Among other chamber music composers of the middle of the seventeenth century, we may point out Massimiliano Neri, who first used the terms sonata and canzona without any distinction. After his time the term canzona was less and less used and the name sonata finally became general for all instrumental chamber music compositions. Neri’s works are characteristic products of the century. His scoring for three to twelve instruments, his restless changing of rhythm and tempo, his lack of unity and ‘development,’ are the ever-present signs of the age in which he wrote. Still, his construction of phrase, his modulations, his more graceful figures show an improvement upon the writing of his predecessors. The following analysis of his Sonata in nine movements (1651) for two violins, viola and bass—another ancestor of the modern string quartet—shows the looseness of form which was characteristic of all contemporary instrumental music:
Among other chamber music composers of the middle of the seventeenth century, we may point out Massimiliano Neri, who first used the terms sonata and canzona without any distinction. After his time the term canzona was less and less used and the name sonata finally became general for all instrumental chamber music compositions. Neri’s works are characteristic products of the century. His scoring for three to twelve instruments, his restless changing of rhythm and tempo, his lack of unity and ‘development,’ are the ever-present signs of the age in which he wrote. Still, his construction of phrase, his modulations, his more graceful figures show an improvement upon the writing of his predecessors. The following analysis of his Sonata in nine movements (1651) for two violins, viola and bass—another ancestor of the modern string quartet—shows the looseness of form which was characteristic of all contemporary instrumental music:
Movement I:in 4/4—46 measuresMovement II:Adagio in 3/2—20 measuresMovement III:Allegro in 4/4—26 measuresMovement IV:Adagio in 4/4—8 measuresMovement V:Allegro in 6/4—22 measuresMovement VI:Adagio in 4/4—6 measuresMovement VII:Allegro in 3/4—24bracert56 measuresAdagio in 3/4—32Movement VIII:Allegro in 4/4—5 measuresMovement IX:Presto in 4/4—9 measures
Among writers of sonatas who varied less the number of movements we may notice Nicolaus Kempi (Sonatas and ‘Symphonies’ for 1-3 violins, 1-5 instruments,1644, 1647, 1669), who employed the four movements of the modern cyclical sonata form, thus:
I.A pathetic movement (in the style of the Pavane).II.An Allegro movement (imitative).III.Gaillarde or Courante.IV.Similar to the first movement (with figurative elements).
Although Kempi’s compositions show some improvement in fluency, they are otherwise of little interest.
Of far more eminence is Giovanni Legrenzi, the first composer of chamber music who abandoned entirely the term canzone. He is rightly called a ‘master of first rank,’ and his harmonies, chromatics (in the SonataLa Cornava, 1655), and modulations are noteworthy. In his trio sonatas (La Rosetta, 1671) and in hisSonata a 5: La Fugazza, he demonstrated that a few instruments could be made to express musical ideas of genuine value.
Among the minor sonata writers of this period we may mention Mazzolini (Sonate per camera a 3, containing preludes and dances), Mazzaferrata (Sonate a due violini: con un basetto viola, 1674, all in four movements), Bononcini (Sonate da chiesaand ‘Symphonie’ for two to eight instruments 1666, 1678), Tonini, C. A. Marini, Grossi, Taglietti, Rugieri, Vinacesi, Zanata, Charelli, and Gighi.
Practically all the compositions we have noticed possess for us little interest apart from their significance in the evolution of chamber music. To a modern ear their appeal is very slight. Historically, however, they are of importance, constituting as it were the substructure upon which the edifice of chamber music has been reared. Between them and the music which has a genuine artistic appeal and an emotional content lies a sort of transition stage in which the most notable names are Giovanni Battista Vitali, Antonio Veracini, and Giovanni Bassani.
Vitali is the dance composerpar excellenceof the seventeenth century. HisCorrenti e balletti da camera a 2 violini col suo basso continuo(1666) have melodic value and clarity of structure and form. In hisBalletti correnti, e capricci per camerafor two violins and bass (1683), in hisSonate da camerafor two violins and bass (1667), and in sonatas for two to five instruments (1669) we find inspiration, expression, and a dignified style. Vitali’s sonatas consist of three movements. The first and the last are in fast 4/4 time, and in fugal style; the middle, in 3/4 or 3/2 time, is more tranquil in character. Sometimes a shortlargoprecedes the first movement, sometimes a largo is inserted before or after the middle movement. The two allegros are thematically connected. In one sonata Vitali uses the same theme through all three movements with a dexterity that suggests the influence of his teacher, Cazzati.
Antonio Veracini (1690) was not a fertile composer, and he is important rather for his personal influence than for the volume of his work. HisSonate a 3,Sonate da chiesa a violino e violoncelloandSonate da camera a 2, possess nobility and individuality of style, with a certain melodic originality. His forms are clear, his contrapuntal combinations not unattractive, and all his details with a few exceptions show careful workmanship. His adagios are especially fine.[60]
Giovanni Battista Bassani, too, derives his importance largely from his personal influence, especially as the teacher of Arcangelo Corelli. Bassani’s chambermusic compositions includeBalletti, Correnti, Gighue e Sarabande a violino e violono overo spinetta, con il secondo violino(1673); twelvesonate da camera(each containing four dances in the following order:1—Balletto, 2—Corrento, 3—Gigha, and 4—Sarabanda);Sinfonie a due o tre instrumenti con il basso continuo per l’organo(1638), in which each single piece bears the title of ‘sonata.’ All these compositions are interesting rather than attractive; though while emphasizing and broadening the technique and form of his predecessors, Bassani improved upon their harmony and exhibited more fluency and smoothness through better modulations and transitional passages. We may note especially his independent part-writing, his rythmic steadiness, and his ingenious working-out of motives taken from the main theme. The device of developing themes in contrapuntal works had been variously used since Gabrieli, but the credit for first resolving a theme into its motives and working with them skillfully belongs to Bassani. The following examples will clearly show Bassani’s skill in thematic development.
The theme of a Sonata (for two violins, violoncello ad libitum and organ, 1683):
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The motives:
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and
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Here again we are reminded of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony.
The large amount of chamber music composedtoward the end of the seventeenth century is eloquent of the popularity of this class of composition. In fact chamber music was so much favored that a certain Thomas Britton (in London) formed a chamber music club (1678) and gave weekly concerts for thirty-six years, at first free of charge but afterwards at a subscription fee of ten shillings. Later, similar and stronger organizations came to play an important part in the development of music.
We now arrive at an epoch in chamber music where for the first time we meet with works that are today deemed worthy of performance for their purely musical value. The beginning of this era is marked by the name of Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713). Corelli’s music is simple and expressive in style and is distinguished by a peculiarly ascetic and spiritual quality suggestive of the church. It is plastic and concise in thought and dignified and noble in utterance. Corelli was not a pioneer. It was his mission to synthesize into a more logical and graceful whole the musical effects discovered by his many predecessors, and his highly individual genius enabled him to do this with a distinction which makes his name a landmark in the progress of the art of music. In analyzing Corelli’s compositions we find graceful harmonies, fluent modulations and pleasingly regular, well-balanced phrase structures. His musical ideas, especially in the adagio movements, have dignity, grace and lucidity. His allegros, although not lacking in dignity, do not stand on the high artistic level of his slow movements.
Corelli’s earliest chamber works are included in a collection ofXII Sonate a tre, due violini e violone col Basso per l’organo, op. 1 (1683). In these church-sonatashis strong individuality is already apparent, although Bassani’s influence is clearly recognizable. Some passages lack beauty and are not very pleasing to the ear. The sonatas consist of four movements, as follows: adagio, allegro, adagio, allegro. Sometimes the first slow movement is replaced by an allegro, and the second movement is in a related key. The seventh sonata has only three movements: allegro, adagio and allegro.
The next series,XII Sonate a camera a tre, due violini e violone e cembalo, op. 2 (1685), consists of idealized dances with a prelude (largo or adagio). The third sonata of this collection has the following movements: Prelude (largo), Allemande (allegro), adagio (of free invention), and Allemande. The twelfth sonata has aCiacconaand a longer allegro movement. Corelli’s talent appears to better advantage in hisSonate da chiesa a 3(1689) and inSonate da camera a 3(1694) which in form are similar to his previous sonatas. Most of them are in the suite form; some consist of movements of abstract nature, some show a combination of different forms.
The period of chamber music composition inaugurated by Corelli lasted until about the middle of the eighteenth century. It is characterized by a mixture of contemporary and older monodic and polyphonic styles, with a strong tendency toward independent, individual part writing. In this period Corelli’s pupils and imitators produced valuable works, though they could not surpass their master. Among his more prominent pupils may be mentioned F. Geminiani (1680-1782) and P. A. Locatelli (1690-1764). Geminiani’s works (sonatas for two violins and 'cello, and sonatas for two violins and bass) possess neither individuality nor enduring merit, but they claim attention for the careful marking of dynamic nuances. In Locatelli’s sonatas for two violins and cembalo, the virtuoso element istoo strong to make them good examples of pure ensemble writing. The same may be said of Torelli’s (d. 1708)Concerti da camerafor two violins and bass,Sinfoniefor two, three and four instruments,Balletti da camerafor three violins and bass,Sinfonie a 3,Conzerti a 4,Conzerti musicali a 4, andCaprici musicali per camera, for violin, viola and archlute. Torelli helped to fuse theSonata da camerawith theSonata da chiesaand is notable as the first to use the term concerto. In general the violinist-composers of the period preferred to cultivate solo sonatas and concertos which would demonstrate the virtuosity of the performers. The elevation of chamber music through serious and pure ensemble writing was not at all their aim. This was notably the case with F. M. Veracini (1685-1750), a pupil and cousin of Antonio Veracini, and with T. Antonio Vitali—Sonate da chiesafor violin and 'cello (1693),Sonatefor two violins and bass,Conzerto di Sonate a violino e violoncello e cembalo(1701).
The most prominent and gifted of Corelli’s immediate successors was Antonio Vivaldi (died 1743). His early compositions were ‘wild and irregular,’ but later, under the influence of Corelli’s pure style, he acquired an ‘elegant manner of writing’ that was often entirely free from contrapuntal phraseology. His works (Sinfonie,Sonate, etc.) became the models of his time and exercised a strong influence even upon Bach. On the whole, however, he pandered chiefly to the prevailing passion for virtuosity. His sonatas are written in three movements. The opening movement still lacks the ‘song-like’ second theme of the modern sonata-movement, and its first theme is long, consisting of several brief, slightly-developed motives. His second movements closely resemble the preludes of his fellow-composers.
Up to the time of Haydn and Boccherini we find veryfew important works in ensemble chamber music. The solo sonata was chiefly cultivated and from it the sonata form really was developed. So we find that the instrumental compositions of Alessandro Scarlatti (1659-1725) are not of much value (sonata for two flutes, two violins andcontinuo, sonatas for flute, sonatas for three flutes and continuo). HisSonate a quattro(string-quartets of archaic style) in which tediously developed figures are the principal movements and only the little ‘brisk minuettos’ have a certain modernity, are below the artistic standard established by Corelli. Much the same may be said of François Couperin’s (1668-1733) trio sonatas entitledLa Parnasse ou l’apothéose de Corelli, and other trios for two violins and bass, andPièces de viole, published in 1724-26.
The two great composers, John Sebastian Bach and George Frederick Handel, also produced more valuable works in the form of solo sonatas, suites, and concertos than in ensembles. Bach’s concertos are often classified as chamber music and indeed the grouping of the solo instruments of his Brandenburg concertos resembles chamber music combinations. In his trio sonatas for two violins and thorough-bass, or for flute, violin and thorough-bass, Bach employed the three movement form of Vivaldi. Handel[61]cultivated the four and five movement form of Corelli.
Much of Handel’s chamber music is in point of view of form strikingly in advance of his time. Many of his sonatas contain movements which, within a comparatively brief compass, follow strictly the general outlines of the sonata form. The second movements of two of his solo sonatas, in A and D, and of the sonata in C minor for flute and violin, are good instances.
In tracing the evolution of modern principles inchamber music we have mentioned only those composers who were of striking importance in the development of the genre. It did not seem practical to divide the field to be covered into periods, since up to Corelli no works were sufficiently original or individual to establish a new school or new style. In the works between Gabrieli’s first attempts in the field of chamber music and those of Corelli, Bach and Handel, we recognize the elementary principles of modern form, harmony, thematic development and instrumentation. It is this phase of the development of chamber music that prepared the way for Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, the greatest masters of pure instrumental music.
E. K.