Fig. 46FIG. 46.—Microphotograph of steel used in S. K. F. bearings, polished and etched with nitric acid and magnified 1,000 times. Made by H. O. Walp.
This steel of 0.90 carbon content is an important one. It is called "eutectoid" steel. Under the microscope a properly polished and etched sample shows the structure to consist of thin sheets of two different substances (Fig. 46). One of these is pure iron, and the other is pure cementite. This structure of thin sheets has received the name "pearlite," because of its pearly appearance under sunlight. Pearlite is a constituent found in all annealed carbon steels. Pure iron, having no carbon, naturally would show no pearlite when examined under a microscope; only abutting granules of iron are delicately traced. The metallographist calls this pure iron "ferrite." As soon as a little carbon enters the alloy and a soft steel is formed, small angular areas of pearlite appear at the boundaries of the ferrite crystals (Fig. 47). With increasing carbon in the steel the volume of iron crystals becomes less and less, and the relative amount of pearlite increases, until arriving at 0.90 per cent carbon, the large ferrite crystals have been suppressed and the structure is all pearlite. Higher carbon steels show films of cementite outlining grains of pearlite (Fig. 48).
This represents the structure of annealed, slowly cooled steels. It is possible to change the relative sizes of the ferrite and cementite crystals by heat treatment. Large grains are associated with brittleness. Consequently one must avoid heat treatments which produce coarse grains.
Fig. 47FIG. 47.—Structure of low carbon steel, polished, etched and viewed under 100 magnifications. Tiny white granules of pure iron (ferrite) have small accumulations of dark-etching pearlite interspersed between them. Photograph by H. S. Rawdon.
Fig. 48FIG. 48.—Slowly cooled high-carbon steel, polished, etched and viewed at 100 magnifications. The dark grains are pearlite, separated by white films of iron carbide (cementite). Photograph by H. S. Rawdon.
In general it may be said that the previous crystalline structure of a steel is entirely obliterated when it passes just through the critical range. At that moment, in fact, the ferrite, cementite orpearlite which previously existed has lost its identity by everything going into the solid solution called austenite. If sufficient time is given, the chemical elements comprising a good steel distribute themselves uniformly through the mass. If the steel be then cooled, the austenite breaks up into new crystals of ferrite, cementite and pearlite; and in general if the temperature has notgone far above the critical, and cooling is not excessively slow, a very fine texture will result. This is called "refining" the grain; or in shop parlance "closing" the grain. However, if the heating has gone above the critical very far, the austenite crystals start to grow; a very short time at an extreme temperature will cause a large grain growth. Subsequent cooling gives a coarse texture, or an arrangement of ferrite, cementite and pearlite grains which is greatly coarsened, reflecting the condition of the austenite crystals from which they were born.
It maybe noted in passing that the coarse crystals of cast metal cannot generally be refined by heat treatment unless some forging or rolling has been done in the meantime. Heat treatment alone does not seem to be able to break up the crystals of an ingot structure.
Steel is hardened by quenching from above the upper critical. Apparently the quick cooling prevents the normal change back to definite and sizeable crystals of ferrite and cementite. Hardness is associated with this suppressed change. If the change is allowed to continue by a moderate reheating, like a tempering, the hardness decreases.
If a piece of steel could be cooled instantly, doubtless austenite could be preserved and examined. In the ordinary practice of hardening steels, the quenching is not so drastic, and the transformation of austenite back to ferrite and cementite is more or less completely effected, giving rise to certain transitory forms which are known as "martensite," "troostite," "sorbite," and finally, pearlite.
Austenite has been defined as a solid solution of cementite (Fe3C) in gamma iron. It is stable at various temperatures dependent upon its carbon content, which may be any amount up to the saturated solution containing 1.7 per cent. Austenite is not nearly as hard as martensite, owing to its content of the soft gamma iron. Fig. 49 shows austenite to possess the typical appearance of any pure, crystallized substance.
In the most quickly quenched high carbon steels, austenite commonly forms the ground mass which is interspersed with martensite, a large field of which is illustrated in Fig. 50. Martensite is usually considered to be a solid solution of cementite in beta iron. It represents an unstable condition in which the metalis caught during rapid cooling. It is very hard, and is the chief constituent of hardened high-carbon steels, and of medium-carbon nickel-steel and manganese-steel.
Troostite is of doubtful composition, but possibly is an unstable mixture of untransformed martensite with sorbite. It contains more or less untransformed material, as it is too hard to be composed entirely of the soft alpha modification, and it can also be tempered more or less without changing in appearance. Its normal appearance as rounded grains is given in Fig. 51; larger patches show practically no relief in their structure, and a photograph merely shows a dark, structureless area.
Fig. 49FIG. 49.—Coarse-grained martensite, polished and etched with nitric acid and magnified 50 times. Made by Prof. Chas. Y. Clayton.
Sorbite is believed to be an early stage in the formation of pearlite, when the iron and iron carbide originally constituting the solid solution (austenite) have had an opportunity to separate from each other, and the iron has entirely passed into the alpha modification, but the particles are yet too small to be distinguishable under the microscope. It also, possibly, contains some incompletely transformed matter. Sorbite is softer and tougher than troostite, and is habitually associated with pearlite. Its components are tending to coagulate into pearlite, and will do so in a fairly short time at temperatures near the lower critical, which heat will furnish the necessary molecular freedom. The normal appearance, however, is the cloudy mass shown in Fig. 52.
Pearlite is a definite conglomerate of ferrite and cementite containing about six parts of the former to one of the latter. When pure, it has a carbon content of about 0.95 per cent. It represents the complete transformation of the eutectoid austenite accomplished by slow-cooling of an iron-carbon alloy through the transformation range. (See Fig. 46.)
Fig. 50FIG. 50.—Quenched high-carbon steel, polished, etched and viewed at 100 magnifications. This structure is called martensite and is desired when maximum hardness is essential. Photograph by H. S. Rawdon.
These observations are competent to explain annealing and toughening practice. A quickly quenched carbon steel is mostly martensitic which, as noted, is a solid solution of beta iron andcementite, hard and brittle. Moderate reheating or annealing changes this structure largely into troostite, which is a partly transformed martensite, possessing much of the hardness of martensite, but with a largely increased toughness and shock resistance. This toughness is the chief characteristic of the nextmaterial in the transformation series, sorbite, which is merely martensite wholly transformed into a mixture of ultramicroscopic crystals of ferrite (alpha iron) and cementite (Fe3C).
"Tempering" or "drawing" should be restricted to mean moderate reheating, up to about 350° C., forming troostitic steel. "Toughening" represents the practice of reheating hardened carbon steels from 350° C. up to just below the lower critical, and forms sorbitic steel; while "annealing" refers to a heating for grain size at or above the transformation ranges, followed by a slow cooling. Any of these operations not only allows the transformations from austenite to pearlite to proceed, but also relieves internal stresses in the steel.
Normalizing is a heating like annealing, followed by a moderately rapid quench.
While the use of a pyrometer is of course the only way to have accurate knowledge as to the heat being used in either forging or hardening steels, a color chart will be of considerable assistance if carefully studied. These have been prepared by several of the steel companies as a guide, but it must be remembered that the colors and temperatures given are only approximate, and can be nothing else.
Fig. 53FIG. 53.—Finding hardening heats with a magnet.
The Magnet Test.—The critical point can also be determined by an ordinary horse-shoe magnet. Touch the steel with a magnet during the heating and when it reaches the temperature at which steel fails to attract the magnet, or in other words, loses its magnetism, the critical point has been reached.
Figures 53 and 54 show how these are used in practice.
The first (Fig. 53) shows the use of a permanent horse-shoe magnet and the second (Fig. 54) an electro-magnet consisting of an iron rod with a coil or spool magnet at the outer end. In either case the magnet should not be allowed to become heated but should be applied quickly.
Fig. 54FIG. 54.—Using electro-magnet to determine heat.
The work is heated up slowly in the furnace and the magnet applied from time to time. The steel being heated will attract the magnet until the heat reaches the critical point. The magnet is applied frequently and when the magnet is no longer attracted, the piece is at the lowest temperature at which it can be hardened properly. Quenching slightly above this point will give a tool of satisfactory hardness. The method applies only to carbon steels and will not work for modern high-speed steels.
This section is based on a paper read before the American Gear Manufacturers' Association at White Sulphur Springs, W. Va., Apr. 18, 1918.
Great advancement has been made in the heat treating and hardening of gears. In this advancement the chemical and metallurgical laboratory have played no small part. During this time, however, the condition of the blanks as they come to the machine shop to be machined has not received its share of attention.
There are two distinct types of gears, both types having their champions, namely, carburized and heat-treated. The difference between the two in the matter of steel composition is entirely in the carbon content, the carbon never running higher than 25-point in the carburizing type, while in the heat-treated gears the carbon is seldom lower than 35-point. The difference in the final gear is the hardness. The carburized gear is file hard on the surface, with a soft, tough and ductile core to withstand shock, while the heat-treated gear has a surface that can be touched by a file with a core of the same hardness as the outer surface.
Annealing Work.—With the exception of several of the higher types of alloy steels, where the percentages of special elements run quite high, which causes a slight air-hardening action, the carburizing steels are soft enough for machining when air cooled from any temperature, including the finishing temperature at the hammer. This condition has led many drop-forge and manufacturing concerns to consider annealing as an unnecessary operation and expense. In many cases the drop forging has only been heated to a low temperature, often just until the piece showed color, to relieve the so-called hammer strains. While this has been only a compromise it has been better than no reheating at all, although it has not properly refined the grain, which is necessary for good machining conditions.
Annealing is heating to a temperature slightly above the highest critical point and cooling slowly either in the air or in the furnace. Annealing is done to accomplish two purposes: (1) to relieve mechanical strains and (2) to soften and produce a maximum refinement of grain.
Process of Carburizing.—Carburizing imparts a shell of high-carbon content to a low-carbon steel. This produces what might be termed a "dual" steel, allowing for an outer shell which when hardened would withstand wear, and a soft ductile core to produce ductility and withstand shock. The operation is carried out by packing the work to be carburized in boxes with a material rich in carbon and maintaining the box so charged at a temperature in excess of the highest critical point for a length of time to produce the desired depth of carburized zone. Generally maintaining the temperature at 1,650 to 1,700° F. for 7 hr. will produce a carburized zone 1/32 in. deep.
Heating to a temperature slightly above the highest critical point and cooling suddenly in some quenching medium, such as water or oil hardens the steel. This treatment produces a maximum refinement with the maximum strength.
Drawing to a temperature below the highest critical point (the temperature being governed by the results required) relieves the hardening strains set up by quenching, as well as the reducing of the hardness and brittleness of hardened steel.
Effect of Proper Annealing.—Proper annealing of low-carbon steels causes a complete solution or combination to take place between the ferrite and pearlite, producing a homogeneous mass of small grains of each, the grains of the pearlite being surroundedby grains of ferrite. A steel of this refinement will machine to good advantage, due to the fact that the cutting tool will at all times be in contact with metal of uniform composition.
While the alternate bands of ferrite and pearlite are microscopically sized, it has been found that with a Gleason or Fellows gear-cutting machine that rough cutting can be traced to poorly annealed steels, having either a pronounced banded structure or a coarse granular structure.
Temperature for Annealing.—Theoretically, annealing should be accomplished at a temperature at just slightly above the critical point. However, in practice the temperature is raised to a higher point in order to allow for the solution of the carbon and iron to be produced more rapidly, as the time required to produce complete solution is reduced as the temperature increases past the critical point.
For annealing the simpler types of low-carbon steels the following temperatures have been found to produce uniform machining conditions on account of producing uniform fine-grain pearlite structure:
0.15 to 0.25 per cent carbon, straight carbon steel.—Heat to 1,650°F. Hold at this temperature until the work is uniformly heated; pull from the furnace and cool in air.
0.15 to 0.25 per cent carbon, 1½ per cent nickel, 1/2 per cent chromium steel.—Heat to 1,600°F. Hold at this temperature until the work is uniformly heated; pull from the furnace and cool in air.
0.15 to 0.25 per cent carbon, 3½ per cent nickel steel.—Heat to 1,575°F. Hold at this temperature until the work is uniformly heated; pull from the furnace and cool in air.
Care in Annealing.—Not only will benefits in machining be found by careful annealing of forgings but the subsequent troubles in the hardening plant will be greatly reduced. The advantages in the hardening start with the carburizing operation, as a steel of uniform and fine grain size will carburize more uniformly, producing a more even hardness and less chances for soft spots. The holes in the gears will also "close in more uniformly," not causing some gears to require excessive grinding and others with just enough stock. Also all strains will have been removed from the forging, eliminating to a great extent distortion and the noisy gears which are the result.
With the steels used, for the heat-treated gears, always of ahigher carbon content, treatment after forging is necessary for machining, as it would be impossible to get the required production from untreated forgings, especially in the alloy steels. The treatment is more delicate, due to the higher percentage of carbon and the natural increase in cementite together with complex carbides which are present in some of the higher types of alloys.
Where poor machining conditions in heat-treated steels are present they are generally due to incomplete solution of cementite rather than bands of free ferrite, as in the case of case-hardening steels. This segregation of carbon, as it is sometimes referred to, causes hard spots which, in the forming of the tooth, cause the cutter to ride over the hard metal, producing high spots on the face of the tooth, which are as detrimental to satisfactory gear cutting as the drops or low spots produced on the face of the teeth when the pearlite is coarse-grained or in a banded condition.
In the simpler carburized steels it is not necessary to test the forgings for hardness after annealing, but with the high percentages of alloys in the carburizing steels and the heat-treated steels a hardness test is essential.
To obtain the best results in machining, the microstructure of the metal should be determined and a hardness range set that covers the variations in structure that produce good machining results. By careful control of the heat-treating operation and with the aid of the Brinell hardness tester and the microscope it is possible to continually give forgings that will machine uniformly and be soft enough to give desired production. The following gives a few of the hardness numerals on steel used in gear manufacture that produce good machining qualities:
0.20 per cent carbon, 3 per cent nickel, 1¼; per cent chromium—Brinell 156 to 170.
0.50 per cent carbon, 3 per cent nickel, 1 per cent chromium—Brinell 179 to 187.
0.50 per cent carbon chrome-vanadium—Brinell 170 to 179.
The size of the piece influences the physical properties obtained in steel by heat treatment. This has been worked out by E. J. Janitzky, metallurgical engineer of the Illinois Steel Company, as follows:
Fig. 55FIG. 55.—Effect of size on heating.
"With an increase in the mass of steel there is a corresponding decrease in both the minimum surface hardness and depth hardness, when quenched from the same temperature, under identical conditions of the quenching medium. In other words, the physical properties obtained are a function of the surface of the metal quenched for a given mass of steel. Keeping this primary assumption in mind, it is possible to predict what physical properties may be developed in heat treating by calculating the surface per unit mass for different shapes and sizes. It may be pointed out that the figures and chart that follow are not results of actual tests, but are derived by calculation. They indicate the mathematical relation, which, based on the fact that the physical properties of steel are determined not alone by the rate which heat is lost per unit of surface, but by the rate which heat is lost per unit of weight in relation to the surface exposed for that unit. The unit of weight has for the different shaped bodies and their sizes a certain surface which determines their physical properties.
"For example, the surface corresponding to 1 lb. of steel has been computed for spheres, rounds and flats. For the sphere with a unit weight of 1 lb. the portion is a cone with the apex at the center of thesphere and the base the curved surface of the sphere (surface exposed to quenching). For rounds, a unit weight of 1 lb. may be taken as a disk or cylinder, the base and top surfaces naturally do not enter into calculation. For a flat, a prismatic or cylindrical volume may be taken to represent the unit weight. The surfaces that are considered in this instance are the top and base of the section, as these surfaces are the ones exposed to cooling."
The results of the calculations are as follows:
Having once determined the physical qualities of a certain specimen, and found its position on the curve we have the means to predict the decrease of physical qualities on larger specimens which receive the same heat treatment.
When the surfaces of the unit weight as outlined in the foregoing tables are plotted as ordinates and the corresponding diameters as abscissæ, the resulting curve is a hyperbola and follows the lawXY = C. In making these calculations the radii or one-half of the thickness need only to be taken into consideration as the heat is conducted from the center of the body to the surface, following the shortest path.
The equations for the different shapes are as follows:
It will be noted that the constants increase in a ratio of 1, 2, and 3, and the three bodies in question will increase in hardness on being quenched in the same ratio, it being understood that the diameter of the sphere and round and thickness of the flat are equal.
Relative to shape, it is interesting to note that rounds, squares, octagons and other three axial bodies, with two of their axes equal, have the same surface for the unit weight.
For example:
Although this discussion is at present based upon mathematical analysis, it is hoped that it will open up a new field of investigation in which but little work has been done, and may assist in settling the as yet unsolved question of the effect of size and shape in the heat treatment of steel.
The heat-treating department of the Brown-Lipe-Chapin Company, Syracuse, N. Y., runs day and night, and besides handling all the hardening of tools, parts of jigs, fixtures, special machines and appliances, carburizes and heat-treats every month between 150,000 and 200,000 gears, pinions, crosses and other components entering into the construction of differentials for automobiles.
The treatment of the steel really begins in the mill, where the steel is made to conform to a specific formula. On the arrival of the rough forgings at the Brown-Lipe-Chapin factory, the first of a long series of inspections begins.
Annealing Method.—Forgings which are too hard to machine are put in pots with a little charcoal to cause a reducing atmosphere and to prevent scale. The covers are then luted on and the pots placed in the furnace. Carbon steel from 15 to 25 points is annealed at 1,600°F. Nickel steel of the same carbon and containing in addition 3½ per cent nickel is annealed at 1,450°F. When the pots are heated through, they are rolled to the yard and allowed to cool. This method of annealing gives the best hardness for quick machining.
The requirements in the machine operations are very rigid and, in spite of great care and probably the finest equipment of special machines in the world, a small percentage of the product fails to pass inspection during or at the completion of the machine operations. These pieces, however, are not a loss, for they play an important part in the hardening process, indicating as they do the exact depth of penetration of the carburizing material and the condition of both case and core.
Heat-treating Department.—The heat-treating department occupies an L-shaped building. The design is very practical, with the furnace and the floor on the same level so that there is no lifting of heavy pots. Fuel oil is used in all the furnaces and gives highly satisfactory results. The consumption of fuel oil is about 2 gal. per hour per furnace.
The work is packed in the pots in a room at the entrance to the heat-treatment building. Before packing, each gear is stamped with a number which is a key to the records of the analysis and complete heat treatment of that particular gear. Should a question at any time arise regarding the treatment of a certain gear, all the necessary information is available if the number on the gear is legible. For instance, date of treatment, furnace, carburizing material, position of the pot in the furnace, position of gear in pot, temperature of furnace and duration of treatment are all tabulated and filed for reference.
After marking, all holes and parts which are to remain uncarburized are plugged or luted with a mixture of kaolin and Mellville gravel clay, and the gear is packed in the carburizing material. Bohnite, a commercial carburizing compound is used exclusively at this plant. This does excellent work and is economical. Broadly speaking, the economy of a carburizing compound depends on its lightness. The space not occupied by work must be filled with compound; therefore) other things beingequal, a compound weighing 25 lb. would be worth more than twice as much as one weighing 60 lb. per cubic foot. It has been claimed that certain compounds can be used over and over again, but this is only true in a limited way, if good work is required. There is, of course, some carbon in the compound after the first use, but for first-class work, new compound must be used each time.
The Packing Department.—In Fig. 56 is shown the packing pots where the work is packed. These are of malleable cast iron, with an internal vertical flange around the holeA. This fits in a bell on the end of the cast-iron pipeB, which is luted in position with fireclay before the packing begins. AtCis shown a pot ready for packing. The crown gears average 10 to 12 in. in diameter and weigh about 11 lb. each. When placed in the pots, they surround the central tube, which allows the heat to circulate. Each pot contains five gears. Two complete scrap gears are in each furnace (i.e., gears which fail to pass machining inspection), and at the top of front pot are two or more short segments of scrap gear, used as test pieces to gage depth of case.
Fig. 56FIG. 56.—Packing department and special pots.
After filling to the top with compound, the lidDis luted on. Ten pots are then placed in a furnace. It will be noted that the pots to the right are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, indicating the position they are to occupy in the furnace.
The cast-iron ball shown atEis small enough to drop through the pipeB, but will not pass through the holeAin the bottom ofthe pot. It is used as a valve to plug the bottom of the pot to prevent the carburizing compound from dropping through when removing the carburized gears to the quenching bath.
Without detracting from the high quality of the work, the metallurgist in this plant has succeeded in cutting out one entire operation and reducing the time in the hardening room by about 24 hr.
Formerly, the work was carburized at about 1,700°F. for 9 hr. The pots were then run out into the yard and allowed to cool slowly. When cool, the work was taken out of the pots, reheated and quenched at 1,600°F. to refine the core. It was again reheated to 1,425°F. and quenched to refine the case. Finally, it was drawn to the proper temper.
Short Method of Treatment.—In the new method, the packed pots are run into the case-hardening furnaces, which are heated to 1,600°F. On the insertion of the cold pots, the temperature naturally falls. The amount of this fall is dependent upon a number of variables, but it averages nearly 500°F. as shown in the pyrometer chart, Fig. 61. The work and furnace must be brought to 1,600°F. Within 2½ hr.; otherwise, a longer time will be necessary to obtain the desired depth of case. On this work, the depth of case required is designated in thousandths, and on crown gears, the depth in 0.028 in. Having brought the work to a temperature of 1,600°F. the depth of case mentioned can be obtained in about 5½ hr. by maintaining this temperature.
As stated before, at the top of each pot are several test pieces consisting of a whole scrap gear and several sections. After the pots have been heated at 1,600°F. for about 5¼ hr., they are removed, and a scrap-section test-piece is quenched direct from the pot in mineral oil atnot more than100°F. The end of a tooth of this is then ground and etched to ascertain the depth of case. As these test pieces are of exactly the same cross-section as the gears themselves, the carburizing action is similar. When the depth of case has been found from the etched test pieces to be satisfactory, the pots are removed. The iron ball then is dropped into the tube to seal the hole in the bottom of the pot; the cover and the tube are removed, and the gears quenched direct from the pot in mineral oil, which is kept at a temperature not higher than 100°F.
The Effect.—The heating at 1,600°F. gives the first heat treatment which refines the core, which under the former high heat(1,700°F.) was rendered coarsely crystalline. All the gears, including the scrap gears, are quenched direct from the pot in this manner.
The gears then go to the reheating furnaces, situated in front of a battery of Gleason quenching machines. These furnaces accommodate from 12 to 16 crown gears. The carbon-steel gears are heated in a reducing atmosphere to about 1,425°F. (depending on the carbon content) placed in the dies in the Gleason quenching machine, and quenched between dies in mineral oil at less than 100°F. The test gear receives exactly the same treatment as the others and is then broken, giving a record of the condition of both case and core.
Affinity of Nickel Steel for Carbon.—The carbon- and nickel-steel gears are carburized separately owing to the difference in time necessary for their carburization. Practically all printed information on the subject is to the effect that nickel steel takes longer to carburize than plain carbon steel. This is directly opposed to the conditions found at this plant. For the same depth of case, other conditions being equal, a nickel-steel gear would require from 20 to 30 min. less than a low carbon-steel gear.
From the quenching machines, the gears go to the sand-blasting machines, situated in the wing of the heat-treating building, where they are cleaned. From here they are taken to the testing department. The tests are simple and at the same time most thorough.
Testing and Inspection of Heat Treatment.—The hard parts of the gear must be so hard that a new mill file does not bite in the least. Having passed this file test at several points, the gears go to the center-punch test. The inspector is equipped with a wooden trough secured to the top of the bench to support the gear, a number of center punches (made of ¾-in. hex-steel having points sharpened to an angle of 120 deg.) and a hammer weighing about 4 oz. With these simple tools, supplemented by his skill, the inspector canfeelthe depth and quality of the case and the condition of the core. The gears are each tested in this way at several points on the teeth and elsewhere, the scrap gear being also subjected to the test. Finally, the scrap gear is securely clamped in the straightening press shown in Fig. 57. With a 3½-lb. hammer and a suitable hollow-ended drift manipulated by one of Sandow's understudies, teeth are broken out of the scrap gear at various points. These give a record confirmingthe center-punch tests, which, if the angle of the center punch is kept at 120 deg. and the weight of the hammer and blow are uniform, is very accurate.
After passing the center-punch test the ends of the teeth are peened lightly with a hammer. If they are too hard, small particles fly off. Such gears are drawn in oil at a temperature of from 300 to 350°F., depending on their hardness. Some builders prefer to have the extreme outer ends of the teeth drawn somewhat lower than the rest. This drawing is done on gas-heated red-hot plates, as shown atAin Fig. 58.
Fig. 57FIG. 57.—Press for holding test gears for breaking.
Nickel steel, in addition to all the tests given to carbon steel, is subjected to a Brinell test. For each steel, the temperature and the period of treatment are specific. For some unknown reason, apparently like material with like treatment will, in isolated cases, not produce like results. It then remains for the treatment to be repeated or modified, but the results obtained during inspection form a valuable aid to the metallurgist in determining further treatment.
Temperature Recording and Regulation.—Each furnace is equipped with pyrometers, but the reading and recording of all temperatures are in the hands of one man, who occupies a room with an opening into the end of the hardening department. The opening is about 15 ft. above the floor level. On each side of it, easily legible from all of the furnaces, is a board with the numbers of the various furnaces, as shown in Figs. 59 and 60. Opposite each furnace number is a series of hooks whereon are hung metal numbers representing the pyrometer readings of the temperature in that particular furnace. Within the room, as shown in Fig. 60, the indicating instrument is to the right, and to the left is a switchboard to connect it with the thermo-couples in the various furnaces. The boards shown to the right and the left swing into the room, which enables the attendant easily to change the numbers to conform to the pyrometer readings. Readings of the temperatures of the carburizing furnaces are taken and tabulated every ten minutes. These, numbered 1 to 10, are shown on the board to the right in Fig. 59. The card shown in Fig. 61 gives such a record. These records are filed away for possible future reference.
Fig. 58FIG. 58.—Gas heated drawing plate for tooth ends.
The temperatures of the reheating furnaces, numbered from 1 to 26 and shown on the board to the left in Fig. 59, are taken every 5 min.
Each furnace has a large metal sign on which is marked the temperature at which the furnace regulator is required to keephis heat. As soon as any variation from this is posted on the board outside the pyrometer room, the attendant sees it and adjusts the burners to compensate.
Fig. 59FIG. 59.—Pyrometer recording room.
Fig. 60FIG. 60.—Inside of Pyrometer switch room.
Dies for Gleason Tempering Machines.—In Fig. 62 is shown a set of dies for the Gleason tempering machine. These accurately made dies fit and hold the gear true during quenching, thus preventing distortion.
Fig. 61FIG. 61.—Carburizing furnace record.
Referring to Fig. 62, the dieAhas a surfaceBwhich fits the face of the teeth of the gearC. This surface is perforated by a large number of holes which permit the quenching oil to circulate freely. The dieAis set in the upper end of the plungerAof the tempering machine, shown in Fig. 63, a few inches above the surface of the quenching oil in the tankN. Inside the dieAare the centering jawsD, Fig. 62, which are an easy fit for the bore of the gearC. The inner surface of the centering jaws is in the shape of a female cone. The upper die is shown atE. In the center (separate from it, but a snug sliding fit in it) is the expanderG, which, during quenching, enters the taper in the centering jawsD, expanding them against the bore of the gearC. The facesFof the upper dieEfit two angles at the back of the gear and are grooved for the passage of the quenching oil. The upper dieEis secured to the die carrierB, shown in Fig. 9, and inside the die is the expanderG, which is backed up by compression springs.
Fig. 62FIG. 62.—Dies for Gleason gear-hardening machine.
Fig. 63FIG. 63.—Gleason tempering machine.
Hardening Operation.—Hardening a gear is accomplished as follows: The gear is taken from the furnace by the furnaceman and placed in the lower die, surrounding the centering jaws, as shown atHin Fig. 62 andCin Fig. 63. Air is then turned into the cylinderD, and the piston rodE, the die carrierB, the top dieFand the expanderGdescend. The pilotHenters a hole in the center ofthe lower die, and the expanderGenters the centering jawsI, causing them to expand and center the gearCin the lower die. On further advance of the piston rodE, the expanderGis forced upward against the pressure of the springsJand the upper dieFcomes in contact with the upper surface of the gear. Further downward movement of the dies, which now clamp the work securely, overcomes the resistance of the pressure weightK(which normally keeps up the plungerA), and the gear is submerged in the oil. The quenching oil is circulated through a cooling system outside the building and enters the tempering machine through the inlet pipeL. When the machine is in the position shown, the oil passes out through the portsMin the lower plunger to the outer reservoirN, passing to the cooling system by way of the overflowO. When the lower plungerAis forced downward, the portsMare automatically closed and the cool quenching oil from the inlet pipeL, having no other means of escape, passes through the holes in the lower die and the grooves in the upper, circulating in contact with the surfaces of the gear and passes tothe overflow. When the air pressure is released, the counterweights return the parts to the positions shown in Fig. 63, and the operator removes the gear.
The gear comes out uniformly hard all over and of the same degree of hardness as when tempered in an open tank. The output of the machine depends on the amount of metal to be cooled, but will average from 8 to 16 per hour. Each machine is served by one man, two furnaces being required to heat the work. A slight excess of oil is used in the firing of the furnaces to give a reducing atmosphere and to avoid scale.