CHAPTER IX.

"Sun, stand thou still upon Gibeon;And thou, Moon, in the valley of Ajalon.And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed,Until the nation had avenged themselves of their enemies."[2]

Victory belonged to the Israelites, and the seven tribes took possession of trans-Jordan regions.

"But this does not mean that Israel was in full possession of the land: by far the best and most fertile portions of it, and especially the majority of the cities, whose strong fortifications made them impregnable to the primitive military skill of the Israelites, remained in possession of the Canaanites; it was chiefly the woody mountain chains of northern and middle Palestine that had come into the power of Israel, and theCanaanites had partly to be subdued by force and partly to be peacefully absorbed—a long and difficult task."[3]

"Then sang Moses and the Children of Israel this song unto the Lord:

"I will sing unto the Lord, for he hath triumphed gloriously:The horse and his rider hath he thrown into the sea.The Lord is my strength and song,And he is become my salvation:This is my God, and I will praise him;My father's God, and I will exalt him.

(1)Sung by Men.

"The Lord is a man of war:The Lord is his name.Pharaoh's chariots and his host hath he cast into the sea:And his chosen captains are sunk in the Red Sea.The deeps cover them:They went down into the depths like a stone.

Sung by Women.

"Sing ye to the Lord, for he hath triumphed gloriously:The horse and his rider hath he thrown into the sea.

(2)Men.

"Thy right hand, O Lord, is glorious in power,Thy right hand, O Lord, dasheth in pieces the enemy.And in the greatness of thine excellency thou overthrowestThem that rise up against thee:Thou sendest forth thy wrath, it consumeth them as stubbleAnd with the blast of thy nostrils the waters were piled up,The floods stood upright as an heap;The deeps were congealed in the heart of the sea.The enemy said, I will pursue, I will overtake, I will divide the spoil:My lust shall be satisfied upon them;I will draw my sword, my hand shall destroy themThou didst blow with thy wind, the sea covered them:They sank as lead in the mighty waters.

Women.

"Sing ye to the Lord, for he hath triumphed gloriously:The horse and his rider hath he thrown into the sea.

(3)Men.

"Who is like unto thee, O Lord, among the Gods?Who is like thee, glorious in holiness,Fearful in praises, doing wonders?Thou stretchest out thy right hand,The earth swallowed them.Thou in thy mercy hast led the people which thou hast redeemed:Thou hast guided them in thy strength to thy holy habitation.The peoples have heard, they tremble:Till thy people pass over, O Lord,Till the people pass over which thou hast purchased.Thou shalt bring them in, and plant them in the mountain of thine inheritance,The place, O Lord, which thou hast made for thee to dwell in,The sanctuary, O Lord, which thy hands have established.The Lord shall reign forever and ever.

Women.

"Sing ye to the Lord, for he hath triumphed gloriously:The horse and his rider hath he thrown into the sea."

—Modern Reader's Bible.

[1]History of the People of Israel; Cornill, 30.[2]Joshua, 10, 12.[3]History of People of Israel, 47.

[1]History of the People of Israel; Cornill, 30.

[2]Joshua, 10, 12.

[3]History of People of Israel, 47.

As we have seen, Joshua's victory left the conquest of Canaan but begun. It so happened that the great powers were too absorbed with their own affairs to expand by conquest, so the earlier inhabitants of Palestine and the Hebrews were left to fight out their difficulties as best they might. For some generations after the entrance of the Israelites into Canaan, confusion and disorder ruled. The invaders would win the heights in a given region, while around them in the plains and valleys, flourished hostile clans, often harassing and threatening their settlements. Years of peace would settle over the land, and the two peoples—Israelites and Canaanites—would intermarry, when again the old hatred would break out anew.

The period following the death of Joshua has been called the "Era of the Judges." The simple statement of the ancient Hebrew chronicler makes clear the situation: "And there was no king in Israel; each man did that which was right in his own eyes." Our knowledge of this age is derived chiefly from the Book of Judges, which contains some of the earliest records of the Israelites. However, the material herein contained has not come down to us first hand. A prophet of later times selected such material as suited his purpose from records which were accessible to him. The writer or writers of the Book of Judges desired to inculcate religious truths—not to recount historical events. Such pictures of the life during those years which followed Hebrew occupation of Canaan as seemed best were fitted into phrases like these: "And the people of Israel did that which was evil in the sight of Jahweh, and Jahweh delivered them into the hands of their enemies." "The people of Israel cried unto Jahweh and He raised up to them a deliverer, and the land had rest." It seems to have been fortunately the case that the older material was incorporated into the phrases with little change, and from it oneis able to get a very fair idea of the stage of progress to which the Hebrews had then arrived.

ThirteenJudgesare mentioned in the Old Testament, and there were surely many more whose names were not recorded. In times of emergency, danger, attack or oppression, a clan, or several clans, one tribe or possibly two or three tribes, would voluntarily unite under some chosen chieftain, whose duties and powers were indefinite. If he were able to deliver them in their distress, they acknowledged him as their leader so long as he lived. When a similar occasion arose, it was met in a similar way. Since differences between clans, disputes between individuals, and various questions were referred to this chief for settlement, later writers named these men from this duty of referees,Judges. Their earliest title of "deliverer" was more expressive. The story of the several recorded judges may be read in the biblical book bearing that name. We shall consider the work of three—not necessarily the most important in Israel's history.

Matters had become most threatening in Canaan. The Canaanites had united for a final reduction of Israel and were led by Sisera. This chief was victorious and seemed about to overcome the Hebrew tribes. The very existence of Israel was in gravest danger. The highways were unsafe, for these were held by the Canaanites who were preparing for a final stand. At this juncture Deborah, an inspired prophetess, called upon Barak, a chieftain of the north, to deliver the people. Intermarriage between the Israelites and Canaanites had become so common that it was useless to attempt to rally the early tribes—early distinctions were no longer closely drawn. So Deborah called on all who worshipped Jahweh to rally in His cause. The old enthusiasm was rekindled, and the Canaanites suffered a great defeat. Their king Sisera escaped and took refuge in the tent of a peasant woman. Trusting to her hospitality, he partook of refreshment she offered him. Asking simply for water, she gave him milk. When he fell asleep for a brief rest, she drove a tent-pin through his head, thus killing him. It has been fully observed that "only in an age of tents could such a deed have been thus extolled." The Canaanites never recovered the loss of that day's defeat, and their strength was permanently broken.The Song of Deborah, recorded in the Book of Judges, is one of the earliest writings in the Old Testament. It has recently been thrown again into its original verse form, and rings clear of an early age, echoing the spirit of a crude but vigorous race.

Deborah's Song.

Men.For that the leaders took the lead in Israel—Women.For that the people offered themselves willingly—All.Bless ye the Lord!

Prelude.

Men.Hear, O ye kings—Women.Give ear, O ye princes—Men.I, even I, will sing unto the Lord—Women.I will sing praises to the Lord, the God of Israel.All.Lord, when thou wentest forth out of Seir,When thou marchedst out of the field of Edom,The earth trembled, the heavens also dropped,Yea, the clouds dropped water.The mountain flowed down at the presence of the Lord.Even yon Sinai at the presence of the Lord, the God of Israel.

I. The Desolation.

Men.In the days of Shamgar, the son of Anath,In the days of Jael,The highways were unoccupied,And the travellers walked through byways;The rulers ceased in Israel,They ceased—Women.Until that I, Deborah, arose,That I arose a mother in Israel.They chose new gods;Then was war in the gates:Was there a shield or spear seenAmong forty thousand in Israel?Men.My heart is toward the governors of Israel—Women.Ye that offered yourselves willingly among the people—All.Bless ye the Lord!Men.Tell of it, ye that ride on white asses,Ye that sit on rich carpets,And ye that walk by the way:—Women.Far from the noise of archers,In the places of drawing water:—All.There shall they rehearse the righteous acts of the Lord,Even the righteous acts of his rule in Israel.

II.The Muster.

All.The people of the Lord went down to the gates—Men.Awake, awake, Deborah,Awake, awake, utter a song:—Women.Arise, Barak,And lead thy captivity captive, thou son of Abinoan.All.Then came down a remnant of the nobles,The people of the Lord came down for me against the Mighty.Women.Out of Ephraim came down they whose root is in Amalek—Men.After thee, Benjamin, among thy peoples—Women.Out of Machir came down the governors—Men.And out of Zubulum they that handle the marshal's staff—Women.And the princes of Issachar were with Deborah—Men.So was Issachar, so was Barak:All.Into the valley they rushed forth at his feet.Men.By the water courses of ReubenThere were great resolves of heart.Women.Why satest thou among the sheepfolds,To hear the pipings for the flocks?Men.At the watercourses of ReubenThere were great searchings of heart!Women.Gilead abode beyond Jordan—Men.And Dan, why did he remain in ships?Women.Ashur sat still at the haven of the sea,And abode by his creeks.Men.Zubulum was a people that jeoparded their lives unto the death,And Naphtali upon the high places of the field.

III.The Battle and the Rout.

Men.The kings came and fought;Then fought the kings of Canaan,In Taanach by the waters of Megiddo:—They took no gain of money.Women.They fought from heaven,The stars in their courses fought against Sisera.The river Kishon swept them away,—That ancient river, the river Kishon!Men.O my soul, march on with strength!Then did the horsehoofs stampBy reason of the prancings,The prancings of their strong ones.Women.Curse ye, Meroz, said the angel of the Lord,Curse ye bitterly the inhabitants thereof;Because they came not to the help of the Lord,To the help of the Lord against the mighty!

IV.The Retribution.

Men.Blessed above women shall Jael be the wife of Heber the Kenite,Blessed shall she be above women in the tent!He asked water, and she gave him milk;She brought him butter in a lordly dish.She put her hand to the nail,And her right hand to the workman's hammer;And with the hammer she smote Sisera.She smote through his head,Yea, she pierced and struck through his temples.At her feet he bowed, he fell, he lay:At her feet he bowed, he fell:When he bowed, there he fell down dead!Women.Through the window she looked forth, and cried,The mother of Sisera, through the lattice,"Why is his chariot so long coming?Why tarry the wheels of his chariots?"Her wise ladies answered her,Yea, she returned answer to herself,"Have they not found,Have they not divided the spoils?A damsel, two damsels to every man;To Sisera a spoil of divers colors,A spoil of divers colors of embroidery,Of divers colors of embroidery on both sides, on the necks of the spoil!"All.So let all thine enemies perish, O Lord:But let them that love him be as the sun when he goeth forth in his might!

Having overcome the Canaanites, the Israelites were not destined to long enjoy peace. Their own kinsmen, the Ammonites and Moabites looked with envy upon their good fortune in winning such desirable land and tried now to rob them of it. Notwithstanding the fact that the Israelites, Moabites and Ammonites had all a common ancestry, they were never on that account restrained from plundering one another's territories. Forced to take a definite stand against them, the Hebrews cast about for a leader. Jephthah was named. He was an outlaw, a bold border man, who belonged to the Hebrew race, and his bravery was unquestioned. When besought, he agreed to drive out the Ammonites on one condition only: that he be acknowledged chieftain after the battle. This being conceded, he led the Hebrew forces. It was in keeping with his rough, reckless nature that he should vow to sacrifice the first living thing he met upon his return were he victorious. The Ammonites were defeated and to Jephthah's utter consternation, his daughter, his only child, rushed forth to meet him. We are told that his vow was kept, and thus we know that human sacrifices were sometimes offered to Jahweh.

During the era of the Judges, the Philistines on the southwest began to expand, upon land already settled by the Israelites. They overran the Plain of Sharon, and the Hebrews who had peopled the plain were driven into the hills. This crisis brought forth Samson, one of the chiefs who essayed to stay the power of these new enemies. He was a simple child of nature—a giant in strength, a weakling in steadfast purpose. He lacked the capacity to plan a campaign and execute it. The stories of his prodigious power, his feats pf physical endurance, are too well known to require repetition. They were lauded by his admirers and delighted in by the Israelites when directed against their enemies, but his blows were invariably given to avenge personal wrongs, and he left his people no farther on their way against the Philistines than he found them.

The great difficulty during this period was that there was no tendency to hold long together. "Israel had within itself the worst of enemies and a germ of destruction. This was the proud sense of independence and the strongly-developed family feeling of the nomad, which did not immediately vanish from the national character with the surrender of the nomadic fashion of life. After the united effort under Joshua had but barely laid the foundation, the people again broke up into tribes and clans, which now aimlessly sought new places of settlement, each on its own account and unmindful of its neighbors."[1]

This tendency to fall apart was the most dangerous sign of Israel's progress, and we shall see how it lasted through her history. Nevertheless, for the time being the lesson was learned that only by uniting against the enemy could victory be won. The era of the Judges so far impressed this truth upon the minds of the Hebrews that we note the beginnings of Hebrew unity.

[1]Hist. of People of Israel, 47.

It is a mistake to suppose that the lofty conceptions of Israel's later seers and prophets were manifest among the people from the earliest times. Quite the reverse was true. Like all primitive people, the Hebrews passed through the usual stages of development, religiously and morally. Sufficient evidence goes to show that they worshipped many gods in the beginning, as did other Semitics. Joshua once reminded them of their earlier faith:

"Your fathers dwelt on the other side of the flood in old time, even Terah, the father of Abraham, and the father of Nachor: and they served other gods."[1]

"In many respects doubtless their religion was closely akin to that of neighboring Semitic people. They had their sacred pillars, trees, and other emblems of the divine power and presence; they carried with themteraphim, which were apparently images venerated as household gods. In many of their beliefs and practices they did not rise above the general level of their age."[2]

During their long sojourn in Egypt, as might have been expected, they grew to worship Egyptian gods. "Cast ye away every man the abominations of his eyes, and defile not yourselves with the idols of Egypt."[3]

The explanation which has seemed to make clear the unique development of the Hebrew above other Semitics, is this one—only recently offered. It is well-known that the Israelites were originally henotheists—that is, they believed in many gods—believed that many divinities were powerful, but they gave allegiance to one, the god of their tribe. This god belonged to their tribe, and shared its successes and failures. Now when Moses accepted Jahweh, God of the Midianites, he persuaded the Israelites to forsake the gods they were worshipping and give their homage to Jahweh. At the foot ofSinai he caused them to make a covenant with Jahweh: the God was to give them protection, and they were to worship him alone. Because he was an adopted God and not a member of their tribe, he was bound to protect them only when they served him faithfully. The adopted God could cast off his adopted people if they failed to fulfill their part of the contract. The Hebrews always said that they were a peculiar people. They repeatedly referred to the fact that God could cast them off if they were unloyal to him. Such a thing is unknown among other nations. No other God could cast off his people; he was one of them. This explains also why the Hebrews were always so ready to abandon their God and take on the gods of their neighbors.

"In any case it is clear that Jahweh was not originally the god of Israel, but only became such in consequence of the work of Moses and of the events of the exodus....

"Israel's relation to Jahweh was unique.... He was not an ancestral god who stood in a natural and necessary relation to his people, like the gods of other Semitic tribes; but he was the god of Sinai and of Midian, who had come into connection with Israel only through his own free, moral choice. Israel belonged to him, not by birth, but by election. Its existence and its continuance were dependent upon his sovereign good pleasure, and he might cast it off as easily as he had adopted it. Under these circumstances he had the right to make conditions upon which his favour should depend such as other gods could not make. This fact does not explain the ethical character of the Mosaic religion; it explains only why an ethical religion was promulgated at this particular time."[4]

It is the custom of all primitive people to ascribe their early laws and government to divine origin. This rule is seldom varied, and was adhered to by the ancient Hebrews. Instead of conceiving the God-Spirit as having endowed Moses with true insight, wise judgments, and high ideals, the Israelites believed that their Covenant had been dictated, word by word, by Jahweh, while it was further claimed that tablets with words inscribed upon them were given Moses by God himself. As a matter of fact, the earliest decalogue differedwidely from the one best known. The commandments first given the people after they were led forth from Egypt were probably the ones recorded in the twenty-fourth chapter of Exodus, and were something like these:

1. Thou shalt worship no other god.2. Thou shalt make thee no molten gods.3. The feast of unleaven bread shalt thou keep.4. Every firstling is mine.5. Thou shalt keep the feast of the weeks.6. Thou shalt keep the feast of the ingathering at the end of the year.7. Thou shalt not offer the blood of my sacrifice with leaven.8. The fat of my feast shall not be left over until the morning.9. Thou shalt bring the best of the first fruits of thy land to the house of Jehovah thy God.10. Thou shalt not seethe a kid in his mother's milk.

Because Moses was known to the Israelites as a law-giver, laws passed long after his death were attributed to him, quite as laws which came into being years after the death of Hammurabit in Babylon were probably attributed to this great national law-giver.

A company of slaves, escaping from servitude after serving for two or three generations, and having possessed but a crude civilization previous to that experience, would require only the simplest laws, and any one reading the various rules and regulations attributed to this period will easily see how crude was the stage of development which made such instruction necessary. As time went on, and the people advanced and became more enlightened, new laws were possible. These continued to be known as the "Laws of Moses," as laws in all early countries have been attributed to some renowned personage, to give them added force.

In these early periods which we have been studying, the religion of the Hebrews possessed many features in common with those of surrounding nations. We read that the "Children of Israel walked through the fire," which means that they sacrificed their first-born in flames as offerings to their God. Jahweh was believed to be a jealous God, vindictive, demanding cruel treatment of captives, and fierce and relentless in battle. A man cannot get a higher ideal of God than that of a perfect human being, and this was an age when all ideas and ideals were crude.

When the Hebrews settled Canaan, they learned much from the earlier inhabitants of the land. Becoming farmers, they quite naturally fell into the way of worshipping the god of harvests, and other agricultural deities of the Canaanites. The "high places" are repeatedly spoken of, these being places where other gods were worshipped. When roused by danger, they renewed their covenant with Jahweh and returned to more careful performance of their part of the early agreement.

The system of polygamy was well established. Several of the patriarchs took two or more wives. If a man died childless, it was not only customary but a duty that the next in line should marry the widow and raise up seed to his memory. This is expressly shown by the story of Ruth, most attractive in its early simplicity. We learn more of the every day life of the Israelites in the period following Hebrew occupancy of Canaan from this little idyl than from any other source, or from all other sources combined.

So far as germs of government and judicial administration of the people thus far discernible are concerned, they had seemingly not progressed farther than the instruction of Moses led them. The years spent in the wilderness after the exodus were very essential to the future welfare of the Hebrew nation. Their government—to whatever extent they possessed one—was closely allied to their religion. There were many experiences met with in these forty years which seemed to prove Jahweh's care and protection over them, and Moses was regarded as his representative on earth, who received his instructions from Jahweh and delivered them to his people.

"His words were Jehovah's message to them. As he led them in their wilderness wandering, they felt themselves under the direct guidance of their God; he attended to the simple ritual of the desert sanctuary at Kadesh; to him, as the representative of Jehovah, were referred the more difficult cases of dispute which arose; his decisions had all the weight of Jehovah's authority.In this way he laid down by practical illustration the principles of that civil and religious law which bears his name.As these cases multiplied, he was led to constitute a rude patriarchal tribunal composed of the elders of the tribes. In this simple organization is found the germ of the Hebrew judicial and executive system.

"Thus Moses was the man who under divine direction 'hewed Israel from the rock.' Subsequent prophets and circumstances chiselled the rough boulder into symmetrical form, but the glory of the creative act is rightly attributed to the first great Hebrew prophet. As a leader, he not only created a nation, but guided them through infinite vicissitudes to a land where they might have a settled abode and develop into a stable power; in so doing, he left upon his race the imprint of his own personality. As a judge, he set in motion forces which ultimately led to the incorporation of the principles of right in objective laws. As a priest, he first gave form to the worship of Jehovah. As a prophet,he gathered together all that was best in the faith of his age and race, and, fusing them, gave to his people a living religion."[5]

Before the time of the monarchy, their darkest years were those wherein the Israelites departed from this Mosaic teaching; their best periods, those in which they assimilated it and attempted to carry it out. To whatever extent they developed strength and stability for their future nation before the birth of their kingdom, such strength came as a result of the Mosaic religious and moral teaching.

[1]Joshua, 24, 2.[2]Short Hist. of the Hebrews: Ottley, 26.[3]Ezekiel, 20, 7.[4]Early Hist. of Syria and Palestine: Paton, 139, 141.[5]Hist. of the Hebrew People: Kent Vol. I 44.

[1]Joshua, 24, 2.

[2]Short Hist. of the Hebrews: Ottley, 26.

[3]Ezekiel, 20, 7.

[4]Early Hist. of Syria and Palestine: Paton, 139, 141.

[5]Hist. of the Hebrew People: Kent Vol. I 44.

1250B.C.has been taken as an approximate date for the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt, some placing the event still earlier. After the wandering in the desert, considerable time was spent winning Canaan from its earlier possessors before any settlement was possible. The twelfth century and first part of the eleventh before Christ were years of re-adjustment, the Israelites losing the habits of desert nomads and becoming tillers of the soil.

In rocky districts they still raised sheep and cattle but acquired fixed homes. Warfare had been constant, but in later years had been carried on wholly by individual tribes, there being no concerted action. The tendency to divide and seek each its own peculiar interests had been apparent from the first, and the beginning of the eleventh centuryB.C.found the tribes prostrated as a result. The Canaanites no longer threatened them but the Philistines constantly grew bolder. When they pressed into the plain of Jezreel, the Israelites were forced to fight them, but lacking an able leader and sufficient numbers, they lost the day. Surviving instincts of earlier superstitious practices led them to bring the ark containing their covenant with Jehovah from its sanctuary at Shiloh, thinking this might aid them in a second struggle. "Let us fetch the ark of the covenant of Jehovah out of Shiloh unto us, that it may come among us, and save us out of the hand of our enemies." But instead of leading to victory, 30,000 Israelites fell upon the battle field and the sacred ark itself fell into the hands of the Philistines.

"The Philistines burned and destroyed the temple at Shiloh, carried the captured sacred ark to the temple of their chief god, Dagon, and subjected the land, even to the Jordan; the people were disarmed and held in check by Philistine prefects and strongholds. And from all evidence this Philistine domination must have lasted a considerable time. Israel seemed paralyzed and submitted, though with gnashing of teeth."[1]

When Israel lay stricken and at the mercy of her enemies on the west, the Ammonites thought the time favorable to lead a new attack for the purpose of recovering their earlier territories on the east. The town of Jabesh was first afflicted, and when its inhabitants offered to surrender, feeling helpless to overpower their ancient foes, the king of the Ammonites insolently replied that he would cause the right eye of each citizen of the town to be cast out, as a reproach to Israel. In the quaint expression of Josephus: "The king of the Ammonites sent ambassadors to them, commanding them either to deliver themselves up, on condition to have their right eyes plucked out, or to undergo a siege, and have their cities overthrown. He gave them their choice, whether they would cut off a small number of their body, or universally perish." Implored to grant them a few days respite, the king of the Ammonites scornfully conceded it, sure of his ultimate triumph.

In Ephraim dwelt a seer, Samuel by name. He was a godly man, having rare purity of character and intense religious fervor. Dedicated when a child to the service of Jehovah, the course of his life had led him to catch the spirit of the great founder of the Hebrew nation and beyond him, to gain a broader conception of the great God-Spirit. He understood why his people were a prey to every neighbor, and knew better than most how much a firm leadership was needed by them. With eyes that saw far into the future, Samuel realized that the crying need was unity and concerted action. Now in these ancient days, unity meant kingship. Under strong kings, contemporary nations flourished, and a king was apparently necessary in Canaan.

Saul, of the tribe of Benjamin, seeking his father's asses, approached the seer, whose prophetic powers were well known in his vicinity. The youth thought simply to invoke his aid in his private interests, but Samuel recognized in the broad-shouldered, well-proportioned Benjaminite one who might come to the rescue of stricken Israel. With prophetic vision, Samuel foretold coming events and anointed Saul as one chosen of Jehovah to rule the nation of His special care. Since he was not called immediately to action, Saul returned to his father's house, where he went about his ordinary duties. But the words of the seer had sunk deep into his heart. Indications of Israel's stricken condition were not wanting on every hand, and Saul brooded over her helplessness and his call to save his people. At length, when the citizens from mourning Jabesh visited his vicinity, vainly trying to rouse their kinsmen to action, Saul saw that his opportunity had come. Sympathy had been everywhere expressed by the Israelites, but they had suffered too many recent defeats to feel confidence in their ability to win.

Saul hastily cut up a yoke of oxen, and sending these bloody tokens to the various tribes, he notified them that such treatment would be meted out to their flocks and herds unless they came to the relief of the trans-Jordan cities. Recognizing a leader at last, men quickly gathered. The desert tribe was surprised, defeated and pursued into its desert strongholds. Thereupon Saul was popularly proclaimed king, as it was now believed that he alone could save the Hebrews from the Philistines, who were heavily oppressing them.

A king is ordinarily one who rules a kingdom, but in the case of Saul, a kingdom had first to be won. His encounters with the Philistines were successful, but his reign proved to be a continual campaign against them. Gradually Saul became estranged from Samuel, who represented the best element in Israel. Priests of a later period assigned the difference between them as having arisen over Saul's leniency toward his captives, but it is believed that instead it came naturally between two men whose ideals were wide apart. Saul was incapable of taking an exalted view of his people's mission, as did his priest and prophet.

Beset on all sides by the enemy, estranged from Samuel and in general from the priesthood, Saul became moody and subject to fits of melancholia. To dispel these, David, son of Jesse, was brought from his father's flocks on the mountainside, to gladden the king's idle hours. David was accomplished upon the harp, and his music had power to quiet the restless king, who heaped favors and honors upon him—after the nature of his impulsive disposition. As armour-bearer to the king, David had frequent opportunities to distinguish himself, while he and the king's son Jonathan became fast friends. However, as David grew in favor with the people, Saul became intensely jealous of him. Where the kingship was butan experiment, popularity was important to a ruler. In his disordered brain, Saul conceived that a plot was being laid by his son and David, and as a result, David was obliged to flee for his life. He raised his standard as an outlaw chief, and all the dissatisfied element of the land flocked to his side. Yet even here David favored the people of Israel whenever he could; for protection he went into the service of the Philistine king of Gath, but we are told that when he was supposed to be fighting against the Hebrews, he was in reality fighting off their desert enemies.

The division within the ranks of Israel once more gave opportunity to the watchful Philistines. They made ready for a final assault, and the moody and disheartened Saul prepared to fight them back. He was no longer able to rouse his kinsmen as at first. Many were discontented with his rule, and many favored David. Before the battle, Saul, grown more superstitious with the pressure of circumstance, visited the witch of Endor to learn by her art the issue of the battle. Never does the king, tall in stature and once confident, but now broken in spirit, appear more tragic. When she predicted defeat—and small art was needed to foretell such an apparent outcome—Saul felt that all was lost. One feels as when the voice of Cæsar spake unto Brutus in the great play: "Thou shalt see me at Philippi"—the battle is lost before it is begun.

When all was lost, Saul gave his sword to his armour-bearer to stab him lest he fall into the hands of the enemy. When he lacked courage, he plunged it into his own breast. Both he and his noble son Jonathan went down on that fateful field, and so ended the first reign in Israel. David is believed to have composed his beautiful elegy "How are the Mighty Fallen" upon this occasion.

Thy glory, O Israel,Is slain upon thy high places!How are the mighty—Fallen!Tell it not in Gath,Publish it not in the streets of Ashkelon;Lest the daughters of the Philistines rejoice,Lest the daughters of the uncircumcised triumph.Ye mountains of Gilboa, let there be no dew nor rain upon you,Neither fields of offerings:For the shield of the mighty was vilely cast away,The shield of Saul, as of one not anointed with oil.From the blood of the slain,From the fat of the mighty,The bow of Jonathan turned not back,And the sword of Saul returned not empty.Saul and Jonathan were lovely and pleasant in their lives,And in their death they were not divided;They were swifter than eagles,They were stronger than lions.Ye daughters of Israel,Weep over Saul,Who clothed you in scarlet,Who put ornaments of gold upon your apparel.How are the mighty—Fallen in the midst of the battle!O Jonathan,Slain upon thy high places.I am distressed for thee, my brother Jonathan:Very pleasant hast thou been unto me:Thy love to me was wonderful,Passing the love of women.How are the mighty—Fallen!And the weapons of war—Perished!—Modern Reader's Bible.

Thy glory, O Israel,Is slain upon thy high places!How are the mighty—Fallen!

Tell it not in Gath,Publish it not in the streets of Ashkelon;Lest the daughters of the Philistines rejoice,Lest the daughters of the uncircumcised triumph.

Ye mountains of Gilboa, let there be no dew nor rain upon you,Neither fields of offerings:For the shield of the mighty was vilely cast away,The shield of Saul, as of one not anointed with oil.

From the blood of the slain,From the fat of the mighty,The bow of Jonathan turned not back,And the sword of Saul returned not empty.

Saul and Jonathan were lovely and pleasant in their lives,And in their death they were not divided;They were swifter than eagles,They were stronger than lions.

Ye daughters of Israel,Weep over Saul,Who clothed you in scarlet,Who put ornaments of gold upon your apparel.

How are the mighty—Fallen in the midst of the battle!O Jonathan,Slain upon thy high places.

I am distressed for thee, my brother Jonathan:Very pleasant hast thou been unto me:Thy love to me was wonderful,Passing the love of women.

How are the mighty—Fallen!And the weapons of war—Perished!

—Modern Reader's Bible.

In the Old Testament itself are two contradictory estimates of the character of Saul. One was written by those who favored and cared for him; the other, by the faction which favored David. Later compilers have thrown the two together, and the result is that we must once more disentangle the two narratives and then judge between them. The following characterizations of him differ considerably, and yet have certain ideas in common:

"Saul is one of the most tragic figures in history. A great and nobly endowed nature, heroic and chivalrous, inspired with fiery zeal, he finally accomplished nothing.... He lacked appreciation of the true character of Israel; in this regard tradition has given a wholly correct picture of him. He was exclusively a soldier, and was in a fair way to exchange Israel into a secular military state and thus divert it from its religious function in universal history. Saul may claim our deepest compassion and our heartiest sympathy, but the fall of his power was a blessing for Israel."[2]

The second criticism upon the fallen king seems more fair and sympathetic:

"Saul was a simple-minded, impulsive, courageous warrior; he was a loyal patriot who loved his people and was ready to give his life for them; his physical pre-eminence, combined with energy and enthusiasm, fitted him to lead a sudden attack and to awaken loyal support, while his intrepid courage kindled the same in others. But Saul was a son of that rude age whose roots were found in the period of the Judges. In a sense he was a child grown big. The position which he occupied demanded executive ability, tact, the power of organization, and, above all, patience and persistency. In these maturer qualities he was deficient; they are rarely the possession of fiery, impetuous natures. In addition, Saul was unable to understand and appreciate the higher religious experiences and ideals which were already becoming the possession of the more enlightened souls of seers like Samuel. As is frequently true with such a nature, Saul was superstitious. Circumstances tended to develop the darker rather than the brighter side of his character. The constant trials and cares of the court and battle-field daunted his enthusiasm, and induced those attacks of melancholia which obscured the nobler Saul and led him to commit acts which constantly increased the density of the clouds that gathered about his latter days.

"When he fell at Gilboa, and the Philistines again became masters of northern and central Canaan, Saul's work seemed to be completely undone;but its foundations were laid too deeply to be undermined by political changes. Saul found the Hebrews ground down under Philistine dominance, broken in spirit, undisciplined, and little more than cowards. He united and aroused them to strike for independence. By his successes he inspired in them confidence and courage. In the severe training-school of Philistine warfare, he developed out of the cowards who had fled before the Philistine army to hide themselves in caves and cisterns, the hardy, brave warriors with whom David made his conquests. Above all, he taught the Hebrews by practical illustration, more clearly than ever before, that by union and union alone they could be free, and enjoy peace and prosperity. As is often the case,the pioneer perished amidst seeming failure before he saw the ripe fruits of his labors; but his work was absolutely necessary. David reaped the fruits of Saul's sowing, but the harvest would never have been so glorious without the pioneer's toils."[3]

Saul is supposed to have ruled not longer than eight or ten years. His youngest son, Eshbaal, was recognized as his natural successor. Abner, Saul's commander-in-chief, gave Eshbaal the support of whatever army survived, and he was established on the east side of the Jordan, while all the territory west of the river receded to the Philistines.

David realized that he was in no position to assume control of the Hebrews at this juncture, for he had but a few hundred followers and he was sure to be welcomed by all the tribes only when his services were required for the common safety. Judah was deeply attached to him at this time, and he allowed himself to be made king of the tribe of Judah, and established himself at Hebron.

As soon as Eshbaal felt sufficiently secure on the east of Jordan Abner was sent to overcome David and his followers, who had thus failed to recognize the kingship of Eshbaal. They suffered defeat and had to retreat across the river. The times were troublous and before eight years had passed, both Eshbaal and Abner were murdered. This left the way open for David, to whom the subjects of Eshbaal sent homage.

The Philistines had considered the little kingdom of Saul's son unworthy of attention, but a kingdom on the west side of the river might prove a menace to their power, so they hastened to attack the newly crowned king. David marched against them and broke forever their strength. They retired into their earlier possessions and harassed Israel no more.

One by one the old enemies of the Hebrews had to be reckoned with. The Moabites attacked the territory of David and were overcome and made vassals. On the north the Ammonites made a raid and were so completely defeated that we hear of them no more. On the south the Edomites made war, and their lands also became a Hebrew province. In all these wars, David was the defender of his people—never the aggressor, yet he left each tribe with no further desire to make war upon Israel.

David was a statesman, and he saw at once that as king of the Hebrews, he must no longer remain isolated with his native tribe, in the vicinity to him most familiar. He saw that the site of Jerusalem was capable of excellent defense, and this he made his capital.

"Jerusalem is situated pretty near the central part of the entire country, and belonging to none of the tribes it stood on neutral ground above them and their rivalries. When it is called the City of David this is no mere phrase, for Jerusalem is altogether the creation of David; and when we consider what Jerusalem was to the people of Israel, and through the people of Israel to all mankind, we shall recognize in the foundation of this City of David an event of world-wide importance."

Israel had reached the highest pinnacle of its political power. David's kingdom was the most powerful one between the valley of the Euphrates and the Nile. While disturbances extended throughout the reign until within the last ten of David's forty years, yet the nation was saved from impending danger and was placed on a sure basis. Now it was that David allowed his personal desires to lead him into difficulties which followed him many years and which darkened the reign which had promised so much. An infatuation for Bath-sheba, wife of one of his officers, took possession of him, and caused him to make way with her husband who stood in his way. Like other Semitic and Oriental nations, the Hebrews were accustomed to take more than one wife, but the religion of Jehovah had been from the beginning a moral religion, and the more earnest among Israel's people could but be shocked by this action on the part of the king. Much has been made of David's remorse, but it was not so great but that he allowed the unscrupulous woman who had aided him in his wrongdoing to exercise a strong influence over him throughout his life. His sons seemed to feel no restraint upon them and added crimes to their house. Absalom, David's favorite son, took advantage of his father's loss of popularity to raise a revolt against him. This was easily put down, but the death of Absalom quite unnerved the king. Bath-sheba rested not until she had settled the succession upon her son, Solomon. Shortly after this decision was made known, David died, having reigned forty years. In realizing what all these years meant for Israel, we can never lose sight of the pioneer work of Saul which alone made possible the more brilliant one of his successor.

"It is not possible to overestimate what David did for Israel: Israel as a people, as a representative of political life, as a concrete quantity in the development of universal history, as a nation in the fullest sense of the word, is exclusively his work. With this he completed what Moses had begun in quiet and inconspicuous labors on Sinai and at Kadesh. And all of this David created as it were out of nothing, under the most difficult conditions conceivable, with no other means than his own all-inspiring and all-compelling personality....

"David created Israel and at the same time raised it toits highest eminence; what Israel was under and through David it never again became. And so we can easily understand how the eyes of Israel rested in grateful reverence upon this figure, and how a second David became the dream of Israel's future.

"True, the picture of David does not lack the traits of human frailty, which Israelitish tradition, with a truly admirable sincerity has neither suppressed nor palliated; but the charm which this personality exercised over all contemporaries without exception has not yet faded for us of later day; whoever devoted himself without prejudice to the contemplation of David's history and character cannot fail to like him. A saint and psalm-singer, as later tradition has represented him, he certainly was not; but we find in him, a truly noble human figure, which, in spite of all, preserved the tenderest and most fragrant bloom of its nature, perfect directness and simplicity; nowhere any posing, nothing theatrical, such as is always found in sham greatness; he always acts out what he is, but his unspoiled nature, noble at heart, generally comes very near to the right and good. At the same time the whole personality is touched with a breath of genuine piety and childlike trust in God, so that we can wholly comprehend how he appears to tradition as the ideal ruler, the king after God's own heart.

"This king, who did more for the worldly greatness and earthly power of Israel than any one else, was a genuine Israelite in that he appreciated also Israel's religious destiny: he was no soldier-king, no conqueror and warrior of common stamp, no ruler like any one of a hundred others, but he is the truest incorporation of the unique character of Israel, a unique personality in the history of the world, and we understand how he could become the impersonation of an idea—how the highest and holiest that Israel hoped for and longed for appears at the Son of David."[4]

We are shocked as we read of David's cruelty to captives, but in his ferocious treatment he was but following an instinct common to the Semitic race. It is to be remembered that he was but a brief time removed from the era of the Judges, when even Samuel, the far-seeing seer, and God-fearing man, hacked an enemy to pieces before the altar of Jehovah, to the supposedgratification of his God. David's faults were common to his age, and they were not looked upon by his contemporaries as we look upon them today, but his virtues and redeeming characteristics raised him far above the majority of Israel's people, and his reign was harked back to as most worthy in Hebrew annals.

Solomon was the son of David's fourth wife—Bathsheba. Selfish, devoid of principle and fond of intrigue, she influenced David to recognize her son as his successor, setting aside the right of an older son. It is not unlikely that David believed Solomon the more capable of serving Israel.

Solomon had inherited his mother's selfishness and love of display. He soon caused the death of his brother, in order to make his crown secure. Having neither aptitude nor ability for war, fortifications took the place of active armies. The vassal-kingdoms which David had won were soon lost. Forts were erected at important border places, and the city of Jerusalem was strongly fortified.

Oriental display and absolutism were emulated by the young king. He desired to set his kingdom on a footing with other kingdoms of his time, and, ignoring the early aims and mission of the Israelites, he made everything else subordinate to the exaltation of the court and king. Commercial alliances were made with neighboring peoples; wives were taken from many states—petty and great. Most flattering was thought to be the marriage alliance between the Hebrew king and a daughter of the pharaoh of Egypt, and elaborate apartments were provided her. In early times a king added materially to his property and prestige by making numerous alliances of this sort. David had deemed it best to do so and Solomon followed the principle on a much wider scale.

Naturally ample funds were now required to meet the expenses of the court, and various means were provided to secure the necessary income. The whole kingdom was divided into twelve districts and each was required to defray the court's expenses for one month. Moreover, commercial enterprises were entered upon; toll was collected from the overland trade, and the king himself dealt heavily in horses, which he imported from Egypt and sold to the neighboring peoples at agood profit. Suddenly the little nation of Israelites, so long isolated and remote from the influences of wealth, was thrown open to outside contact on every hand.

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