or thrice as long as broad, and both ends alike;oblong, when nearly twice or thrice as long as broad;linear, when narrow, several times longer than wide, and of about the same width throughout;acerose, when needle-shaped—like the Pine.

peltate, or shield-shaped, when rounded, with the stem attached to the center, or near it—as in the garden nasturtium;

orbicular, when circular in outline, or nearly so;

oval, when having a flowing outline, with the breadth considerably more than half the length, and both ends alike;

elliptical, when having a flowing outline, twice or thrice as long as broad, and both ends alike;

oblong, when nearly twice or thrice as long as broad;

linear, when narrow, several times longer than wide, and of about the same width throughout;

acerose, when needle-shaped—like the Pine.

Those broadest at the base—

deltoid, when having the triangular shape of the Greek letterdelta;ovate, when having an outline like the section of a hen's-egg, the broader end downward;lanceolate, or lance-shaped, when several times longer than broad, and tapering upward, or both upward and downward;subulate, when shaped like an awl;cordate, when ovate, with a heart-shaped base;reniform, when like the last, only rounder and broader than long;auriculate, when having a pair of small blunt projections, or ears, at the base;sagittate, or arrow-shaped, when those ears are acute and turned downward, the body of the leaf tapering upward;hastate, or halberd-shaped, when the ears or lobes point outward.

deltoid, when having the triangular shape of the Greek letterdelta;

ovate, when having an outline like the section of a hen's-egg, the broader end downward;

lanceolate, or lance-shaped, when several times longer than broad, and tapering upward, or both upward and downward;

subulate, when shaped like an awl;

cordate, when ovate, with a heart-shaped base;

reniform, when like the last, only rounder and broader than long;

auriculate, when having a pair of small blunt projections, or ears, at the base;

sagittate, or arrow-shaped, when those ears are acute and turned downward, the body of the leaf tapering upward;

hastate, or halberd-shaped, when the ears or lobes point outward.

Those broadest at the apex—

obovate, when inversely ovate;oblanceolate, when inversely lanceolate;spatulate, when rounded above, and long and narrow below, like a druggist's spatula;cuneate, or wedge-shaped, when broad above, tapering by straight lines to an acute base;obcordate, when inversely cordate.

obovate, when inversely ovate;

oblanceolate, when inversely lanceolate;

spatulate, when rounded above, and long and narrow below, like a druggist's spatula;

cuneate, or wedge-shaped, when broad above, tapering by straight lines to an acute base;

obcordate, when inversely cordate.

Sometimes no one of the above terms will describe a leaf, and it becomes necessary to combine two of them; as,linear-spatulate,ovate-lanceolate, etc.

Leaves are classified according to their apices; as—

emarginate, when having a decided terminal notch;truncate, when abruptly cut off;

emarginate, when having a decided terminal notch;

truncate, when abruptly cut off;

obtuse, when ending in a blunt or roundish extremity;acute, when ending in an acute angle, without special tapering;acuminate, when tapering into a narrow, more or less prolonged end;mucronate, when abruptly tipped with a small, short point.

obtuse, when ending in a blunt or roundish extremity;

acute, when ending in an acute angle, without special tapering;

acuminate, when tapering into a narrow, more or less prolonged end;

mucronate, when abruptly tipped with a small, short point.

Leaves are classified according to their margins; as—

entire, when the margin is completely filled out to an even line;repand, orundulate, when the margin is a wavy line;dentate, ortoothed, when the teeth point outward;crenate, orscalloped, when dentate, with the teeth rounded;serrate, when having small sharp teeth directed forward;incised, when cut by sharp and irregular incisions more or less deeply;lobed, when cut not more than half-way to the midrib, and the divisions or their angles are rounded;cleft, when cut half-way down or more, and the lobes or sinuses are narrow or acute;parted, when the cutting reaches almost but not quite to the midrib;divided, when the blade is cut into distinct parts, thus making the leaf compound.

entire, when the margin is completely filled out to an even line;

repand, orundulate, when the margin is a wavy line;

dentate, ortoothed, when the teeth point outward;

crenate, orscalloped, when dentate, with the teeth rounded;

serrate, when having small sharp teeth directed forward;

incised, when cut by sharp and irregular incisions more or less deeply;

lobed, when cut not more than half-way to the midrib, and the divisions or their angles are rounded;

cleft, when cut half-way down or more, and the lobes or sinuses are narrow or acute;

parted, when the cutting reaches almost but not quite to the midrib;

divided, when the blade is cut into distinct parts, thus making the leaf compound.

All these terms may be modified by the wordspinnateorpalmate; thus—pinnately parted,pinnately divided,palmately parted,palmately divided, etc.; also by the adjectivesonce,twice,thrice, etc.

Leaves vary as to texture, and may be—

coriaceous, or leathery;succulent, or juicy;scarious, or dry and thin;fleshy, or thick;herbaceous, or thin.

coriaceous, or leathery;

succulent, or juicy;

scarious, or dry and thin;

fleshy, or thick;

herbaceous, or thin.

According to their arrangement on the stem, leaves are—

alternate, when distributed singly at different heights on the stem;opposite, when two stand opposite each other at the nodes;whorled, when more than two are borne at a node, equidistant in a circle around the stem.

alternate, when distributed singly at different heights on the stem;

opposite, when two stand opposite each other at the nodes;

whorled, when more than two are borne at a node, equidistant in a circle around the stem.

Inflorescenceis a term commonly applied to the mode of flowering—i.e.to the arrangement of blossoms on the stem and their relative positions to one another.

Apeduncleis the stem of a solitary flower, or the main stem of a flower-cluster;ascapeis a peduncle growing from the ground;apedicelis the stem of each flower in a cluster;abractis a small floral leaf;aninvolucreis a collection of bracts around a flower-cluster or around a single flower.

Apeduncleis the stem of a solitary flower, or the main stem of a flower-cluster;

ascapeis a peduncle growing from the ground;

apedicelis the stem of each flower in a cluster;

abractis a small floral leaf;

aninvolucreis a collection of bracts around a flower-cluster or around a single flower.

Flowers may be solitary or clustered.

Solitary flowers or flower-clusters are—

terminal, when borne at the summit of the stem;axillary, when borne in the axils of the leaves.

terminal, when borne at the summit of the stem;

axillary, when borne in the axils of the leaves.

A flower-cluster is called—

araceme, when the flowers are arranged along the axis upon pedicels nearly equal in length;acorymb, when the flowers are arranged as in the raceme, with the lower pedicels elongated, making the cluster flat-topped;anumbel, when the pedicels arise from the same point, like the rays of an umbrella, and the cluster is flat-topped;

araceme, when the flowers are arranged along the axis upon pedicels nearly equal in length;

acorymb, when the flowers are arranged as in the raceme, with the lower pedicels elongated, making the cluster flat-topped;

anumbel, when the pedicels arise from the same point, like the rays of an umbrella, and the cluster is flat-topped;

apanicle, when compound, irregularly made up of a number of racemes;aspike, when like a raceme, the flowers being without pedicels;aspadix, when it is a fleshy spike, generally enveloped by a large bract, called aspathe, as in the calla-lily;anament, orcatkin, when it is a pendent spike, with scaly bracts, like the Willow;ahead, when it is a shortened spike, with a globular form;acyme, when it is branched and flat-topped, usually compound, with the older flowers in the center of each simple cluster.

apanicle, when compound, irregularly made up of a number of racemes;

aspike, when like a raceme, the flowers being without pedicels;

aspadix, when it is a fleshy spike, generally enveloped by a large bract, called aspathe, as in the calla-lily;

anament, orcatkin, when it is a pendent spike, with scaly bracts, like the Willow;

ahead, when it is a shortened spike, with a globular form;

acyme, when it is branched and flat-topped, usually compound, with the older flowers in the center of each simple cluster.

Acomplete flowerconsists ofstamensandpistils(the organs of reproduction), andcalyxandcorolla(the floral envelops which protect the stamens and pistils). But any one of these organs may be absent.

Thecalyxis the outer floral envelop, which is more often green, though it is sometimes colored. It may consist of a number of separate parts, calledsepals, or these may be more or less united.Thecorollais the inner floral envelop. It is usually colored, and forms the most beautiful feature of the flower, and plays an important part in attracting insects to it, which may carry on the work of fertilization. It may consist of a number of separate parts, calledpetals, or these may be more or less united, in which case the corolla is said to begamopetalous. When the calyx and corolla are much alike, and seem like one floral circle, this is referred to as aperianth.Thestamensandpistilsare called theessential organsof a flower, because they are necessary to the maturing of the fruit.

Thecalyxis the outer floral envelop, which is more often green, though it is sometimes colored. It may consist of a number of separate parts, calledsepals, or these may be more or less united.

Thecorollais the inner floral envelop. It is usually colored, and forms the most beautiful feature of the flower, and plays an important part in attracting insects to it, which may carry on the work of fertilization. It may consist of a number of separate parts, calledpetals, or these may be more or less united, in which case the corolla is said to begamopetalous. When the calyx and corolla are much alike, and seem like one floral circle, this is referred to as aperianth.

Thestamensandpistilsare called theessential organsof a flower, because they are necessary to the maturing of the fruit.

Perfect flowershave both sets of essential organs.Imperfect flowershave but one set of essential organs.

Perfect flowershave both sets of essential organs.

Imperfect flowershave but one set of essential organs.

Staminate(or male)flowershave only stamens;Pistillate(or female)flowershave only pistils.Neutral flowershave neither.

Staminate(or male)flowershave only stamens;

Pistillate(or female)flowershave only pistils.

Neutral flowershave neither.

Thestamenconsists of two parts—thefilamentand theanther. The filament is the stalk of the stamen. The anther is the little case holding thepollen, or powdery substance, which, falling upon the stigma, is conducted downward into the ovary, where it quickens the ovules into life. The anther normally consists of two cells, which more often open lengthwise for the discharge of the pollen, though they sometimes open by terminal pores or chinks, or by uplifting lids.

Stamens sometimes undergo a morphological change, taking the form of scales or other bodies (as is the case in many of ourBrodiæas), when they are calledstaminodia.

Thepistilis the organ occupying the center of the flower. It consists of three parts—theovary, or the enlarged part below, consisting of one or more cells or cavities, and containing the ovules, or unfertilized seed; thestyle, or the stem which upholds the stigma; thestigma, or the roughened portion which receives the pollen.

The pistil issimple, when it has but one ovary, style, stigma, etc.;compound, if any one of these is duplicated.

Thefruitis the ripened ovary. After the ovules have been fertilized, the ovary is called apericarp. Fruits may be eitherfleshyordry.

The following are some of the principal kinds of dry fruits:—

Acapsuleis a dry, dehiscent (splitting) fruit, composed of more than one carpel or division;anakeneis a small, dry, hard, one-celled, one-seeded indehiscent fruit;afollicleis a pod formed from a single pistil, dehiscing along the ventral suture only;alegumeis a simple pericarp, opening by both seams.asamarais a dry, indehiscent fruit, having a wing.

Acapsuleis a dry, dehiscent (splitting) fruit, composed of more than one carpel or division;

anakeneis a small, dry, hard, one-celled, one-seeded indehiscent fruit;

afollicleis a pod formed from a single pistil, dehiscing along the ventral suture only;

alegumeis a simple pericarp, opening by both seams.

asamarais a dry, indehiscent fruit, having a wing.

The following are some of the principal kinds of fleshy fruits:—

Apomeis a fruit like an apple or pear;thepepo, orgourd, fruit is like that of the melon, squash, etc.;thedrupeis like that of the cherry, plum, and peach;theberryis like that of the grape, currant, and tomato.

Apomeis a fruit like an apple or pear;

thepepo, orgourd, fruit is like that of the melon, squash, etc.;

thedrupeis like that of the cherry, plum, and peach;

theberryis like that of the grape, currant, and tomato.

Aggregate fruitsare those in which a cluster of carpels, all of one flower, are crowded upon the receptacle into one mass; as in the raspberry and blackberry.

[To avoid too long technical descriptions in the body of the work, a few of the more important plant families and genera have been inserted below, to which reference has been made in the technical descriptions.]

Cruciferæ.Mustard Family.

Herbs with pungent, watery juice.Leaves.—Alternate; without stipules; entire or divided.Flowers.—Generally in racemes.Sepals.—Four.Petals.—Four; usually with narrowed base or claw; the blades spreading to form a cross.Stamens.—Six; two of them shorter than the other four.Ovary.—Two-celled; rarely one-celled. Style undivided, or none. Stigma entire or two-lobed.Fruit.—A silique—i.e.a capsule, in which the walls separate upward away from a central partition.

The Mustard family is a very large one, comprising over a hundred and seventy genera, and containing between one and two thousand species. It is widely distributed over all parts of the world, but is most abundantly represented in the cooler or temperate regions. It furnishes us with many useful plants; such as the mustard, horseradish, radish, cabbage, turnip, cauliflower, etc.

The genera of this order are very closely allied, and very difficult of discrimination. The fruit, as well as the flower, is necessary in the study of any given species.

Leguminosæ.Pea Family.

The orderLeguminosæis divided into three well-marked sub-orders—the Pea family proper, the Brasiletto family, and the Mimosa family. But as all our genera, saveCercis, fall under the first, we shall describe that only.

Papilionaceæ.Pea Family proper.

Herbs, shrubs, or trees.Leaves.—Usually alternate; compound; with stipules; the latter sometimes transformed into thorns or tendrils.Flowers.—Seldom solitary; usually in spikes, racemes or umbels.Calyx.—Five-toothed; often bilabiate.Corolla.—Irregular; of five petals;papilionaceous—i.e.the two lower petals more or less coherent, forming thekeel; the two lateral ones often adherent to the keel, called thewings; the upper petal called thestandardorbanner. Stamens and pistil inclosed in the keel.Stamens.—Ten; their filaments either coherent into a tube surrounding the pistil; or nine of them united into a sheath, open above, the tenth lying in front of the cleft; or rarely all distinct.Ovary.—Superior; one-celled.Style.—Simple and incurved.Stigma.—Simple.Fruit.—A two-valved pod, of which the garden pea is typical.

The Pea family, including its three sub-orders, is one of the most important plant-families known. It is distributed over almost the entire world, and furnishes some of the most valuable products to man. The Judas-tree, the numerous acacias, and the sweet pea, are well known in our gardens; while among our most valuable vegetables are the bean, the pea, and the lentil. The clover and alfalfa are extremely important forage plants.

The order furnishes several important timber-trees, in different parts of the world, such as the Rosewood, the Laburnum, and the Locust; and yields numerous products of economic importance, such as licorice, senna, gum Senegal, gum Arabic, gum tragacanth, balsam of copaiba, balsam of Tolu, indigo, logwood, red sandalwood, etc.

Compositæ.Composite Family.

Herbs, rarely shrubs.Leaves.—Usually alternate; without stipules.Flowers.—In a close head on a commonreceptacle, surrounded by aninvolucre, whose divisions are calledscalesorbracts.Calyx-tube.—Adnate to the one-celled ovary; its limb (called apappus) crowning its summit in the form of bristles, awns, scales, teeth, etc.; or cup-shaped; or else entirely absent.Corolla.—Either strap-shaped or tubular; in the latter chiefly five-lobed.Stamens.—Five (rarely four); on the corolla; their anthers united in a tube.Style.—Two-cleft at the apex.Fruit.—An akene. Flowers with strap-shaped corollas are calledray flowersorrays. Thetubular flowerscompose the disk.

The Composite family is the largest of all plant-families, numbering twelve thousand species and upward, and is widelydistributed over the world. In the cooler parts of the world the plants are mostly herbaceous, but toward the tropics they gradually become shrubs, and even trees. In North America they comprise about one sixth of all the flowering plants.

For so large a family there are comparatively few useful plants found in it. Among the products of the order, may be mentioned chicory, lettuce, the artichoke, the vegetable oyster, arnica, chamomile-flowers, wormwood, absinth, elecampane, coltsfoot, taraxacum, oil of tansy, etc. But our gardens owe to this family innumerable beautiful and showy plants such as the China aster, the chrysanthemum, the cosmos, zinnia, dahlia, ageratum, gaillardia, coreopsis, sunflower, etc., etc.

The plants of this family are quickly recognized by the flowers being always borne in a head and surrounded by an involucre, and presenting the appearance of a single flower. The heads are sometimes made up entirely of one kind of flower. The dandelion and the chicory are examples of a head made up entirely of ray-flowers, while the thistle consists of tubular flowers only. The more common arrangement, however, is the mixed one, comprising both tubular disk-flowers and strap-shaped rays, as in the daisy. The seeds are usually furnished with silken down or a delicate parachute to waft them abroad.

The identification of the flowers of this order is a very difficult matter, even for experienced botanists.

Labiatæ.Mint Family.

Herbs with square stems.Leaves.—Opposite; usually aromatic.Flowers.—Axillary, or often in whorls or heads.Corolla.—Bilabiate (rarely regular).Stamens.—Four (or only two).Ovary.—Deeply four-lobed; becoming four seedlike nutlets. Style single; arising from the midst of the lobes.

The plants of this order are easily recognized by the traits in the above description. But some of these traits are shared by the plants of the Figwort family, which have also the bilabiate corolla. The distinguishing character, however, is always to be found in thefour-lobed ovaryfor the Figworts have a two-celled ovary.

This order is a large one; and there are no noxious orpoisonous plants to be found in it. On the contrary, it comprises many useful plants, too well known almost to need enumeration—such as the lavender, peppermint, sage, horehound, thyme, spearmint,horsemint, pennyroyal, etc.

Ceanothus, L. Buckthorn Family.

Shrubs or small trees, sometimes spinescent.Leaves.—Opposite or alternate; petioled; variously toothed or entire.Flowers.—Blue or white; small, usually not more than two or three lines across; borne in showy thyrsoid or cymose clusters.Calyx.—Petaloid; with short tube and five-cleft border, the lobes acute and connivent.Petals.—Five; long-clawed; hooded; inserted on the calyx-tube.Stamens.—Five; opposite the petals; long exserted.Ovary.—Three-lobed; three-celled. Style short; three-cleft.Fruit.—Dry; consisting of three dehiscent nutlets; sometimes crested.

The genusCeanothusis mainly a Western one. Of its thirty or more species, two thirds are found in the region between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean.

In California we have about twenty species; and these all hybridize to such an extent, that often the determination of any given species is a very difficult matter. The genus reaches its culmination in the mountains of Santa Cruz County, where there are many beautiful species. Many of the species are commonly known as "California lilac."

Lupinus, Catullus. Pea Family.

Leaves.—Palmately divided, with from one to sixteen leaflets; stipules adnate; seldom conspicuous.Leaflets.—Entire; sessile.Flowers.—In terminal racemes, whorled or scattered.Calyx.—Deeply bilabiate; upper lip notched; lower usually entire, or occasionally three-toothed or cleft.Corolla.—Papilionaceous.Standard.—Broad, with sides reflexed.Wings.—Falcate; oblong; commonly slightly united at the tip in front of and inclosing the falcate, usually slender, pointed keel.Stamens.—With their filaments united in a tube; of two forms; five with longer and basifixed anthers; the alternate five with shorter and versatile ones.Pod.—Compressed; straight; two-valved. Style slender. Stigma bearded.

The Lupines are mostly plants of Western America. In fact, they are so abundant between the Rocky Mountains andthe Pacific Ocean that that territory is known among botanists as the "Lupine Region."

The species, which are very numerous, are difficult of determination, requiring very long technical descriptions, which cannot be given in a work like the present. For this reason we have been able to give but a few of the more easily recognized.

We have in California upwards of forty species. They are of little economic importance, although one or two species have been found very useful in the reclaiming of sand-dunes. Several species have been cultivated for ornament. The leaves are often beautiful and the flower-clusters showy.

The generic name is supposed to come from the Latinlupinus, awolf, and to have been given because of the voracity evinced by the species in exhausting the soil.

Astragalus, Tourn. Pea Family.

Herbs, or sometimes plants woody at base.Leaves.—Alternate; with stipules; unequally pinnate.Flowers.—Rather small; chiefly in simple axillary spikes or racemes, upon a commonly elongated peduncle; papilionaceous.Calyx.—Five-toothed.Corollaand its slender-clawed petals usually narrow. Keel not pointed.Stamens.—Nine united; one free.Ovary.—One-celled; sometimes apparently two-celled.Pod.—Very various; commonly inflated.Seeds.—Few to many on slender stalks; generally small for the size of the pod.

The genusAstragalusis a very large one, comprising many species in most parts of the world, save Australia and South Africa. About two hundred species are native of North America, most of which are found in the region west of the Mississippi River. Of these several are known as "loco-weed," and are poisonous to sheep and cattle.

Very few species of this genus have any economic value.A. gummiferand some other similar species of Western Asia, low, spiny shrubs, yield the gum tragacanth of commerce.

Œnothera, L. Evening-Primrose Family.

Herbs, or plants sometimes woody at the base.Leaves.—Alternate.Flowers.—Axillary or in spikes or racemes.Calyx-tube.—More or less prolonged above the ovary with four reflexed segments.

Petals.—Four; obcordate to obovate; sessile; yellow to white, often tinged with red or turning red in fading.Stamens.—Eight; equal; or those opposite the petals shorter. Anthers perfect; two-celled; versatile.Ovary.—Four-celled; many ovuled. Style filiform. Stigma four-lobed or capitate.Fruit.—A capsule with the seeds in one or two rows in each cell.

The nameŒnotherais from two Greek words, meaningwineanda hunt, orpursuit. Mr. Gray tells us that it was given in ancient times to some plant whose roots were eaten to provoke a relish for wine.

This is a large genus, containing a hundred or more species, which are mostly confined to America, about a quarter of them being Californian. Many of them are very beautiful and have long been favorites in gardens. The flowers are yellow or white, and are commonly designated as "evening primroses," as many of them open upon the edge of evening.

Godetia, Spach. Evening-Primrose Family.

The genusGodetiais closely allied to that ofŒnothera; but is distinguished from the latter in several points. Its flowers are purple, lilac, or rose-colored—never yellow; the anthers are basifixed—i.e.fixed by their bases—not versatile; and the stigma, instead of being capitate, has four linear lobes.

The plants of this genus were formerly included underŒnothera; but it has been thought best to put them into a separate genus, which has been named for a Dr. Godet.

There are numerous species, many of them very beautiful and showy. They vary a great deal under different conditions and in different seasons, and are not well understood by botanists as yet.

The genus is confined to the western coast of North America, and is most largely represented in California.

The species flower mostly in late spring and early summer, which has given rise to the pretty name of "farewell to spring" for the plants of this genus.

Gilia, Renz. and Pav. Phlox or Polemonium Family.

Herbs or plants somewhat shrubby at base.Leaves.—Opposite or alternate; simple or compound; without stipules. Many species with showy flowers. All the parts of the flower five, except the pistil, which has a three-celled ovary and a three-lobed style.Calyx.—Imbricated in the bud.Corolla.—Regular; funnel-form, salver-form, or sometimes short campanulate or rotate; convolute in the bud.Stamens.—Five; on the corolla alternate with its lobes; distinct. Filaments mostly slender; sometimes unequal in length; not bearded at base.

This genus was named in honor of Philip Gil, a Spanish botanist. In America the name is pronouncedjil'i-a, though according to the rules of the Spanish languagehe'li-awould be the correct pronunciation.

This is a comparatively large genus, comprising about a hundred species, most of which are native to the western parts of the United States. The flowers are often showy and beautiful, and some of them closely resemble the phloxes. A number are cultivated under the botanical name ofIpomopsisorLeptosiphon.

Phacelia, Juss. Baby-eyes or Waterleaf Family.

Herbs, mostly branched from the base and hairy.Leaves.—Alternate; the lower sometimes opposite; simple or compound.Flowers.—Usually in one-sided scorpioid racemes.Calyx.—Deeply five-parted; without appendages.Corolla.—From almost rotate to narrowly funnel-form; five-lobed; with ten vertical plates or scales at the base within.Stamens.—Five; equally inserted low or at the base of the corolla.Ovary.—One-celled. Styles two; or one which is two-cleft.Fruit.—A capsule.

The namePhaceliais from a Greek word signifying afascicle, orbunch, and refers to the fascicled or clustered flower-racemes.

This genus is closely allied toNemophila, but differs from it in several points. The calyx is not furnished with appendages at the sinuses; the corolla is imbricated in the bud—i.e.the lobes overlap one another in the manner of bricks in a wall,—and is not convolute, or rolled up, as inNemophila.

This is mainly a North American genus, having about fifty species, about thirty of which are Californian. Many of thespecies have beautiful and showy flowers, and are cultivated in gardens. The blossoms are blue, violet, purple, or white, but never yellow (save sometimes in the tube or throat).

Mimulus, L. Figwort Family.

Leaves.—Opposite; simple.Flowers.—Axillary on solitary peduncles; sometimes becoming racemose by the diminution of the upper leaves to bracts.Calyx.—Tubular or campanulate; mostly five-angled and five-toothed.Corolla.—Funnel-form; bilabiate; the upper lip erect, two-lobed; the lower three-lobed; a pair of ridges, either bearded or naked, running down the lower side of the throat.Stamens.—Four. Anthers often near together in pairs, with divergent cells.Ovary.—Superior; two-celled. Style filiform. Stigma two-lipped, with the lips commonly dilated and petaloid.

The genusMimulusis so named from the shape of the corolla, which is supposed to resemble the gaping countenance of an ape. It comprises forty or fifty species, and affords us some of our most beautiful flowers. The greater number of species and the handsomest are Pacific, and several of our Californian species are especially prized in cultivation.

The plants of the genus are all known as "monkey-flowers." They exhibit an interesting character in the structure and movements of the stigma. It is usually composed of two somewhat expanded lips. These are extremely sensitive, and when touched, or when pollen has been received by them, they close quite rapidly.

Orthocarpus, Nutt. Figwort Family.

Low herbs; almost all annuals.Leaves.—Mainly alternate; sessile; often cut into from three to five filiform divisions; the upper passing into the bracts of the dense spike and usually colored, as are the calyx-lobes.Calyx.—Short-tubular or oblong-campanulate; evenly four-cleft, or sometimes cleft before and behind and the divisions again cleft.Corolla.—Tubular; the upper lip, or galea, little or not at all longer than the lower; small in comparison with the large, inflated, one- to three-saccate lower one, which usually bears more or less conspicuous teeth.Stamens.—Four; inclosed in the upper lip.Ovary.—Two-celled. Style long. Stigma capitate.Fruit.—A capsule.

The genusOrthocarpusis mainly Californian, comprising within our borders something less than twenty species. Mostof them are to be found from San Francisco northward and in the mountains.

They are closely related to theCastilleias, and resemble them closely in habit. The difference between the two genera lies in the relative sizes of the upper and lower lips of the corolla. InCastilleiathe upper lip is the larger and more prominent; while inOrthocarpusthe lower is much more conspicuous, often consisting of three inflated sacs.

The species are quite difficult of determination.

"Owl's clover" is a common English name for the plants of this genus.

Pentstemon, Mitchell. Figwort Family.

Perennial herbs, or rarely shrubby.Leaves.—Opposite, rarely whorled; the upper sessile or clasping; the floral gradually or abruptly reduced to bracts.Flowers.—Usually red, blue, purple, or white, rarely yellow; in raceme-like panicles.Calyx.—Five-parted.Corolla.—With a conspicuous and mostly elongated or ventricose tube; the throat swelling out on the lower if on either side; the limb more or less bilabiate, with the upper lip two-lobed and the lower three-cleft, recurved, or spreading.Stamens.—Four perfect; a fifth with a bearded filament only. Anther cells mostly united or running together at the summit.Ovary.—Two-celled. Style long. Stigma entire.

The namePentstemonis from two Greek words, signifyingfiveandstamen. It was bestowed upon this genus because the fifth stamen is present, though sterile.

The genus is a large one, comprising seventy species, most of which are North American, though a few are Mexican. It is most abundantly represented in the Pacific States and the States west of the Mississippi. California has over twenty species, many of them very beautiful, a number of them being in cultivation.

"Beard-tongue" is the common English name for the plants of this genus.

From so many charming species it has been very difficult to select; and if the reader finds some beautiful flower of this genus which is unnamed in these pages, he is advised to consult the technical botanies.

Calochortus, Pursh. Lily Family.

Stem.—Branching; from a membranous-coated, sometimes fibrous-coated corm.Leaves.—Few; linear-lanceolate; the radical one or two much larger than those of the flexuous or erect stem.Flowers.—Few to many; showy; terminal or axillary, or umbellately fascicled.Perianth.—Deciduous; of six more or less concave segments; the three outer lanceolate, greenish, more or less sepal-like; the inner (petals) mostly broadly cuneate-obovate, usually with a conspicuous glandular pit toward the base, which is apt to be hidden by long hairs.Stamens.—Six. Anthers erect; basifixed.Ovary.—Three-celled; three-angled. Stigmas three; sessile; recurved.Capsule.—Three-angled or winged.

TheCalochortiare the most widely diffused of all the liliaceous plants of the Pacific Coast, and comprise some of the most beautiful flowers in the world. "On the north they reach British America; one species is to be found as far east as Nebraska; and several are natives of Northern Mexico; and within these limits no considerable section of country is destitute of some species."[1]They are so closely allied to the true tulips that the common designation of them as "tulips" is not at all amiss.

The nameCalochortussignifiesbeautiful grass. The members of the genus fall naturally into three general groups:—

First—TheGlobe Tulips, which have flexile stems, sub-globose, nodding flowers, and nodding capsules. Of these there are three—C. albus,C. pulchellus, andC. amœnus.

Second—TheStar Tulips, having low, flexile stems, erect, starlike flowers, with spreading petals, and nodding capsules. They compriseC. Benthami,C. Maweanus,C. cœruleus,C. apiculatus,C. elegans,C. Tolmei,C. umbellatus, etc.

Third—TheMariposa Tulips, which are usually tall, fine plants, with stiff, erect stems, having erect, cup-shaped or open-campanulate flowers, usually large and handsome, followed by erect capsules.

They have a few narrow, grasslike, radical leaves, which have usually dried away by the time of flowering, which is in early summer, after the ground has become dry and hard. These inhabit our dry, open hillsides and grassy slopes, lovinga stony, clayey, sandy, or volcanic soil. They comprise over thirty different known forms, and others are constantly being discovered.

They have a tendency to hybridize, and the various forms sport and vary, and run into one another in such a wonderful manner that the exact determination of all the species is an impossible task to all but a few experts—and even they are not certain about them all yet. We have given only a few of the commonest or best-characterized species.

Mariposais the Spanish word meaningbutterfly, and was applied on account of the marvelous resemblance of the markings of the petals of some of the forms to the wings of that insect.

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