OASIS IN THE SAHARA.OASIS IN THE SAHARA.
Oases differ in character. Sometimes they are mere patches, covered with bushes and coarse grass, usually surrounding a spring. More often they are tracts ofrare beauty and of great fertility, with a good supply of water.
In traveling through the Great Desert, the easiest route is from Tripoli, through the kingdoms of Fezzan, to Lake Tchad. The kingdom of Fezzan is favored as to climate. It has periodical rains, on account of the moist winds which blow from the Mediterranean Sea. These seem to extend farther inland here than in any other part of the continent.
East of this route across the Sahara there is a portion of the desert called the Libyan Desert. Oases are, in this section, very easily cultivated. In the western section of the Sahara the land of the oases is fit only for pasturing goats and sheep.
In some of these more fertile oases of the eastern sections, thousands of inhabitants may be found living in comfortable villages. There may be found the date palm in cultivation, together with other fruits and some grains. Gum arabic is also a product of this region. It is obtained from the sap which exudes from the trunk of the acacia tree.
Commerce across the Great Desert is not carried on without difficulty and danger. There are various routes over which caravans of from five hundred to two thousand camels and their drivers travel.
The distance between the springs, or wells, is frequently more than a ten-days' journey. Often such a spring is reached only to be found dry, and then both the men and the animals are in danger of perishing for lack of water.
We, who are so accustomed to an abundance of freshwater, can scarcely realize how it would seem to travel with one of these caravans, and to be able to quench our thirst only from the supply of water carried in leather bags slung from the sides of the patient camels. A glass of water that has stood over night does not seem very palatable to us; yet, doubtless, it would seem refreshing compared with water that had been carried in a leather bag for ten days, exposed to the burning heat of the desert's sands and sun.
A wise Providence has fitted the camel with a special paunch, or stomach, the cells of which it fills with water before starting out on one of these journeys. This supply has to suffice for its needs until more water can be obtained from some distant spring. It has been stated that the cells of the camel's stomach can absorb and hold upwards of a gallon of water when the animal is preparing to start out upon one of its long journeys across the desert.
Should a caravan, in crossing the desert, reach a spring or well, the waters of which had run dry, perhaps the life of one of the camels would have to be sacrificed, in the hope of getting a supply of water from its stomach. This water would be all that the drivers would have with which to sustain life until another spring could be reached.
Nature has fitted the camel most admirably for its desert home. In addition to its true stomach, with its peculiar cell-like lining, it has a second stomach, or honeycombed paunch. These are both capable of holding a large supply of water.
The hump of the camel is another wise provision toenable the animal to endure the hardships of its long journeys, often on a very short supply of food. A few beans, dates, or carob pods are all the camel receives after a long day's march, when there is no herbage on which it can browse.
Shrubby plants, such as the camel's thorn, of which the animal is very fond, are all that the sterile sands of the desert can produce for its needs.
The drivers and owners of the camels look very carefully to the condition of the hump of each animal before starting out on a march across the desert.
The hump is really a storehouse for fat. When plump and well rounded, it indicates that the animal is in perfect health. If, after a long march, this hump becomes wasted, whether because the animal has become exhausted, or because he has had insufficient food, it is often necessary to prescribe complete rest. Even with an abundance of food, and no work to do, it may take three or four months before the camel is restored to perfect health and full powers of endurance, as indicated by its firm, plump hump.
The foot of the camel is formed to keep it from sinking in the sand. It is furnished with an extended pad, or cushion. This pad is protected from the heat of the burning sands by means of a thick sole.
The skin on the chest and kneejoints is thickened into what are called callosities. It is upon these that the camel rests when it lies down, or when it kneels to receive a load.
The camel has been called the ship of the desert. It can carry twice the load of a mule. It travelsslowly, yet it moves at a steady, uniform pace. It can thus travel for hundreds and hundreds of miles at the rate of two miles and a half an hour.
The motion of the camel is most peculiar. It is a swaying from side to side, not at all agreeable to one unaccustomed to riding upon its back.
This motion is caused by the camel moving both feet on a side at once. In this way, first one side of its body is thrown forward, then the other.
To protect the camel against the shifting sands and the burning heat of the sun, nature has further fitted it for its peculiar home and life. It has the power to close its nostrils at will to keep out the sand. Long lashes protect its eyes, not only from the storms of wind and sand, but also from the glare and the heat.
From time immemorial the camel has been known as the beast of burden in India, Arabia, and Africa. This species, the one-humped camel, or dromedary, differs somewhat from that having two humps. The latter has been found in Central Asia, Persia, and the south of Russia.
Recently a report has been received from St. Petersburg that wild camels have been discovered in large quantities in a district of Asia; but nowhere in history do we read of camels that are not domesticated.
The sculptures of Assyria depict both species. The patient animal is mentioned in the oldest books of the Bible. Many of our pleasantest associations in connection with our earliest Bible lessons center about this animal, in connection with "the wise men of the East," and other scenes connected with the birth and early life of our Saviour.
The fourth division of Africa comprises what is sometimes called Barbary. It includes the mountainous countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli.
In its general character this northern section bears a strong resemblance to the opposite coast of Europe, with respect to peculiarities of soil and climate and the variety of its products.
The southern slope of the Atlas region gradually merges into the Great Desert. Some parts of this range are above what is called the snow line. The summits of some of the peaks are thirteen thousand feet high.
The Barbary States extend from the borders of Egypt on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west. The Mediterranean Sea is the northern boundary; the Sahara is the southern.
Although the country of Morocco is generally mountainous, yet there are deviations from this characteristic feature of it.
The Atlas Mountains traverse the country in several parallel chains, running from southwest to northeast. Towards the coast country and the desert these chains send out spurs of hills and detached mountain groups.
At the western and eastern extremities of Morocco, and along the borders of the desert, there are many level tracts.
It is in Morocco that the central range of the Atlas Mountains forms a watershed. This watershed separates the rivers which flow into the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea from those which flow south towards the desert.
The rivers flowing south have a longer course and more volume of water than the rivers flowing towards the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. The latter rivers are, however, perennial, while those flowing south are apt to become dry in summer. Even after their currents are full, the waters lose themselves in the sands of the Sahara.
The climate of Morocco is temperate between the central range of the Atlas Mountains and the sea. There are no extremes of temperature, owing to the influence of the sea breeze and the shelter which the mountains afford from the scorching winds of the desert. In the southeast districts there are great extremes of heat and cold, and rain is an unknown blessing.
The even climate of the temperate regions is favorable to such productions as wheat, barley, rice, maize, and the sugar cane. Such fruits as the fig, pomegranate, lemon, orange, and date are common here, between the Atlas range and the sea. Cotton, tobacco, and hemp are produced in great quantities, not only for domestic use but for exportation.
Algeria really forms the northern boundary of the great plateau of North Africa. This plateau rises from the sea, at this point, in the form of three terraces. The Atlas Mountains run parallel to the coast line of Algeria.
Beyond this range of mountains is a vast tract of heath-covered plains. These are interspersed with salt lakes. The vast tract stretches southward till hemmed in by a chain of mountains of various heights.
Beyond this plain lies the Desert of Sahara, which extends to the banks of the Niger.
In the north of Algeria there are many plains and valleys which open out into the sea. Many of those around Oran, Bona, and Algiers are exceedingly fertile. They abound in wood and water, and, having a good soil, are well suited to agriculture. These tracts form what is known as the Tell. This was once one of the granaries of Italy.
In strong contrast to this fertile section are the lesser deserts, which lie back of the Atlas Mountains, where they follow the coast line.
These are covered with herbs and brushwood. They are almost destitute of fresh water. Occasionally an oasis is found, to break the monotony.
Beyond the Atlas Mountains, in the most southern section, the country partakes of the nature of the Sahara. There are, however, large oases, covered with date palms. These oases are well peopled. They form a part of what is called the date country.
Algeria has no rivers of any great importance. There are a few coast streams, which have their rise in the neighboring Atlas range.
The climate of Algeria has greater extremes of temperature than Morocco. In the district of the Tell the heat is often very intense. Along the coast of Algeria the heat is tempered by the sea breeze. Up among thehigh mountains, in the interior of the country, the temperature in the winter season is often cold.
GATHERING DATES.GATHERING DATES.
Algeria is not unfrequently the victim of thesimoon, or hot wind. This same wind the Italians callsirocco. The Spaniards term it thesolano.
Large portions of Algeria are covered by extensive forests of oaks, cedars, pines, and pistachio trees. These supply an abundance of timber and resin.
In the Tell section the olive and the various cereals are cultivated.
Tunis, like the other Barbary States, is traversed by the mountains of the Atlas range, which finally terminate here.
The northern coast of Tunis is steep and rocky. It is indented by numerous bays. The largest of these is the Gulf of Tunis. Two promontories, Cape Blanco and Cape Bon, are the most northern points in Africa.
The eastern coast offers a strong contrast to the northern coast. It is flat, sandy, and unproductive. It bears a strong resemblance to Tripoli, as we shall see. The coast has two large gulfs, Hammamet and Gabes.
The southern portion of Tunis belongs to the desert steppe called Belud-el-Jerid.
Tunis has but one fresh-water lake of any extent. This is situated near the north coast.
The brooks and the torrents of Tunis do not make many wanderings. Their waters lose themselves in the sands, or seek a short course to the sea. None of the streams are navigable.
The longest river was well known to the ancients under the name Bagradas. It now bears the name Mejerdah, and flows in a general northeast direction, into the Gulf of Tunis.
Tunis has several fine mineral springs, though it has no rivers. Thus does Nature seem to compensate for the lack of one blessing by the bestowal of another.
Tunis enjoys a fine climate and an exceedingly fertile soil. The people have only an imperfect knowledge of agriculture, but the natural advantages of the soil and climate are so great that little labor is necessary. Hence, we find wheat, barley, maize, olives, oranges, figs, grapes, pomegranates, almonds, and dates produced in abundance. In the culture of olives for oil more care is expended than in other directions. The supply of oil is very abundant, and exceedingly profitable.
Great herds of cattle and flocks of sheep feed on the plains. The wool of the sheep of Tunis is far famed.
The horses and the dromedaries, or camels, are considered very fine, and command a good price.
Tripoli is the most easterly of the Barbary States. It is not so mountainous as the other countries comprising Barbary. The Atlas Mountains terminate here in two chains that run parallel with the coast. The summits of the mountains in this section never exceed four thousand feet in height.
Tripoli has no rivers. During the long hot summers rain rarely falls. In compensation, there is a copious supply of dew. So plentiful is this dewfall, in some favored sections, as really to support vegetation.
The coast region is about eleven hundred miles in extent. Some sections of it are very fertile and productive. All kinds of tropical fruits are found, together with grain, grapes, cotton, and madder.
Farther to the east, along the shores of the Gulf of Sidra, nothing but dreary wastes of sand prevail. Here desolation may be said to reign.
The interior sections of Tripoli yield senna, dates, and nutgalls. The carob and the lotus are also found.
Here, as in Tunis, much attention is paid to the rearing of sheep and cattle. The small, yet beautiful horses, and the strong, well-formed mules of Tripoli are highly prized and much sought after.
The fifth division of Africa borders on the Red Sea. It includes the countries of Abyssinia, Nubia, and Egypt.
Between Abyssinia and the Mediterranean Sea is the low valley of the Nile. This is separated from the Red Sea on the east by a bold, mountainous region. A low ridge of limestone and sandstone hills separates it from the Libyan Desert on the west.
Abyssinia, orHabesh, as the Arabs call it, is a large highland tract in East Africa. It rises from the Red Sea, in a series of terraces, towards the southwest.
Between the highlands of Abyssinia and the Red Sea, lies a flat tract of country called Adal. This tract is very narrow at its northern extremity, but gradually widens towards its southern extremity.
The plains of Nubia and Kordofan form the northern and western boundaries of Abyssinia. There is comparatively little known of its southern boundaries.
The general characteristics of the country are high table-lands, intersected by deep ravines and steep terraces of sandstone.
These ravines have been formed by the action of the rivers upon the rocks. Sandstone, being a comparatively soft rock, would, in the course of ages, be gradually worn away as the waters flowed over it. No doubt the terraces have been formed from the exposure of these rocks to the elements for countless ages.
Above the table-lands rise numerous chains of mountains. These are mostly of volcanic origin. Some of the highest of these summits rise to a height of fifteen thousand feet above sea level. Many of the plains lie at an elevation of from seven to ten thousand feet.
Abyssinia gives rise to numerous rivers. The largest of these are the Blue Nile and the Takazzie, an affluent of the Nile. In the southern part of the country is the Hawash. It flows eastward through a section bearing the same name, and finally enters the salt lake, Assal.
The largest lake of Abyssinia is the Dembea. It is through this lake that the Blue Nile flows.
In the elevated sections of Abyssinia the climate is temperate and salubrious. Along the low coast sections, and in the sections at the north and northwest, the heat is not only excessive but the climate is most noxious.
Taken as a whole, Abyssinia is a very fertile country. It shows, however, as great diversities of products as of climate. This is due to the different degrees of elevation in the various sections.
Wheat and barley are cultivated to some extent, together with various leguminous, or pod-bearing, plants, cotton, coffee, sugar cane, and tobacco. The coffee plant grows wild to a great extent.
Nubia is the modern name of a country once subject to the Khedive of Egypt. It was probably known to the ancients under the name Ethiopia. The boundaries of Nubia are the Red Sea on the east, Egypt on the north, Abyssinia on the south, and the Sahara on the west.
The country is traversed by the Blue Nile and the White Nile.
Nubia has an arid soil. In many places cultivation is possible only along the banks of the Nile. Some portions of the soil consist only of granite and sandstone.
The products of the cultivated sections are numerous. They comprise maize, dates, tamarinds, gums, aloes, and senna. Among the various exports may be noted musk, wax, myrrh, frankincense, black wool, elephant and rhinoceros hides, and ivory. Ostrich feathers, ebony, gold dust, saltpetre, salt, tobacco, coffee, and cotton are also exported to Egypt.
Some curious customs prevail. Taxes are rated by the number of water wheels a man uses to irrigate his land. The more water wheels he uses, the more valuable his land, hence, the higher his taxes. There is no national currency, but the coins of Egypt and Europe are used. The Spanish dollar is also used to a great extent. Glass beads, coral, shirts, and cloth are used in barter, and take the place of currency. In Kordofan, the value of goods is reckoned by the number of cows they are worth.
The most primitive system of measurement prevails. Maize is sold by the handful; eighteen of these make what would correspond to one of our larger measures. In measuring cloth, the distance from the elbow to the fingers is employed as we would use a foot rule or a yardstick.
The costumes of the people are peculiar. They consist of turbans, and linen and woolen garments. The men arm themselves with lances, and shields made from the tough hide of the hippopotamus.
The customs of the people are somewhat singular. They are averse to eating meat, and practice the rites of the Mohammedan faith. They live in low huts built of mud or stone. They care little for strangers, and do not wish to engage much in commerce. They are fond of music, and in their leisure moments play upon a guitar of five strings. It is a simple instrument, having a sounding-board made of the skin of a gazelle.
There are few attractions in Nubia beyond the numerous temples and other ancient remains of the Egyptians.
Egypt occupies a position in Northeast Africa. It extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the first cataract of the Nile. The name "Egypt" was derived from the Greek. It is as old as the age of Homer. In the ancient languages Egypt was called by a name signifying "Black Land." This name was given to it, no doubt, from the color of the soil.
Egypt may be regarded as the bed of the Nile. The cultivated portions of it extend only to the limits of the yearly inundation.
In the days of antiquity the Nile had several mouths. Five of these mouths have, in the course of ages, become filled with silt. The whole alluvial district which these mouths enclosed formed the ancient Delta. The ancients believed that the whole of this alluvial deposit had been gained from the sea.
The basin of the Nile, or Egypt proper, is formed by the ranges of the Arabian hills on the east and the Libyan on the west. The eastern chain of these mountains is about one thousand feet above the level of the sea.
Egypt is separated from Nubia by a low hilly region. This region is about fifty miles broad from north to south. It is composed of granite rocks. The same formation of rocks extends up the shore of the Red Sea, nearly to the opening of the Gulf of Suez. It stretches inland over a tract of some thirty miles in extent.
In this section of Egypt the scenery is wild and picturesque. The course of the Nile is frequently interrupted here by cliffs or broken masses of granite rock. It is in this way that the magnificent, yet disastrous, cataracts of the Nile are formed. The granite section of Egypt terminates at Assouan. Much of the material used in building the great monuments of Egypt must have been brought from this section.
Upper Egypt is bounded by two ranges of hills. Both these ranges run northward. The Arabian range is on the right, the Libyan on the left, of the river. Sandstone prevails to a great extent in both these ranges. It is a durable rock, easily cut. It was used very extensively in the erection of ancient temples. The ancient city of Thebes was built of it.
The sandstone rocks in a large section of Egypt are covered with moving desert sands. In the lands which border the Nile they are covered with the alluvial deposit which the river brings down in its course.
PAPYRUS ON THE NILE.PAPYRUS ON THE NILE.
All along the valley of the Nile the scenery is tame and monotonous. The sandstone is easily worn away by the action of the waters, and this in a measure accounts for the table-lands, which are of frequent occurrence. It would also account for the vast amount of alluvial deposit, most of it being worn-out rocks.
The fertile valley of the Nile differs widely from the desert regions which enclose it. This is true not only of the botanical life, but of the zoölogical life as well.
Many of the European trees and plants are found in Egypt. The date palm, sycamore, acacia, and tamarisk are some of the trees peculiar to its climate. The papyrus, which the ancients used largely in the manufacture of paper, and the lotus, or water lily of the Nile, are peculiar to Egypt.
Of late years the cultivation of the papyrus plant has been neglected. Specimens of it are now rather rare. Sugar cane, cotton, indigo, and tobacco are cultivated in its place.
Gourds and melons are found in abundance. Wheat and barley were extensively cultivated by the ancients. These are still cultivated, and maize and durra have been added. The latter is a coarse, strong grass. It grows to a height of from four to eight feet. It has thickly crowded panicles. The grain is round, and about the size of a mustard seed. Durra may be regarded as the principal corn plant of Africa. It yields an abundant product. It is even more productive than maize, but the meal from it does not make good bread. Used like rice, it makes an excellent pudding, or may be used in other forms for food. The stalks and husks are coarse, but make excellent fodder for horses and cattle. The grain, too, is often given to them.
Egypt is very deficient in timber land. Pharaoh obtained cedar from Lebanon and ebony from Ethiopia, as our Bible history tells us.
Space will not allow us to linger over either modern or ancient Egypt. The latter is more fascinating than the former. It will be interesting for us to take ourBibles and, looking over the Old Testament, acquaint ourselves with the stories of Moses, Joseph, Pharaoh, and other characters of the days of ancient history.
Did space permit, we might dwell upon the ancient occupations, as glass blowing and pottery, and upon the various implements connected with them. The bellows, siphons, chisels, presses, balances, levers, and harpoons would awaken our interest and curiosity, if we could but look into some museum of Egyptian relics.
The weapons of war, too,—the spears, clubs, maces, swords, daggers, bows, and hatchets,—would seem to us not only strange, but formidable. No less interesting would be the pictures of war boats, and the galleys used upon the Nile.
We might delight to run our fingers over the ancient harps, lyres, and guitars. The drums, flutes, cymbals, and tambourines would have fascinations for most of us, making us wish to test our musical ear.
There are many books, however, that can satisfy our curiosity over the lives of the ancient Egyptians, and we shall be fascinated by all we may find time to read.
For many years Africa was believed to be a land destitute of rivers in its interior sections. The explorations made by Dr. Livingstone proved to the world that what had been formerly termed the unexploredterritory is not the barren, riverless region that imagination had pictured.
Still, the nature of the rivers was for a long time but imperfectly determined.
It is generally acknowledged that, of all the great rivers, there is scarcely one that has been successfully traced from source to mouth throughout its entire length. Even the tributaries of these rivers are but imperfectly known, owing to the many difficulties attending their exploration.
We have a right, then, to expect much from later investigation, as more and more of the country is opened to observation.
The journals of such men as Livingstone and Stanley open a vast storehouse of knowledge to those who read them. Fascinated, as by a romance, we lose ourselves in these pages, and in imagination follow their footsteps through "Darkest Africa."
The rivers of South Africa have their rise mostly in the neighboring highlands. Many of these rivers are, in fact, not much greater than mountain torrents, whose courses are as short as their currents are rapid.
Most of the rivers of Africa have obstructions, in the form of sand bars, at their mouths. The Orange River is a striking example, the water at its mouth being choked by a vast deposit of sand.
The chief great rivers of Africa are the Nile, the Niger, the Zambesi, the Orange, the Congo, the Senegal, and the Gambia.
Although all the great rivers have served as links to connect the journeys of the various explorers, yet theNile, the Niger, the Zambesi, and the Congo have been chosen as the chief guides for the more recent explorations.
Each of these great rivers has distinct characteristics and striking peculiarities. The Nile, though a river of the greatest antiquity, was for many, many years a problem in the minds of those busied with the geography of Africa.
Many of the records kept by the early explorers were, unfortunately, lost. Among those that were preserved were many that were not reliable in their information. Many of the accounts were most conflicting in fact and detail. This led to much confusion and much discussion. Men naturally were slow to accept information which they could not prove to be authentic.
Wars among the natives of the interior were most disastrous to the explorer. At best, his life, interesting and exciting as we might suppose it to have been, could certainly not have been an enviable one. Only dauntless courage and boundless enthusiasm could have led him into regions where he must suffer not only fatigue, but privation; not only danger from wild beasts hungry for their prey, but from cruel, treacherous savages lurking on every side.
The countries watered by the Niger offered an immense field for exploration. Inviting as this region was to the explorer, it afforded many difficulties. Savage beasts and treacherous natives were foes that might be overcome, but who could withstand the attacks of fever and malaria, unsuspected foes to health and life, in this region of pestilence and disease?
Mungo Park, a Scotch explorer, relates that, out of a party of forty-four, but four survived the exploration, owing to the unhealthy character of the climate. He relates that he received various kinds of treatment at the hands of the natives. The women, however, were for the most part kindly disposed and benevolent.
At one time the king of the region of Bambarra, through which he was passing, forbade him to cross the Niger. He was obliged to remain over night in one of the villages. None of the natives would receive him into their huts. Finally, he took shelter in the branches of a tree. He was worn out from hunger and fatigue. A storm came up, from which he was wholly unprotected, but he was befriended by a woman, who was passing on her way from her daily work in the field. She took him home to her hut, kindly cared for him, and did all she could to make him comfortable.
It is the custom of the women to lighten their labor by singing songs as they work. On this occasion Park was made the subject of this song which was sung by one of the young women of the village. The melody was sweet and rather plaintive; the words simple.
"The winds roared and the rain fell.The poor white man, faint and weary, came and sat under our tree.He has no mother to bring him milk; no wife to grind his corn."
"The winds roared and the rain fell.The poor white man, faint and weary, came and sat under our tree.He has no mother to bring him milk; no wife to grind his corn."
To this a refrain was added, in which all the women joined.
"Let us pity the white man;No mother has he to bring him milk;No wife has he to grind his corn."
"Let us pity the white man;No mother has he to bring him milk;No wife has he to grind his corn."
It was to Richard Lander that the geographical students were indebted for much information about the Niger. He encountered many dangers, and, with his followers, was finally taken prisoner by the natives.
Only on the promise of a heavy ransom were they allowed their freedom. By the offer of heavy bribes, he made arrangements with the natives to convey him, with his party, to the sea. The journey was by way of the Niger, and proved to Lander that water communication could be opened into the interior of Africa. Thus he solved one of the greatest problems in the geography of the continent.
In the southern portion of Africa, the more recent explorations have been mostly in connection with the Zambesi River, its extensive basin, and its many affluents. Most of the results were due to the energy of Livingstone, whose footsteps we shall like to trace later. We must regard Livingstone not only as an explorer, but as a zealous missionary in the great field open to him. Only through his indomitable courage, boundless faith, and untiring devotion could he have accomplished his arduous labor.
Most of the difficulties that attended the exploration of the great rivers were due largely to the character of the countries through which they passed. Much of it was, of course, wholly unbroken territory. Tangled forests, treacherous morasses, and wild jungles were difficulties that constantly tried the courage and fortitude of the men who formed the exploring parties.
But these were not all they had to encounter in the way of obstacles. Wild animals, fierce for food, orangered at having their haunts invaded, lay ready to attack them. Hostile savages lurked in the depths of the forests, or pursued them to the water's edge, eager to shed their blood. Even on the rivers there was no safety; for the enraged natives pursued them in their canoes, and attacked them boldly, trusting to the poisoned arrows which they hurled fiercely at them.
As if these were not difficulties enough to be met and overcome, the hearts of the explorers often sank in dismay as they encountered fresh obstacles in the bed of the streams. Here were dangerous rapids, over which their canoes were liable to be hurled, only to be dashed to pieces on the rocks below. Barred by such obstacles, the canoes often had to be carried overland on the backs of the men, till the course of the river became navigable.
Much of the information received from such friendly natives as they found, living in villages along the course of the river, was unreliable. They were often misled, too, by the various names given to the same river in the different sections of the country.
Many of the rivers make such intricate wanderings as to lose themselves in one section to reappear again in other sections, but under different names. On this account, much time was lost in doubt and speculation.
As we read of the exploits of these explorers, we shall be able to comprehend more fully the extreme difficulty of the work they undertook, and, in many cases, carried out so successfully.
Through the light they shed we shall be able to read the story of Africa. We shall find it both fascinating and instructive.
The Nile is formed by the union of two rivers, the White Nile and the Blue Nile.
The White Nile has its rise in the great equatorial lakes, together with the Victoria and the Albert Nyanza Lakes. It skirts the eastern border of Kordofan and then passes into Nubia. The river flows on to Khartoom, where it is joined by the Blue Nile, which has been tortuously working a passage for itself through the highlands of Abyssinia.
The White and the Blue Nile, thus united in a single stream, sweep in a circuit through Nubia to form a succession of cataracts in the course of the current.
The stream then descends into Egypt under the general name of the Nile River, and flows on till it reaches the Mediterranean Sea through the far-famed Delta.
As we have seen, the mystery of the Nile had claimed the attention of mankind for ages. For centuries it had been a wonder not only to those who dwelt upon its banks, but to those who came into the country of the Egyptians to profit by their wisdom and learning.
Its mysterious waters flowed from unknown regions; for the last thousand miles in its course not a single drop of water was received from the land on either side of its bed. Only at rare intervals was the blessing of rain bestowed. For nine months in the year the streamflowed between its steep banks, a uniform and majestic flood.
Almost at a stated date each year, for countless centuries, had the river risen and overflowed its banks and spread its waters over the adjoining country. Each year saw the narrow valley of the Nile transformed temporarily into a vast lake.
After some few weeks the flood subsided, and left behind a vast deposit of rich mud which was to fertilize the whole of Egypt.
Little wonder, then, that this most ancient of rivers seemed the most marvelous river of antiquity.
Within the last quarter of a century men have looked to the laws of Nature for an explanation of the sources of this double Nile, as it has been called.
The river with its uniform current is fed from large lakes, or reservoirs. These are so immense that their volume of water does not vary much from one season to another.
At the time of the inundation, or flooding, of the valley the stream must receive its increased volume of waters from its various affluents. These affluents have their rise in mountainous sections subject to an abundant rainfall during a short period of each year. Immediately after this rainfall the Nile waters must begin to rise, from the influence of these swollen streams that flow into them.
Thus has man looked to the great book of Nature to find written on its pages the solution of the problem that so long taxed the minds of the students of past centuries, as well as of the present.
From the earliest annals of history the valley of the Nile was known as the seat of commerce, the arts, and the sciences.
Egypt might well be regarded as the light of the ancient world. In the glow of her prosperity she formed a strong contrast to the rest of Africa, which remained almost unknown, shrouded in darkness.
The ancient Egyptians gave to the Nile a name which signified in their language "The Genius of the Waters." The Hebrews gave it a name which, in their tongue, meant "The Black."
The Nile presents many interesting features as it pursues its course. Rushing from the Lake Victoria Nyanza like a mountain torrent, it finally loses its impetuosity, and runs over extensive flats. These flats gradually expand so as to form a body of water known as the Ibrahim Pasha Lake.
Near Lake Albert Nyanza the Nile forms a series of rapids, between what are known as the Karuma and Murchison Falls. As the river leaves the lake, it begins its northward journey towards the Mediterranean Sea. During this journey the stream does not expand again into a lake, but retains its character of a river current.
At a point in its course between Lake Albert Nyanza and Gondokoro the Nile makes a descent of several hundred feet, from an elevation some fifteen hundred feet above sea level. This descent in the current causes a series of rapids and cataracts.
As the stream leaves Gondokoro it flows tortuously on, winding first to the northwest, then turning to the northeast, during its journey of five hundred miles.
Later, the river is joined by its first large tributary, the Bahr-el-Gazal, which does not seem to make any noticeable difference in the current as it enters it from the west. A second tributary, the Giraffe River, flows into the main stream from the east.
From its junction, with its first great tributary, the Nile flows on for about eighty miles in an easterly direction. It then changes its course, winding south for about thirty miles, where it is joined by a third tributary, which flows into it from the east. This tributary, the Sobat River, has quite a full, navigable current.
Beyond the junction of the Nile with these tributaries the river flows on for a distance of upwards of four hundred miles. It flows through this section in a northerly direction, attaining width varying from one to two miles. At intervals along its course several streams flow into it from the east before it reaches Khartoom.
The town of Khartoom is situated just at the junction of the Blue and the White Nile streams.
The Blue Nile was for many years supposed to be the main stream of the Nile. It is, however, formed by the union of two rivers, the Abai and the Blue River.
The Abai River rises in Abyssinia. Its source lies about fifty miles from Lake Dembea.
It enters the lake from the southwest and emerges from it at the southeast. For about ninety miles it flows on in this direction, and finally describes a semi-circular course around the peninsula of Godjam.
Leaving Godjam, the river winds on in a northwesterly direction for about one hundred and fifty miles, where it is joined by the Blue River from the south.
Under the name Blue Nile the united streams flow on in a single current in a northwesterly direction. During its course the stream receives two large rivers which run nearly parallel to each other.
We have seen that, at the town of Khartoom, the Blue and the White Nile unite to form a single stream. As this stream leaves Khartoom its course is a northerly one for about sixty miles until, passing the ruins of the ancient Meroë, it forms its first cataract. Here, turning to the northeast, it is joined by its last tributary, which bears a name signifying "Black River." It is doubtless so named from the quantities of black, slimy mud which it carries down in its course, eventually to fertilize Egypt.
The Nile, from the point where the last tributary joins it, flows through the thickly populated and fertile district of Berber, with its many villages.
When the stream leaves Berber it enters the desert. As it makes a turn to the west it forms the large island of Mograt. Turning sharply in a southwesterly direction, it describes what is known as "The Great Bend," in which there are two cataracts.
Entering Nubia the stream turns again to the northwest. Here, on either bank, is a narrow strip of fertile land, under cultivation.
Again a cataract is formed, when the stream bends around to the northeast to form later a fifth cataract.
As the river continues on its course, it gradually grows more and more narrow, till, later, at Assouan, it forms its last cataract, as it descends.
From Assouan to the Mediterranean Sea the Nile has an average fall of two inches to a mile. Its velocity is about three miles an hour as it flows on, watering and fertilizing the land of Egypt throughout its entire length.
The delta, or mouth, of the Nile has an expanse of about one hundred and fifty miles on the Mediterranean.
At the delta the Nile spreads out into numerous streams to enter the sea.
The length of the Nile is about three thousand three hundred miles, if we measure its wandering course from its exit at the lake to its entrance at the sea.
It is a remarkable fact that from the point where the last tributary enters the Nile, a distance of some fifteen hundred miles from the sea, no other waters are received to increase its volume; yet, in spite of this, the stream is able to withstand the scorching sun and burning sands of the Nubian Desert.
Little wonder, then, that the ancient Egyptians held the river sacred. To its influence they owed not only life, health, and strength, but their prosperity and wealth, as well.
Year after year they watched its annual overflow, rejoicing in this blessing of the waters.
At Khartoom the overflow begins in April. Lower Egypt does not become affected by the overflow of the waters till the latter part of June. Here the inundation does not attain its full height for about threemonths. The waters remain stationary for about twelve days, and then very gradually begin to subside.
The cultivation of the soil of entire Egypt is wholly dependent upon its inundation by the waters of the Nile. Its failure would mean drought and a total destruction of the crops, since Egypt is, practically, a rainless country.
Should there be a continuous wind from the south, then Egypt would be blessed by a year of prosperity. Should there be a continuous wind from the north, it would mean disaster to the country.
During a good inundation, the rise in the waters varies from forty feet, about the Tropic of Capricorn, to thirty-six feet at Thebes. Near the delta it is but four feet.
If, at Cairo, the waters rise to only eighteen or twenty feet, there is a scarcity of water. Should it rise to even twenty-four feet, there is still a deficiency. From twenty-five to twenty-seven feet is counted good for the welfare of the crops. More of an overflow would cause a flood. This would not only be productive, most likely, of plague and fever, but loss of crops and famine would follow in their wake.
During the months of inundation the whole valley is under water. Here and there the villages rise like islands from the surface of the waters.
Just as the Dutch protect their lands from the inroads of the sea, the Egyptians protect their villages from the inroads of this annual flood by means of dykes.
Of late years the overflow of the Nile has been greater than for many previous centuries.
We can trace the rise and fall of the waters of the main stream of the Lower Nile to the influence of the periodical rains in the mountains of Abyssinia and in the Lake Nyanza region.
In the equatorial regions it rains more or less throughout the year. The most abundant fall of rain takes place during the equinoxes, as the sun makes its apparent revolution about the earth during her yearly journey in space.
Could we stand upon the banks of the Nile, we should find them swarming with birds. With interest and pleasure we should watch the movements of the various water or reed birds as they seek their food.
We should listen to the discordant cries of the various birds of prey hovering over its waters. For here we should find not only such birds as the goose, pelican, and ibis, but the vulture and cormorant as well.
Standing on the banks of this most ancient of rivers, we should try to picture some of the scenes of past ages. Visions of Pharaoh and his daughter and the infant Moses would come to us.
Gazing into the depths of the soft waters, pure and sweet, we should be brought back to the present, as, with delight, we should find them teeming with many varieties of the finny tribes that sport beneath the surface. Searching along its banks, we might hope to find traces of the lotus, or Egyptian water lily, that once grew wild in such abundance, but now is rarely seen. It would be almost as arduous a task as hunting for a four-leaved clover, I fear.
It is generally believed that the plant was brought to Egypt from India. It must have been carried there in the very earliest days of the history of the people. The Egyptians regarded it as the emblem of the Nile. It was to them a sacred plant, a symbol of the creation of the world from the waters.
It was the custom to cultivate it in tanks. At the Egyptian feasts the guests wreathed their heads with its flowers, which resemble superb pink tulips.
At an Egyptian funeral each guest was presented with one of the flowers. It was the custom, too, to have the blossoms sculptured upon the tombs.
The lotus has had a very marked influence upon architecture. We find its leaves and buds appearing in the classic columns. In every phase of antique carving we find its flower most frequently chosen to embellish the work.
The lotus has been imported into Japan, and the people seem to have been more inspired in their art work by it than by anything else to be found in the field of nature.
When the petals of the lotus blossom fall, they leave behind a seed cup three inches in diameter. These seed cups contain immense seeds, of such shape that the ancient Greek and Latin writers used to speak of them as "Egyptian beans." They were eaten in large quantities by the people of the valley of the Nile. The Egyptians sometimes made a kind of bread of these seeds.
The question may come to our minds why the problem of the source of the Nile, which had busied thethoughts of students for centuries, should have been so recently solved. Indeed, it does seem remarkable that the source of a river, at whose mouth one of the earliest and most civilized nations of the globe had established a home, should have remained veiled in darkness.
The great want of success in discovering the sources of the Nile was due, no doubt, to the great length of the river and the difficulty of access to the regions through which it took its course. The peculiarities of climate, too, and the danger from the ignorance, barbarism, and superstition of the native tribes, no doubt had their influence in retarding the exploration of the Nile.
Then, it has been discovered, during the course of the exploration, that a river may bear as many names as there are different tribes in the country which it drains.
Each tribe speaks a different dialect. Often these tribes are hostile in their relations with one another. Sometimes tribes, if not hostile, hold no intercourse, or have no means of communication with others.
Each tribe, in its own tongue, gives to the principal stream a name signifyingthe river. These differently sounding names were for a long time very misleading and very puzzling to the explorers, as they endeavored to trace a river in its wanderings.
The Niger is the great river of Western Africa. Its name, according to one of the early explorers, is but a contraction from one of the many names given to it by native tribes. The translation of any one of these would be simply "The River."
It was not until the close of the first quarter of this century that the mystery of the Niger was revealed.
Many conflicting reports had been made with regard to the river. In every instance it was found that tributaries of the river had been traced instead of the main stream.
Some explorers had reported it as flowing westward; others had reported it as flowing eastward. In each case a tributary of the river had been followed in its course, and thus the exploring parties had been misled.
Richard Lander and his brother John, in their search for the Niger, found one river, the Joliba, which ran towards the east.
This they resolved to follow to its mouth, wherever that might prove to be. Floating downstream, they came to another large stream flowing into it from the opposite direction. Thus they solved the mystery of the conflicting accounts.
As the Lander brothers floated down the stream formed by the union of these two, they soon found themselves in the Bight of Benin. No one had everdreamed that a great river, like the Niger, could empty itself into it.
The Niger, it was discovered, after it reaches the low alluvial region of the coast, spreads out through a broad delta. It then enters the ocean by several mouths. These mouths are several leagues apart, but none of them are of any great size.
The great headwater of the Niger takes its rise in Mount Loma. This peak is in the elevated section designated as the Kong Mountains upon the map. It stands sixteen hundred feet above sea level, in a barren, desolate region, without a tree or a shrub to break the monotony of the scene.
The stream flows northeast to Timbuctoo. There it takes a bend to the east and flows for a distance of two hundred and fifty miles in this direction. From here on to the delta it takes first a southerly, then a southeasterly course, till it separates into the many streams at its mouth. Accurately speaking, the river enters the Gulf of Guinea between the Bight of Benin and the Bight of Biafra.
Along its course, like the other great rivers of Africa, it is known by various names, given to it by different tribes of natives.
The accounts of the character of the river vary somewhat. It has, however, been pretty thoroughly explored throughout the last three hundred and fifty miles of its course.
If we could follow the river through this section to Timbuctoo, we should find that it traversed a tract of very fertile country. The soil is productive. Rice,maize, and various vegetables are found in abundance for the use of man, while fine pasturage is afforded for cattle.
Southwest of Timbuctoo the river divides itself into many creeks and branches. Here its banks are low and marshy at all times. During the rainy season they are generally overflowed.
In this section of country rice, tobacco, wheat, and barley are raised.
The river now flows on past the town of Burrum. Here it curves to the southeast and makes what is called the Knee of Burrum.
Just below Burrum the Niger does not present much the appearance of the great stream that the natives have, by various names, designated as The River.
Indeed, it presents far from an imposing sight, as it moves slowly, sluggishly along its broad, marshy valley bed. This valley bed is inclosed either by rocky ridges or by high dunes. These dunes are very probably mounds of mud and sand, brought down by the river in the course of ages, and heaped up along its banks.
The broad, marshy valley is thickly studded with water reeds and sedges. Its whole surface is, in fact, cut up into innumerable small creeks and streams.
At the ferry of Burri the Niger attains a breadth of eight or nine hundred yards. At this point the valley is about two miles broad. The land is fertile, carefully cultivated, and well populated.
Somewhat farther south the river passes through twotowns. At this point in its course its bed becomes rocky, and navigation is, in consequence, dangerous.
At the town of Say the bed of the Niger becomes very much narrowed from its previous breadth of from twenty-five hundred to three thousand paces. At this point the bed of the stream is inclosed by rocky banks, and the current flows on at the rate of three miles an hour, with an average width of but one thousand paces.
The most beautiful and picturesque scenery on the Niger is in the section where it flows around the eastern shoulder of the so-called Kong Mountains. In solemn majesty these mighty peaks look from a height of from two thousand to three thousand feet upon the waters at their base.
The delta of the Niger may be described as a dense mangrove forest. This is cut up into beautiful islands by means of the many streams. It is said that there are upwards of twenty of these streams into which the river divides.
The existence of the Niger was known in ancient times. Accounts had been brought by travelers, who, coming from the southern shores of the Mediterranean, crossed the Great Desert, and discovered the course of a great river flowing towards the rising sun.
Herodotus, a famous Greek historian, born nearly five hundred years before Christ, supposed it to be a branch of the Egyptian Nile. Pliny, a famous ancient writer, born early in the first century after Christ, speaks of the Nigris of Ethiopia. He, also, believed that the river flowed into the river Nile.
Many were the attempts to gain definite knowledgeof the river. Just before the middle of the present century the English government sent out an expedition. The result of the expedition proved that the river was navigable from Boussa to the sea.
This was costly information, for which an enormous price was paid; for many human lives were the forfeit. The enervating character and unhealthfulness of the climate of the region explored proved most disastrous to the members of the expedition. Many subsequent expeditions ended with similar results.
About the middle of the present century Dr. Barth followed the river from Timbuctoo to Say.
Much of what is now known to the world with regard to the Niger is due to the explorations he made.
He has estimated the entire length of the river to be upwards of twenty-five hundred miles.
The extensive region in Southeast Africa was described in the geographies of the middle ages under the name of the empire of Monomotapa. It is shown upon the old time maps as being dependent upon the river Zambese, or Zambere, for drainage.
The course of this river is, in the main, correctly designated upon these maps, and several large towns are shown as having a location upon its banks. A smalllake is also indicated, not far from the actual position of Lake N'gami, whose real existence was not proved until within comparatively a few years.
This lake is now considered one of the most southern of inland waters which have any communication with the modern Zambesi River and the more eastern lakes.
On the old maps the Nyassa and the more northern lakes, Victoria Nyanza and Tanganyika, are given with a good deal of accuracy.
We must believe, then, that those who compiled these early maps must have had some definite knowledge of these regions.
It is believed that they gained this knowledge from the Arabs. Various settlements were located along the eastern and southeastern coast of Africa, extending from the Red Sea to Sofala.
Strange to say, although the lower region of the Zambesi, for a distance of three hundred miles at least, has been in the hands of the Portuguese since the early part of the sixteenth century, yet it is only since the middle of the present century that we have succeeded in getting any accurate or scientific knowledge of the vast territory.
This knowledge we owe to the untiring exertion of such intrepid African explorers as Dr. Kirk, Charles Andersson, Dr. Livingstone, and others.
Upon Dr. Livingstone's map the total length of the main stream, from the mouth to the point in the course where the Leeba River joins it, cannot be less than twelve hundred miles.
The Leeba River proceeds from Lake Dilolo, whichis situated on the summit of the watershed which divides the rivers that run northwest into the Atlantic from those which run southeast into the Indian Ocean.
A curious fact is connected with Lake Dilolo; it appears to have two outlets, one to the north and one to the south. The northern outlet probably joins the system of lakes west of Tanganyika.
The river basin of the Zambesi has many features of interest. On the north it probably terminates with a portion of the river system of the Nile. On the west it is separated from the Orange River basin and the various rivers running through Ovampo Land into the Atlantic by a rather undefined watershed, which crosses the Kalahari Desert. On the northwest the main waters very likely have their rise in the near vicinity of the tributaries of the great Congo River.
A well-defined mountain range on the southeast separates the rivers which flow into the Zambesi from those which unite to form the Limpopo.
The Zambesi River retains this name from a point only a short distance above its mouth to the junction of the main stream with the Chobe.
By means of the Chobe the Zambesi is connected with the sluggish intermingling streams of the N'gami region. Flowing on after its junction with the Chobe, the river is known under another name, the Leambye.
Our most accurate knowledge of the river extends as far as its union with the Leeba. At this point it seems to make a sudden bend to the northeast and form a network of streams. These mingle with one another, and, far to the east, seem to form several other connectionswith the main stream, if we can believe the reports of the natives.
The portion of Central South Africa through which the Zambesi flows may be regarded as an extensive table-land, or plateau.
This vast table-land stands from three to four thousand feet above the level of the sea. On its outer edge it is fringed by a border of basaltic rocks.
The river cuts its way through the rocks of this region to form one of the most strikingly picturesque scenes upon the globe.
It was to this section of the river that Livingstone gave the name Victoria Falls. The natives gave it the odd name Mosiotunge. This may be translated to mean "Smoke sounds there," or "Smoke which sounds."
The falls of the Zambesi have been compared to those of Niagara. Charles Livingstone, a brother of Dr. Livingstone, considered those of the Zambesi more beautiful and more wonderful than those of Niagara.
The river in the vicinity of the falls is more than a mile in breadth. It flows peacefully along its bed and plunges suddenly into a fissure three hundred feet deep, which lies directly in its course.
This fissure is scarcely two hundred feet wide. It is by no means an even opening in the rocks, but for several miles runs in and out in a series of zigzags, which are separated from each other by four vertical promontories of basaltic rock. These promontories are hardly as wide as the fissure. They are so narrow, that if we could stand on the center of one of them we could easily toss a stone into the chasm lying on either hand.It is not known accurately how far below the falls this chasm extends.
The height of the cataract has been estimated as twice that of Niagara. In flood time the volume of water pouring over the falls is very probably much greater than that at Niagara.
Dr. Livingstone relates that, when he visited these falls, one of the first questions asked by a native warrior was, "Have you smoke that sounds in your country?"