The small tributary calledWadi Abu Hashim, which enters Wadi Garara from the south in about longitude 34° 5′, is important as containing the important wells known asBir Abu Hashim. The wells are excavations in the alluvium of the wadi floor, and furnish good water at a depth of about eight metres. A beacon has been erected on a high hill to the west of the wells and overlooking them, the position of which is latitude 23° 41′ 44″ N., longitude 34° 3′ 33″ E., altitude 386 metres above sea and sixty-six metres above the wells. The principal roads from Bir Abu Hashim are, to Aswân (first water at Um Hibal,nearly one hundred kilometres distant), to Daraw (first water at Bir Qoleib, seventy-five kilometres distant), and to Abu Saafa Springs (a journey of about one hundred kilometres with possibly water en route at the Galt el Aguz, sixty kilometres from Abu Hashim).Wadi Natashcommences among the low hills forming the Nile — Red Sea watershed between Gebel Migif and Gebel Abu Had. It pursues a course roughly parallel with that of Wadi Shait, at first over a sandy plain from which rise the two conspicuous cones called El Nahud (the breasts), and afterwards narrowing in among hills. Pursuing a somewhat devious course in a direction generally a little south of west, Wadi Natash passes south of Gebel Nugra (in longitude 33° 40′) and enters on the great plain called Atmur Nugra, where it joins the Wadi Kharit and drains to the Nile near Kom Ombo.There is, I believe, no water source in Wadi Natash itself, butBir Masuris situated in a branch wadi only a few kilometres north of it in longitude 34°. At Bir Masur there are numerous pits sunk in the alluvium of the wadi, in one or more of which good water can generally be found at a depth of about ten metres; but the supply cannot always be relied on, for although I obtained plenty of water in March 1906, I found there was only a very small quantity available in October of the same year.Wadi Alaqi, the greatest of all the Egyptian wadis draining westwards to the Nile, has its head on the main watershed near Gebel Is, close to the 22nd parallel in longitude 35° 27′. Its main channel, over 350 kilometres in length, pursues a general westerly course, winding at first, past the old mining centres of Darahib and Alfawi, towards Gebel Muqsim, on the 34th meridian, and then, curving round to the north of that mountain, it turns to the north-west, past the gold mines of Um Gariart, and enters the Nile Valley opposite the large village of Dakka, in latitude 23° 8′. The area of its basin is unknown, much of it being unexplored, but it probably comprises no less than four square degrees of the earth’s surface, or 44,000 square kilometres. Its heads and upper tributaries lie among high mountainous tracts partly in Egypt and partly in the Sudan, and occasionally the rainfall in these southern parts of the eastern desert is sufficient to convert the usually dry wadi into a temporary stream for a part or all of its length. That it may on the rare occasions of sufficientrainfall discharge no inconsiderable quantity of water into the Nile is proved by Linant’s experience about 1830, when he records that the torrent from the Wadi Alaqi into the Nile was so great as to prevent hisdahabîasailing up the river past the point of influx, even with a good wind and all sails set.[87]A great flow of water down the Wadi Alaqi also occurred in the autumn of 1902 as a consequence of heavy rains in the mountainous country east of the meridian 34° 30′. This torrent was observed by Mr. John F. Wells, who was then manager of the Um Gariart mine. In the early morning news was brought to the mine that great waters were coming down the wadi. Except for a slight rainfall at the heads of the Wadis Qoleib and Haimur, the drainage of which did not appreciably swell the flood of the main wadi, there had been no rain within one hundred kilometres of the mine, and when the alarm was given, at 6.30 a.m., only a small trickling of water down the wadi was visible, and the news was thought to be an exaggeration. But an hour later the whole wadi was a raging torrent, and by nine o’clock there was a mighty stream, over 300 metres wide and from one to two and a half metres deep, rushing past the mine. The flow continued for about two and a half days. On this occasion the stream, in spite of its magnitude at Um Gariart, did not reach the Nile; after flowing for some seventy kilometres past the mines, it entered a wide depression at Hagab Kara, some forty kilometres from the mouth of the wadi, where it formed a great pool and sank into the sand. Mr. Wells informs me that the water did not penetrate the sandy and gravelly floor of the wadi to the bed rock (the thickness of the sandy and gravelly layer at Um Gariart is fourteen metres) till three months later, and then the rock, though damp, did not absorb enough water to yield any supply to wells sunk in it. The local Arabs stated that these downrushes of water, which they term “seil,” occur on an average at about ten-year intervals; the last one occurred seven years before that of 1902.The part of the basin of Wadi Alaqi falling within the limits of the district described in this volume includes the whole country west of the main watershed between the parallels of 22° and 23°. This area is drained by numerous tributaries of Alaqi, all entering the main wadi from its north side. The following is a brief description of these tributaries, commencing with the uppermost (easternmost) of them.Wadi Himeitrais a small wadi draining the south face of Gebel Himeitra. It contains a well,Bir Himeitra, at the foot of the mountain, which is said to yield constant supplies of water. Below the well, Wadi Himeitra continues for about ten kilometres in a south-westerly direction, joining the Wadi Alaqi about seven kilometres above the ruins of Darahib.TheMiti Kwan, the next tributary of Alaqi, has its heads in the north flanks of Gebel Himeitra. Near its head it receives as feeders from the north-east theWadis KirirandDuag, draining mountains of the same name which form part of the Adar Qaqa range. About fourteen kilometres further down its course, the Miti Kwan receives theWadi Merau, which drains the hills of the main watershed round Eir Arib. Below the point of influx of Merau, the Miti Kwan pursues a very winding course among the hills for some eleven kilometres, then receives from the north theWadi Miaus, a small wadi with many branches among the hills and containing a well,Bir Miaus, about seven kilometres up from its mouth. After receiving Wadi Miaus, the Miti Kwan continues a winding course for about nine kilometres and enters the Wadi Alaqi on the 22nd parallel, about fifteen kilometres below the ruins of Darahib. A well-known road, connecting the Wadi Alaqi with the Abu Hodeid and Meisah wells, leads up the Miti Kwan for a distance of some twenty-three kilometres, and then passes northwards over a stony plain, crossing the watershed into the head of Wadi Hasium, in which is Bir Kagog.Wadi Dageinais a small many-branched tributary of Alaqi, draining the hills east of Gebel Egat.Wadi Alfawi, which enters Wadi Alaqi a little lower down its course, is likewise a small wadi draining the hilly tract east of Gebel Egat; there are some old mines on its western side close to its junction with Wadi Alaqi.Wadi Egat, the next important tributary of Alaqi, drains by very numerous branches the remarkable peak of Gebel Egat and the south faces of Gebel Heleikonti. It contains a well,Bir Egat, situated east-south-east of the peak, about twenty-six kilometres up from its junction with Alaqi, and there are extensive remains of old mining operations to be seen in the same neighbourhood. Passing east and south of Gebel Egat, the wadi emerges from the mountains, coursing almost due west; and after receiving various feeders, the principal ofwhich isWadi Hiteib, from the mountains to the north, it enters Wadi Alaqi in longitude 34° 40′, about twenty kilometres west of Gebel Egat.Wadi Hateib,[88]which enters Wadi Alaqi about twenty kilometres below Wadi Egat, has its heads in the south faces of Gebel Um el Tiur el Foqani and the north flanks of Gebel el Hateib or Suhin. Coursing generally south-westward, it receives small feeders on the west from Gebels Adraq and Guqub. About four kilometres above where it enters Wadi Alaqi, Wadi Hateib is joined from the east byWadi Suhin, the heads of which drain the south faces of Gebel Hateib or Suhin.Wadi Guqub, a very small wadi which enters Alaqi six kilometres lower down than Hateib, drains the hilly tract which here lies to the north of Alaqi; it contains an important well,Bir Guqub, which yields good water though in varying quantity. A road leads from Wadi Alaqi up the Wadi Guqub past the well and on to Aswân,viaEl Haimur.Wadi Um Teneidebdrains the western faces of Gebels el Adraq and Guqub, and joins Wadi Alaqi in longitude 34° 11′, about thirty-three kilometres below Wadi Gugub. It has two main branches, which unite about ten kilometres above the point of junction with Wadi Alaqi. The old mines of Betam are situated near the northern of the two branches, about seven kilometres west of Gebel el Adraq, on the road just mentioned as leading from Wadi Alaqi to Aswân.Wadi Defeit, which is probably the most important Egyptian tributary of Wadi Alaqi, has its heads in Gebels Heleikontî and Heianai, about the meridian of 35°. Its general course is that of a flat circular arc convex to the north and having its chord east and west; the total length of its main channel, from its head in Gebel Heleikontî to its junction with Wadi Alaqi in longitude 34° 10′, is over one hundred kilometres, while its numerous tributaries probably reach a total length three times as great. The principal head of Wadi Defeit is calledWadi Sarid; its branches extend among the hills close to the heads of Wadi Egat and Wadi Miaus. The name Defeit is applied to the wadiwhere Wadi Sarid is joined by the feeders from Gebel Heleikontî. Passing between the high ranges of Heianai on the north, and Heleikontî and Shanaiyet on the south, Wadi Defeit receives numerous feeders, of which the principal are theWadis DauriaiandHamidâ, both entering it from the mountain to the south; continuing westwards, it cuts through the north end of the mass of Gebel Um el Tiur el Foqani, and on emergence is joined by theWadi Bint el Feqoh, a great westward-coursing tributary draining the north flanks of the Heianai range and the more northerly mountain of Anweyib. Continuing its westward course, Wadi Defeit passes between Gebels Um el Tiur el Tahtani and Adraq; then it enters on an extensive tract of more open country, receiving three main feeders,Wadi Meladoyeb,Rod Hauanin, andWadi Bagharid, from the hills to the north, before joining Wadi Alaqi.Wadi Seiga, the next great northern tributary of Wadi Alaqi, has only been partially explored. Its head is in the watershed range near the conspicuous twin peaks of Gebel Sheyenit. Pursuing at first a southerly course, it cuts through the east side of the mass of Gebel Seiga; and about thirty kilometres lower down passes through hills with old gold mines on either hand. Below the mines, Wadi Seiga takes a south-westerly course, and receives a large tributary from either side. That from the west, calledWadi Deheis, heads in Gebel Deheis and curves round east of Gebel Abu Brush, receiving in its course two great feeders, theWadis Um GholqaandAbu Had, both of which head far to the north in the main watershed. The eastern tributary, calledWadi Um Derera, drains the south part of the hill-mass in which the Seiga mines are situated. Wadi Seiga joins Wadi Alaqi in longitude 33° 53′, some forty-five kilometres below the mines; the junction is outside the limits of the maps in this volume.[84]Dry in 1906.[85]To be distinguished from another mountain of the same name further south, near the Wadi Hodein.[86]To be distinguished from the better known Wadi Egat much further south, a feeder of Wadi Alaqi.[87]“L’Etbaye.” p. 1.[88]Mr. Campbell’s map names this Wadi Hadaiber. My guides, however, gave the name Gebel Hateib to the mountain which is drained by the wadi, and I have ventured to alter the name on this ground. Mr. Campbell’s map names the mountain Gebel Suhin; it probably has two names, as is quite usual in desert nomenclature, because its two sides are drained by different wadis. There is a Wadi Hiteib draining from the south-eastern part of the same hill-mass into Wadi Egat.CHAPTER V.THE WADIS DRAINING EASTWARDS TO THE SEA.The eastward drainage differs strikingly from the westward in being much steeper and more complex, due to the greater proximity of the mountains to the sea than to the Nile. While all the westward drainages form parts of but three great basins, there are on the seaward side no less than forty-seven distinct drainage basins, each having a separate outlet to sea (seePlate II). Only two of the eastern basins, Hodein and Di-it, are comparable in size with the great basins of the west, the remainder being relatively small.The following list gives the names in order, from north to south, of the main wadis draining to the sea, with their tributaries so far as they fall within the area treated of in this volume, the principal feeders of the tributaries being indicated in parentheses. It may be remarked that the minor feeders and tributaries are frequently of greater importance to the Arabs than the main channels, owing to their containing vegetation in greater abundance.Wadi Dabur.Wadi Igli.Wadi Um Khariga.Wadi Sukari.Wadi Um Tundeba.Wadi Amba-ut.Wadi Ghuel.Wadi Fegas.Wadi Ma-ud.Wadi GhadirWadi Sabahia.Wadi Zabara (Wadi Atabi, Wadi Um Abid, Wadi Um Dafiri).Wadi Allawi (Wadi Lewewi).Wadi Um Gamil.Wadi Huluz (Wadi Abiad lil Huluz, Wadi Mahali, Wadi Tarfawi, Wadi Hilgit lil Huluz, Wadi Um Semiuki, Wadi Um Hegiligi lil Huluz, Wadi Marasan, Wadi Um Suerab lil Huluz, Wadi Abu Gerifat, Wadi Um Iteili, Wadi Ga-etri, Wadi Abu Etl).Wadi Um Suerab lil Gemal.Wadi Durunkat.Wadi GemalWadi Hafafit (Wadi Abu Had, Wadi Hefeifit).Wadi Nugrus (Wadai el Nom, Wadi Abu Rusheid, Wadi Abu Sada, Wadi Sikait).Wadi Mukhatatat.Wadi Um Sueh.Wadi Um Heran.Wadi Nasbia.Wadi Abiad (Wadi Um Seyal).Wadi Um Kabu.Wadi Um el AbbasWadai el Anz.Wadi Abu GhusunWadi Romit (Wadi Shoab, Wadi Abu Hegilig, Wadi Hefeiri).Wadi el Ranga.Wadi Hamata.Wadi Haratreit.Wadi Khashir.Wadi Mikbi.Wadi Um Karaba.Wadi Eidab.Wadi Um Gunud.Wadi Um Rishan.Wadi LahamiWadi Um Homar.Wadi Sefent.Wadi Um Khuzama.Wadi Um Ghobasha.Wadi Gumudlum.Wadi Abu Marwa lil Lahami.Wadi MukhitWadi Naait (Wadi Um Sumur, Wadi Abu Marwa lil Naait, Wadi Abu Ghalqa).Wadi Abu Daba (Wadi Murra).Wadi Abu Dibban.Wadi MindeitWadi Um Sellim lil Mindeit.Wadi Um Maiat.Wadi KalalatWadi Dibag lil Batoga.Wadi Um Sellim.Wadi Um Goran.Wadi KunserobWadi Dibag lil Kunserob.Wadi Abu Beriga.Wadi Abu Debebi lil Khoda.Wadi Salib el Abiad.Wadi Salib el Azraq (Wadi Um Karaba).Wadi Allawi.Wadi Um Tawil lil Khoda.Wadi Hindia.Wadi Um Akra.Wadi KhodaWadi Shut (Wadi Abu Hugban, Wadi Tawil lil Shut).Wadi Um Gubur.Wadi Shib.Wadi Um Seyal lil Khoda.Wadi Gumudlum.Wadi Bulluk.Wadi Um Lassaf.Wadi Shenshef.Wadi Um Etli.Wadi SorubiabWadi Bint el Kurdum.Wadi Titai.Wadi Abu Nikheil.Wadi Abu Reye.Wadi Um Buerat.Wadi RahabaWadi Abiad (Rod Elbel, Wadi Abu Ribian).Wadi Megah.Wadi Hutit.Wadi Dagalai lil Rahaba.Wadi Abu Had.Wadi Marafai.Wadi Arned (Wadi Muegil, Wadi Um Arta).Wadi Saalek.Wadi Um Reit (Wadi Dreb, Wadi Malhat).Talet Um Danaqa.Talet Um Sideiri.Wadi Gihab (Wadi Gihab Abu Derb).Wadi Maghal.Wadi Naam (Wadi Fil, Wadi Abu Seyal, Wadi Um Bisilla, Wadi Erf Um Araka, Wadi Arais, Wadi Silsila, Wadi Abraq, Wadi Betan).Wadi Dif (Wadi Feqoh, Talet Um Karaba, Wadi Enqireidia, Wadi Gelabat Shabai).Wadi HodeinWadi Orga el Atshani.Wadi Orga el Rayani.Wadi Anfeib (Wadi Anfeib el Tawayib, Wadi Atalab, Wadi Mitatib).Wadi Khasiya.Wadi Madi (Wadi Difotib, Wadi Eirahimib, Wadi Faditiai, Wadi Shellal el Gharbi, Wadi Sinatib, Wadi Tugudbaia, Wadi Berendiyeb, Wadi Atluk, Rod Mukrayib, Wadi Kolaiqo, Wadi Edunqul).Wadi Um Tenedba.Wadi Khashab (Wadi Dehaiartib).Wadi Um Seleim.Wadi Kreiga (Wadi Korbiai, Wadi Meneiga, Wadi Abiad, Wadi Eberer, Wadi Shigig).Wadi Kolaiqo.Wadi Radad.Wadi Shellal el Sharqi.Wadi Muqur (Wadi Ti Ilak, Wadi Tikosha).Wadi Qadiloi (Talet Tihu Shana).Wadi ShabWadi Baaneit.Wadi Kilanai.Wadi Diqdib.Wadi Um Saha.Wadi Sherefa el Sharqi.Kwat Hewah.Wadi Mantil Hasium.Wadi Hilwit Hasium.Wadi Shinai.Wadi Delawet.Wadi Abu Hodeid.Rod Anut Berer.Wadi Tikraneib.Wadi Ibib (Hasium)Wadi Abu Hireiq.Wadi Odruk.Wadi Nilateib.Wadi Medarai (Wadi Merdiyeb, Wadi Um Rasein).Wadi Soaorib (Wadi Haiyo, Wadi Hankuk, Wadi Dishlo, Wadi Eimya, Wadi Qidmib).Wadi Um Bishtit (Wadi Delawet, Wadi Orgem).Wadi Habliai.Wadi Sarobaiya.Wadi Awitla.Wadi Lasewid.Wadi MeisahSarob Kwan.Akla Da-aiyob.Hanqun Ra-ub.Wadi Eqaiyib.Wadi Shendib.Wadi Hareitra.Wadi Qurat (Wadi Dibir, Wadi Hashimaiyib, Wadi Oshqeq, Wadi Mashushenai).O Harbub.Wadi Kiraf (Di-ib)Wadi Salalob.Wadi Warabeit (Sarob Kwan, Wadi Wi-eqwer, Wadi Kwileimidaiyeib).Wadi Qumad Lim.Wad el Qireira (Wadi Didaut, Wadi Baueiwai).Wadi Halal Hendiyeb.Wadi Di-it.Wadi Eikwan.Wadi O Sir Hadal.Wadi YoiderWadi Qeirat.Wadi Siamtit.Wadi Akwamtra.Wadi AideibWadi Yahameib (Wadi Akau, Wadi Kansisrob).Wadi Todhi.Wadi Delowa.Wadi SerimtaiWadi Um Seyal.Wadi O Sir Eirab.Wadi Shellal.Wadi Aqilhoq.Wadi Aqwei.Wadi Kreit-reit-or.Wadi Qabatit.Wadi Daburfalls only partly within the district to be described in the present volume. It drains the hill country between Gebels Atut and Igli, by numerous feeders, and courses north-east to enter the sea about latitude 25° 16′, beyond the limits shown on the map.Wadi Igliis a short wadi draining from Gebel Igli and coursing a little north of east to the sea somewhat south of latitude 25° 10′.Wadi Um Kharigahas its principal head in acul-de-sacwest of Gebel Ghuel and north of Gebel Hangalia, at an altitude of approximately 800 metres above sea-level. Near its head there is an easy pass entering from the west, forming a line of communication with Hangalia mine; the highest point of the pass is 773 metres above sea-level. After coursing for about twelve kilometres a little west of north between the high hills called Gebel Um Khariga, with a rapid fall, the wadi turns north-east, receiving just below the bend a large tributary which heads in an easy pass to Wadi Ghadir. Near this place a road crosses the wadi northwards through the low hills, and passes west of Gebel Igli el Iswid; it is said to go on to Qena. Further on in its course towards the sea, Wadi Um Khariga receives another tributary draining the south flanks of Gebel Igli el Iswid. The lower portion of Wadi Um Khariga has not been surveyed in detail; but it passes through a tract of lower hills and enters the sea in about latitude 25° 5′. The total length of the main channel of Wadi Um Khariga is about fifty kilometres, and the area of its basin is about 300 square kilometres.Wadi Sukari, the next wadi to the south, heads at a pass from Wadi Ghadir; for about nine kilometres it courses east of north between the eastern range of Gebel Um Khariga and the craggy Gebel Sukari,then turns more to the east and enters the sea a little south of Wadi Um Khariga. Near the south end of Gebel Sukari there are numerous ruins and some ancient gold mines.Wadi Um Tundebaheads near the mountain of the same name, and courses about north-east to the sea. In one of the heads of this wadi, about three kilometres west of the summit of Gebel Um Tundeba, is an important water source, calledGalt Um Tundeba. This is a rock basin situated about one kilometre up a little wadi; it contained a good supply of water in December 1905, but as it depends for its supply on rainfall in the surrounding hills, it cannot be relied on as a permanent water source.Wadi Amba-utis a small wadi originating near the granite hills called Gebel Amba-ut, and following a course about parallel with the Wadi Um Tundeba seawards.Wadi Ghadir, which drains by numerous tributaries the eastern face of Gebels Hangalia and Zabara, as well as the hilly country round Gebels Ghadir, Allawi, and Lewewi, has a basin of over 500 square kilometres and a length along its main channel, not counting its feeders, of about forty-five kilometres; it enters the sea in latitude 24° 50′.The principal head of Wadi Ghadir is at an easy pass between Gebels Ghuel and Um Khariga, in latitude 24° 55′, at an altitude of about 500 metres above sea-level. Coursing south-east, it receives important feeders from gorges in the west face of Gebel Ghuel; the principal of these feeders,Wadi Ghuel, contains water holes, which gave an excellent supply of rain water in 1905-06. A little further along its course, Wadi Ghadir passes the low hill district calledKurdeman, where there are some old gold mines, and then receives as tributariesWadi FegasandWadi Ma-ud, draining the mountains of Ghuel and Hangalia. Taking now a more easterly direction towards Gebel Ghadir, it receives from the north-westWadi Sabahia, draining the craggy felsite hill of the same name; there are some old gold mines about a kilometre north-east of this hill, in a branch of Wadi Sabahia.TheWadi Zabara, an important tributary draining the north flanks of Gebel Zabara and the south-east part of Gebel Hangalia, enters Ghadir from the south-west, nearly opposite Wadi Sabahia. Wadi Zabara has itself three main heads, called by the separate names ofWadi Atabi,Wadi Um Abid, andWadi Um Dafiri. There are ruins and ancient mines close to where the Wadi Atabi joins WadiZabara, while in the upper part of Wadi Um Dafiri are more extensive ruins and numerous ancient emerald mines, as well as a series of rock basins which were yielding good water in 1905-1906.After receiving the Wadi Zabara, Wadi Ghadir continues its course south-east past Gebel Ghadir, from the slopes of which numerous small feeders enter the main channel. Almost due south of Gebel Ghadir, in the southern one of two branches into which the wadi splits as it passes round a low island-like mass of hills, isBir Ghadir, a well sunk in the alluvium of the wadi floor. When I visited it early in 1906 this well was filled by downwash, and the Arabs of the district deferred digging it out until the rock basins were empty; it is an important water source and is said to yield good supplies. The mines of Hangalia were supplied by water from Bir Ghadir in 1905, when nearer sources were dry.About six kilometres below the well, Wadi Ghadir passes close north of Gebel Allawi, where there are some old gold mines. TheWadi Allawi, which with its tributaryWadi Lewewidrains the hilly country between Gebels Zabara and Sikait, enters Ghadir a little to the east of Gebel Allawi; both Allawi and Lewewi are very tortuous wadis, their names in fact meaning “crooked” in the Ababda tongue (Lewewi is a diminutive of Allawi).Wadi Um Gamil, the next wadi entering the sea to the south, drains the hilly country south-east of Sikait. Very little is known about its course, the only part surveyed being the heads east of Gebel Sikait.Wadi Gemalis the terminal portion, about sixty kilometres in length, of the main drainage channel from a basin nearly 200 square kilometres in area. With its numerous large feeders, the principal of which is Wadi Huluz, about eighty kilometres in length, the Wadi Gemal drains the Hafafit and Nugrus ranges of mountains on the north, and a great mass of high mountains, including Gebel Hamata, on the south. It will be convenient here to describe only the Wadi Gemal proper, leaving the great wadis which join to form it, and its major tributaries, for separate treatment.The name Wadi Gemal is first given to the drainage at the point where Wadi Huluz turns sharply eastward in longitude 34° 39′.[89]At this point the country becomes more open than in the gorge-like Wadi Huluz. To the north is a mass of low granite hills, some of which have remarkable shapes, with a great deal of drift sand, while to the south are the higher dark hills flanking Gebel Um Suerab. Among these surroundings the wadi pursues a winding course, with a general north-easterly direction, receiving the Wadi Um Suerab lil Gemal and the Wadi Durunkat as tributaries from the south.About six kilometres below the point of influx of Wadi Durunkat, on the right (south) side of Wadi Gemal, is a locality calledGeli, where there are extensive ruins. A very remarkable rock in the middle of the main wadi marks the place whence a track leads south-east past the ruins and across the heads of Wadis Um Ghazal and Mukhatatat into the upper part of Wadi el Abiad.Passing a remarkable bell-shaped hill (Gebel Um Regeba, rising to 571 metres above sea, the “mosque rock” of Floyer’s map) about four kilometres on the left, Wadi Gemal receives two small feeders coming from among the hills to the south, and then the important tributary called Wadi Hafafit enters from the north-west.Below the point of influx of Hafafit, the Wadi Gemal becomes more narrow, and shut in by high hills. Near the meridian of 34° 49′ there are some ruins on the north side of the wadi, and a little further on the Wadi Nugrus, one of the largest tributaries of Wadi Gemal, enters from the north-west at a rather sharp bend. Further down, Wadi Gemal receivesWadi el MukhatatatandWadi Um Suehfrom the south, andWadi Um HeranandWadi el Nasbiafrom the north. The Wadi Abiad, which next joins Wadi Gemal from the south, is an important feeder. Two kilometres below the mouth of Wadi el Abiad, theWadi Um Kabuenters Wadi Gemal from the north-west, while nearly opposite to it is a small wadi, calledUm Sellimi, in which there are water pools after rain. The wadi now curves more northward round the base of the double-topped hill mass called Madaret Um Gamil. Just beyond the northward turn a road[90]leads up a narrow tortuous gully in a north-westerly direction, passing close south of the hill summit and forming the most ready means of ascent of Madaret Um Gamil; the climb from the road at the top of the gully is only about 200 metres. The course of the Wadi Gemal to the seahas not been surveyed beyond four kilometres east of Madaret Um Gamil; it goes through low hilly country and enters the sea in about latitude 24°.The fall of the Wadi Gemal averages about six metres per kilometre, being as low as four metres per kilometre in some places, and probably exceeding ten metres per kilometre where it emerges from the hills on to the coast-plain. It is interesting to note that the observations of level indicate a local increase of gradient above the place of influx of Hafafit and Nugrus. The Wadi Gemal is well supplied with trees, as are also almost all its tributaries with the exception of the sandy Wadi Hafafit.Wadi Huluzis a long winding wadi, mostly shut in by high rock walls, draining the high mountains round Gebel Hamata and coursing north-east for a distance of over seventy-five kilometres to the point, near Gebel Um Suerab, where, turning sharply eastward, it enters more open country and takes the name of Wadi Gemal. The slope of Wadi Huluz averages fifty metres per kilometre for the first ten kilometres from its heads in the mountains. In the next ten kilometres the slope is much flatter, being twenty metres per kilometre. From twenty to forty kilometres from its head the average fall is only ten metres per kilometre, while still further down the rate of fall lessens till in the last reaches, just before entering the Wadi Gemal, it is only six and a half metres per kilometre.The principal heads of Wadi Huluz are close to the south-east of Gebel Hamata, in acul-de-sacformed by the high mountains of Gebel Hamata (1,978 metres above sea) and Gebel Ras el Kharit (1,661 metres). Here a number of steep gorges unite to form the main channel, which due south of Hamata has an altitude of 1,053 metres above sea-level. Following a winding course among the mountains as a rapidly falling valley with a sandy floor averaging 100 metres or more in width, it passes west of the great mass of Hamata, receiving the drainages from the north-east flanks of that mountain and from the north face of Gebel Um Hasidok. At its crossing the meridian of 35° it receives as a feeder theWadi el Abiad lil Huluz, which drains the north face of Hamata and the south flanks of Gebel Abu Ghusun; draining mostly from granite country, this feeder has a floor of coarse granitic sand, from the whitish colour of which it takes its name.The next feeder of Wadi Huluz, calledWadi Mahali, enters from the south, its head being on the main watershed between Gebels Um Usher and Um Hasidok. Passing between Gebels Um Usher and Um Laham, the Wadi Huluz receivesWadi Tarfawi, draining the mountain of the same name from the east. Further down, feeders come in from Gebel el Mehali on the south and from the high hills south of Gebel Um Heshenib on the north. Near the meridian of 34° 50′ two important tributaries enter Huluz near together from the south. The upper one,Wadi Hilgit lil Huluz, heads in a very steep and difficult pass, leading into Wadi Hilgit lil Kharit. The lower one, calledWadi Um Semiuki, drains the north-east flanks of Gebel Abu Hamamid. Nearly opposite the mouth of Wadi Um Semiuki is another feeder of Wadi Huluz, which I believe forms the main drainage channel for the south face of Gebel Um Heshenib; but it is said to be very steep and stony, and my Arabs preferred to reach Gebel Um Heshenib by a small wadi, containing several tombs, some four kilometres higher up Wadi Huluz, whence there is a stony pass leading into the above-mentioned main drainage channel at a point above the obstructions in it.About eight kilometres further on, on the north-east side of the wadi, there is a low gap over which by a very easy pass one can descend into the head of Wadi Durunkat, leading to Wadi Gemal. Some three kilometres lower down, Huluz receives two tributaries together; one, from the south-east, is calledWadi Um Hegiligi lil Huluz, while the other, from the south-west, is calledWadi Marasanand heads in an easy pass on the main watershed, over which a track leads south-east and south to the well and tomb of Sheikh Shadli.Two sheikhs’ tombs and some smaller graves exist at a bend in the Wadi Huluz, three kilometres below the point of influx of Wadi Marasan. Below these enter as feedersWadi Um Suerab lil Huluzfrom the north, andWadi Abu Gerifatfrom the south. The wadi now becomes very tortuous. Near the meridian of 34° 40′, on the south side of the wadi, at a bend where trees are very abundant, is a small gully containing the important water holes calledUm Gerifat. These are rock basins fed by rain water draining down steep gorges from the hills round the twin-peaked Gebel Um Sedri; they are easily accessible in a few minutes from the main wadi, and contained good supplies of water in the winter of 1905-1906. About four kilometres lower down,theWadi Um Iteilienters from the east, and about five kilometres beyond this Huluz opens out into a somewhat triangular space, when theWadi Gaetrienters from the west andWadi el Khiseifrom the east. The Wadi Gaetri leads by an important pass into the more open country to the west (wells of Wadi Khashab and Wadi Natash).At the open space above-mentioned, Wadi Huluz turns northward, winding somewhat, for some eight kilometres, and then, after receiving theWadi Abu Etlas a feeder from the west, turns sharply eastward and becomes the Wadi Gemal.Wadi Durunkat, a tributary of Wadi Gemal, forms an important road from Wadi Gemal into the higher parts of Huluz. By following it up to its head about twenty kilometres from its junction with Wadi Gemal, one can enter Wadi Huluz by a very easy pass in longitude 34° 46′, thus cutting off the long winding course of Wadi Huluz itself; and from this pass one can cross the main watershed by the Wadi Marasan to reach Bir Shadli.Wadi Hafafit, another tributary of Wadi Gemal, has its head situated close to the east side of Gebel Migif, in latitude 24° 50′, on the main watershed, where there is an easy pass into the head of Wadi Shait. Following a very straight course for nearly forty kilometres south-east, with the remarkable range of high gneiss mountains called Gebel Hafafit on the left, and the sugar loaf granite hills of Abu Had on the right, Wadi Hafafit forms a broad barren valley in which there are heavy accumulations of blown sand.Wadi Abu Had, a small western feeder of Hafafit, is well known by reason of the well of bitter water,Bir Abu Had, at its head. An eastern feeder of Wadi Hafafit, which joins it shortly before the junction with Wadi Gemal, is called by the diminutive name ofWadi Hefeifit.Wadi el Abiad, likewise a tributary of Wadi Gemal, derives its name from the coarse white granitic sand which forms its floor. Its heads are situated near latitude 24° 20′, among the granite mountains called Gebel el Abiad and on the northerly slopes of Gebel Um Heshenib. There is a very steep pass from its head, east of Gebel Um Heshenib, into Wadi Huluz. Pursuing an almost northerly course and falling rather rapidly, Wadi el Abiad is at first very wide, with high granite hills on each side. It narrows further down, at a point opposite Gebel Shoab, where a small eastern feeder leads by an easy sandy pass into the Wadi Shoab. A little lower down, passing into dioritecountry, it turns more to the east, and after receiving theWadis Um Seyal el Foqaniandel Tahtanifrom the south-east, enters the Wadi Gemal near Madaret Um Gamil. The wadis called Um Seyal receive their name from the abundance of acacia trees in them; at the head of Wadi Um Seyal el Foqani there is a pass leading by the Wadai el Anz into Wadi Um el Abbas.Wadi Nugrus, an important tributary of Wadi Gemal, commences its course on the main watershed west of Gebel Nugrus, in latitude 24° 48′, at the pass into Wadi Gerf, 690 metres above sea-level, and courses south-east in almost a straight line for nearly forty kilometres to join the Wadi Gemal in latitude 24° 34′ and longitude 34° 50′. The fall to this point is some 450 metres, or an average of over ten metres per kilometre, but the fall is most rapid near the head, where the floor of the wadi is rocky and steep; the slope for the first few kilometres is over double the average.The approach to the head of Wadi Nugrus from the north, by one of the heads of Wadi Gerf, is almost a plain. But as soon as Wadi Nugrus is entered one becomes very sensible of the greater steepness of the eastern drainage by the stony nature of the track and the rapid fall. The wadi here is in fact only a narrow gorge with the huge mountains of Hafafit and Nugrus on the west and east sides respectively. Some three kilometres below the pass, close to the west side of the wadi, in a narrow gorge, is the spring calledMegal el Harami, situated in gneiss rocks, and giving supplies of good water; the water infiltrates slowly, however, so that the yield is not sufficiently rapid to supply large quantities at once. Lower down, the wadi broadens out considerably, with a sandy floor in the middle of which low dark hills rise like islands. About thirteen kilometres below the head, an important feeder, theWadai el Nom, comes in from the north-east. This wadi drains the south-east flanks of Gebel Nugrus and the west flanks of Gebel Hangalia; it contains rock basins holding water for some time after rain, and leads to a steep winding pass which enables one to make a circuit round the great granite mountain of Gebel Nugrus. The pass is, however, impracticable for baggage camels, and one has to dismount from a riding camel in order to get over.Beyond the junction of Wadai el Nom, the Wadi Nugrus continues its straight course south-east, between the long range of Gebel Hafafit on the west and Gebel Zabara on the east. Some thirty kilometresbelow its head, Wadi Nugrus receives theWadi Abu Rusheidfrom the north, and a little further on one encounters on the east the ruins of an old village calledMedina Nugrus. Just opposite the ruins is a small feeder calledWadi Abu Sada, a short distance up which are rock basins yielding water after rain, but these were dry in 1905. Not far below this, there are some old workings in a small feeder on the east side of the Wadi Nugrus, six kilometres above its junction with Wadi Gemal.Wadi Sikait, a tributary of Wadi Nugrus, heads in some high red granite hills north-west of Gebel Sikait. A pass leads over the western head, while in the eastern one is a small spring, which, though a mere trickle, is said to be constant and to yield excellent water. These two heads join at a well recently sunk by miners. Lower down, on the flanks of Gebel Sikait, are numerous emerald mines, with an ancient tower and many other ruins, and in the wadi near these is another recently sunk well, which has only yielded water of inferior quality. From near the mines there lead two tracks on either side of the wadi. That to the west is a rough path over gneiss hills into Wadi Abu Rusheid. That to the east winds past the ancient tower, ascending gradually to a pass into one of the heads of Wadi Um Gamil. Lower down the Wadi Sikait are many ancient mines, and the ruins of three rock temples and an ancient village. Just before the Wadi Sikait enters Wadi Nugrus, a track leaves on the east forWadi Um Heran, in which I am told water is sometimes to be found. The length of the Wadi Sikait is about fourteen kilometres, and its fall is from 535 metres above sea at the pass at its head to about 250 metres where it enters Wadi Nugrus, or an average slope of twenty metres per kilometre. It is a narrow gorge shut in by high hills, with a fair abundance of trees.Wadi Um el Abbasoriginates by the union of several heads in the neighbourhood of the high granite hills of Um el Abbas and Abu Hegilig. One of its heads leads to an easy pass calledKab el Haram, four and a half kilometres east of Gebel Abu Hegilig. Another, close east of Gebel Abu Hegilig, leads to another easy pass into the head of a tributary of Wadi Romit. A third head, called theWadai el Anz, leads to yet another pass into Wadi Um Seyal el Foqani, a tributary of Wadi el Abiad. The course of the Wadi Um el Abbas has only been surveyed for a short distance below the place where its headsunite; it pursues a north-easterly course among low hilly country and enters the sea in about latitude 24° 36′.
The small tributary calledWadi Abu Hashim, which enters Wadi Garara from the south in about longitude 34° 5′, is important as containing the important wells known asBir Abu Hashim. The wells are excavations in the alluvium of the wadi floor, and furnish good water at a depth of about eight metres. A beacon has been erected on a high hill to the west of the wells and overlooking them, the position of which is latitude 23° 41′ 44″ N., longitude 34° 3′ 33″ E., altitude 386 metres above sea and sixty-six metres above the wells. The principal roads from Bir Abu Hashim are, to Aswân (first water at Um Hibal,nearly one hundred kilometres distant), to Daraw (first water at Bir Qoleib, seventy-five kilometres distant), and to Abu Saafa Springs (a journey of about one hundred kilometres with possibly water en route at the Galt el Aguz, sixty kilometres from Abu Hashim).
Wadi Natashcommences among the low hills forming the Nile — Red Sea watershed between Gebel Migif and Gebel Abu Had. It pursues a course roughly parallel with that of Wadi Shait, at first over a sandy plain from which rise the two conspicuous cones called El Nahud (the breasts), and afterwards narrowing in among hills. Pursuing a somewhat devious course in a direction generally a little south of west, Wadi Natash passes south of Gebel Nugra (in longitude 33° 40′) and enters on the great plain called Atmur Nugra, where it joins the Wadi Kharit and drains to the Nile near Kom Ombo.
There is, I believe, no water source in Wadi Natash itself, butBir Masuris situated in a branch wadi only a few kilometres north of it in longitude 34°. At Bir Masur there are numerous pits sunk in the alluvium of the wadi, in one or more of which good water can generally be found at a depth of about ten metres; but the supply cannot always be relied on, for although I obtained plenty of water in March 1906, I found there was only a very small quantity available in October of the same year.
Wadi Alaqi, the greatest of all the Egyptian wadis draining westwards to the Nile, has its head on the main watershed near Gebel Is, close to the 22nd parallel in longitude 35° 27′. Its main channel, over 350 kilometres in length, pursues a general westerly course, winding at first, past the old mining centres of Darahib and Alfawi, towards Gebel Muqsim, on the 34th meridian, and then, curving round to the north of that mountain, it turns to the north-west, past the gold mines of Um Gariart, and enters the Nile Valley opposite the large village of Dakka, in latitude 23° 8′. The area of its basin is unknown, much of it being unexplored, but it probably comprises no less than four square degrees of the earth’s surface, or 44,000 square kilometres. Its heads and upper tributaries lie among high mountainous tracts partly in Egypt and partly in the Sudan, and occasionally the rainfall in these southern parts of the eastern desert is sufficient to convert the usually dry wadi into a temporary stream for a part or all of its length. That it may on the rare occasions of sufficientrainfall discharge no inconsiderable quantity of water into the Nile is proved by Linant’s experience about 1830, when he records that the torrent from the Wadi Alaqi into the Nile was so great as to prevent hisdahabîasailing up the river past the point of influx, even with a good wind and all sails set.[87]A great flow of water down the Wadi Alaqi also occurred in the autumn of 1902 as a consequence of heavy rains in the mountainous country east of the meridian 34° 30′. This torrent was observed by Mr. John F. Wells, who was then manager of the Um Gariart mine. In the early morning news was brought to the mine that great waters were coming down the wadi. Except for a slight rainfall at the heads of the Wadis Qoleib and Haimur, the drainage of which did not appreciably swell the flood of the main wadi, there had been no rain within one hundred kilometres of the mine, and when the alarm was given, at 6.30 a.m., only a small trickling of water down the wadi was visible, and the news was thought to be an exaggeration. But an hour later the whole wadi was a raging torrent, and by nine o’clock there was a mighty stream, over 300 metres wide and from one to two and a half metres deep, rushing past the mine. The flow continued for about two and a half days. On this occasion the stream, in spite of its magnitude at Um Gariart, did not reach the Nile; after flowing for some seventy kilometres past the mines, it entered a wide depression at Hagab Kara, some forty kilometres from the mouth of the wadi, where it formed a great pool and sank into the sand. Mr. Wells informs me that the water did not penetrate the sandy and gravelly floor of the wadi to the bed rock (the thickness of the sandy and gravelly layer at Um Gariart is fourteen metres) till three months later, and then the rock, though damp, did not absorb enough water to yield any supply to wells sunk in it. The local Arabs stated that these downrushes of water, which they term “seil,” occur on an average at about ten-year intervals; the last one occurred seven years before that of 1902.
The part of the basin of Wadi Alaqi falling within the limits of the district described in this volume includes the whole country west of the main watershed between the parallels of 22° and 23°. This area is drained by numerous tributaries of Alaqi, all entering the main wadi from its north side. The following is a brief description of these tributaries, commencing with the uppermost (easternmost) of them.
Wadi Himeitrais a small wadi draining the south face of Gebel Himeitra. It contains a well,Bir Himeitra, at the foot of the mountain, which is said to yield constant supplies of water. Below the well, Wadi Himeitra continues for about ten kilometres in a south-westerly direction, joining the Wadi Alaqi about seven kilometres above the ruins of Darahib.
TheMiti Kwan, the next tributary of Alaqi, has its heads in the north flanks of Gebel Himeitra. Near its head it receives as feeders from the north-east theWadis KirirandDuag, draining mountains of the same name which form part of the Adar Qaqa range. About fourteen kilometres further down its course, the Miti Kwan receives theWadi Merau, which drains the hills of the main watershed round Eir Arib. Below the point of influx of Merau, the Miti Kwan pursues a very winding course among the hills for some eleven kilometres, then receives from the north theWadi Miaus, a small wadi with many branches among the hills and containing a well,Bir Miaus, about seven kilometres up from its mouth. After receiving Wadi Miaus, the Miti Kwan continues a winding course for about nine kilometres and enters the Wadi Alaqi on the 22nd parallel, about fifteen kilometres below the ruins of Darahib. A well-known road, connecting the Wadi Alaqi with the Abu Hodeid and Meisah wells, leads up the Miti Kwan for a distance of some twenty-three kilometres, and then passes northwards over a stony plain, crossing the watershed into the head of Wadi Hasium, in which is Bir Kagog.
Wadi Dageinais a small many-branched tributary of Alaqi, draining the hills east of Gebel Egat.
Wadi Alfawi, which enters Wadi Alaqi a little lower down its course, is likewise a small wadi draining the hilly tract east of Gebel Egat; there are some old mines on its western side close to its junction with Wadi Alaqi.
Wadi Egat, the next important tributary of Alaqi, drains by very numerous branches the remarkable peak of Gebel Egat and the south faces of Gebel Heleikonti. It contains a well,Bir Egat, situated east-south-east of the peak, about twenty-six kilometres up from its junction with Alaqi, and there are extensive remains of old mining operations to be seen in the same neighbourhood. Passing east and south of Gebel Egat, the wadi emerges from the mountains, coursing almost due west; and after receiving various feeders, the principal ofwhich isWadi Hiteib, from the mountains to the north, it enters Wadi Alaqi in longitude 34° 40′, about twenty kilometres west of Gebel Egat.
Wadi Hateib,[88]which enters Wadi Alaqi about twenty kilometres below Wadi Egat, has its heads in the south faces of Gebel Um el Tiur el Foqani and the north flanks of Gebel el Hateib or Suhin. Coursing generally south-westward, it receives small feeders on the west from Gebels Adraq and Guqub. About four kilometres above where it enters Wadi Alaqi, Wadi Hateib is joined from the east byWadi Suhin, the heads of which drain the south faces of Gebel Hateib or Suhin.
Wadi Guqub, a very small wadi which enters Alaqi six kilometres lower down than Hateib, drains the hilly tract which here lies to the north of Alaqi; it contains an important well,Bir Guqub, which yields good water though in varying quantity. A road leads from Wadi Alaqi up the Wadi Guqub past the well and on to Aswân,viaEl Haimur.
Wadi Um Teneidebdrains the western faces of Gebels el Adraq and Guqub, and joins Wadi Alaqi in longitude 34° 11′, about thirty-three kilometres below Wadi Gugub. It has two main branches, which unite about ten kilometres above the point of junction with Wadi Alaqi. The old mines of Betam are situated near the northern of the two branches, about seven kilometres west of Gebel el Adraq, on the road just mentioned as leading from Wadi Alaqi to Aswân.
Wadi Defeit, which is probably the most important Egyptian tributary of Wadi Alaqi, has its heads in Gebels Heleikontî and Heianai, about the meridian of 35°. Its general course is that of a flat circular arc convex to the north and having its chord east and west; the total length of its main channel, from its head in Gebel Heleikontî to its junction with Wadi Alaqi in longitude 34° 10′, is over one hundred kilometres, while its numerous tributaries probably reach a total length three times as great. The principal head of Wadi Defeit is calledWadi Sarid; its branches extend among the hills close to the heads of Wadi Egat and Wadi Miaus. The name Defeit is applied to the wadiwhere Wadi Sarid is joined by the feeders from Gebel Heleikontî. Passing between the high ranges of Heianai on the north, and Heleikontî and Shanaiyet on the south, Wadi Defeit receives numerous feeders, of which the principal are theWadis DauriaiandHamidâ, both entering it from the mountain to the south; continuing westwards, it cuts through the north end of the mass of Gebel Um el Tiur el Foqani, and on emergence is joined by theWadi Bint el Feqoh, a great westward-coursing tributary draining the north flanks of the Heianai range and the more northerly mountain of Anweyib. Continuing its westward course, Wadi Defeit passes between Gebels Um el Tiur el Tahtani and Adraq; then it enters on an extensive tract of more open country, receiving three main feeders,Wadi Meladoyeb,Rod Hauanin, andWadi Bagharid, from the hills to the north, before joining Wadi Alaqi.
Wadi Seiga, the next great northern tributary of Wadi Alaqi, has only been partially explored. Its head is in the watershed range near the conspicuous twin peaks of Gebel Sheyenit. Pursuing at first a southerly course, it cuts through the east side of the mass of Gebel Seiga; and about thirty kilometres lower down passes through hills with old gold mines on either hand. Below the mines, Wadi Seiga takes a south-westerly course, and receives a large tributary from either side. That from the west, calledWadi Deheis, heads in Gebel Deheis and curves round east of Gebel Abu Brush, receiving in its course two great feeders, theWadis Um GholqaandAbu Had, both of which head far to the north in the main watershed. The eastern tributary, calledWadi Um Derera, drains the south part of the hill-mass in which the Seiga mines are situated. Wadi Seiga joins Wadi Alaqi in longitude 33° 53′, some forty-five kilometres below the mines; the junction is outside the limits of the maps in this volume.
[84]Dry in 1906.[85]To be distinguished from another mountain of the same name further south, near the Wadi Hodein.[86]To be distinguished from the better known Wadi Egat much further south, a feeder of Wadi Alaqi.[87]“L’Etbaye.” p. 1.[88]Mr. Campbell’s map names this Wadi Hadaiber. My guides, however, gave the name Gebel Hateib to the mountain which is drained by the wadi, and I have ventured to alter the name on this ground. Mr. Campbell’s map names the mountain Gebel Suhin; it probably has two names, as is quite usual in desert nomenclature, because its two sides are drained by different wadis. There is a Wadi Hiteib draining from the south-eastern part of the same hill-mass into Wadi Egat.
[84]Dry in 1906.
[84]Dry in 1906.
[85]To be distinguished from another mountain of the same name further south, near the Wadi Hodein.
[85]To be distinguished from another mountain of the same name further south, near the Wadi Hodein.
[86]To be distinguished from the better known Wadi Egat much further south, a feeder of Wadi Alaqi.
[86]To be distinguished from the better known Wadi Egat much further south, a feeder of Wadi Alaqi.
[87]“L’Etbaye.” p. 1.
[87]“L’Etbaye.” p. 1.
[88]Mr. Campbell’s map names this Wadi Hadaiber. My guides, however, gave the name Gebel Hateib to the mountain which is drained by the wadi, and I have ventured to alter the name on this ground. Mr. Campbell’s map names the mountain Gebel Suhin; it probably has two names, as is quite usual in desert nomenclature, because its two sides are drained by different wadis. There is a Wadi Hiteib draining from the south-eastern part of the same hill-mass into Wadi Egat.
[88]Mr. Campbell’s map names this Wadi Hadaiber. My guides, however, gave the name Gebel Hateib to the mountain which is drained by the wadi, and I have ventured to alter the name on this ground. Mr. Campbell’s map names the mountain Gebel Suhin; it probably has two names, as is quite usual in desert nomenclature, because its two sides are drained by different wadis. There is a Wadi Hiteib draining from the south-eastern part of the same hill-mass into Wadi Egat.
THE WADIS DRAINING EASTWARDS TO THE SEA.
The eastward drainage differs strikingly from the westward in being much steeper and more complex, due to the greater proximity of the mountains to the sea than to the Nile. While all the westward drainages form parts of but three great basins, there are on the seaward side no less than forty-seven distinct drainage basins, each having a separate outlet to sea (seePlate II). Only two of the eastern basins, Hodein and Di-it, are comparable in size with the great basins of the west, the remainder being relatively small.
The following list gives the names in order, from north to south, of the main wadis draining to the sea, with their tributaries so far as they fall within the area treated of in this volume, the principal feeders of the tributaries being indicated in parentheses. It may be remarked that the minor feeders and tributaries are frequently of greater importance to the Arabs than the main channels, owing to their containing vegetation in greater abundance.
Wadi Daburfalls only partly within the district to be described in the present volume. It drains the hill country between Gebels Atut and Igli, by numerous feeders, and courses north-east to enter the sea about latitude 25° 16′, beyond the limits shown on the map.
Wadi Igliis a short wadi draining from Gebel Igli and coursing a little north of east to the sea somewhat south of latitude 25° 10′.
Wadi Um Kharigahas its principal head in acul-de-sacwest of Gebel Ghuel and north of Gebel Hangalia, at an altitude of approximately 800 metres above sea-level. Near its head there is an easy pass entering from the west, forming a line of communication with Hangalia mine; the highest point of the pass is 773 metres above sea-level. After coursing for about twelve kilometres a little west of north between the high hills called Gebel Um Khariga, with a rapid fall, the wadi turns north-east, receiving just below the bend a large tributary which heads in an easy pass to Wadi Ghadir. Near this place a road crosses the wadi northwards through the low hills, and passes west of Gebel Igli el Iswid; it is said to go on to Qena. Further on in its course towards the sea, Wadi Um Khariga receives another tributary draining the south flanks of Gebel Igli el Iswid. The lower portion of Wadi Um Khariga has not been surveyed in detail; but it passes through a tract of lower hills and enters the sea in about latitude 25° 5′. The total length of the main channel of Wadi Um Khariga is about fifty kilometres, and the area of its basin is about 300 square kilometres.
Wadi Sukari, the next wadi to the south, heads at a pass from Wadi Ghadir; for about nine kilometres it courses east of north between the eastern range of Gebel Um Khariga and the craggy Gebel Sukari,then turns more to the east and enters the sea a little south of Wadi Um Khariga. Near the south end of Gebel Sukari there are numerous ruins and some ancient gold mines.
Wadi Um Tundebaheads near the mountain of the same name, and courses about north-east to the sea. In one of the heads of this wadi, about three kilometres west of the summit of Gebel Um Tundeba, is an important water source, calledGalt Um Tundeba. This is a rock basin situated about one kilometre up a little wadi; it contained a good supply of water in December 1905, but as it depends for its supply on rainfall in the surrounding hills, it cannot be relied on as a permanent water source.
Wadi Amba-utis a small wadi originating near the granite hills called Gebel Amba-ut, and following a course about parallel with the Wadi Um Tundeba seawards.
Wadi Ghadir, which drains by numerous tributaries the eastern face of Gebels Hangalia and Zabara, as well as the hilly country round Gebels Ghadir, Allawi, and Lewewi, has a basin of over 500 square kilometres and a length along its main channel, not counting its feeders, of about forty-five kilometres; it enters the sea in latitude 24° 50′.
The principal head of Wadi Ghadir is at an easy pass between Gebels Ghuel and Um Khariga, in latitude 24° 55′, at an altitude of about 500 metres above sea-level. Coursing south-east, it receives important feeders from gorges in the west face of Gebel Ghuel; the principal of these feeders,Wadi Ghuel, contains water holes, which gave an excellent supply of rain water in 1905-06. A little further along its course, Wadi Ghadir passes the low hill district calledKurdeman, where there are some old gold mines, and then receives as tributariesWadi FegasandWadi Ma-ud, draining the mountains of Ghuel and Hangalia. Taking now a more easterly direction towards Gebel Ghadir, it receives from the north-westWadi Sabahia, draining the craggy felsite hill of the same name; there are some old gold mines about a kilometre north-east of this hill, in a branch of Wadi Sabahia.
TheWadi Zabara, an important tributary draining the north flanks of Gebel Zabara and the south-east part of Gebel Hangalia, enters Ghadir from the south-west, nearly opposite Wadi Sabahia. Wadi Zabara has itself three main heads, called by the separate names ofWadi Atabi,Wadi Um Abid, andWadi Um Dafiri. There are ruins and ancient mines close to where the Wadi Atabi joins WadiZabara, while in the upper part of Wadi Um Dafiri are more extensive ruins and numerous ancient emerald mines, as well as a series of rock basins which were yielding good water in 1905-1906.
After receiving the Wadi Zabara, Wadi Ghadir continues its course south-east past Gebel Ghadir, from the slopes of which numerous small feeders enter the main channel. Almost due south of Gebel Ghadir, in the southern one of two branches into which the wadi splits as it passes round a low island-like mass of hills, isBir Ghadir, a well sunk in the alluvium of the wadi floor. When I visited it early in 1906 this well was filled by downwash, and the Arabs of the district deferred digging it out until the rock basins were empty; it is an important water source and is said to yield good supplies. The mines of Hangalia were supplied by water from Bir Ghadir in 1905, when nearer sources were dry.
About six kilometres below the well, Wadi Ghadir passes close north of Gebel Allawi, where there are some old gold mines. TheWadi Allawi, which with its tributaryWadi Lewewidrains the hilly country between Gebels Zabara and Sikait, enters Ghadir a little to the east of Gebel Allawi; both Allawi and Lewewi are very tortuous wadis, their names in fact meaning “crooked” in the Ababda tongue (Lewewi is a diminutive of Allawi).
Wadi Um Gamil, the next wadi entering the sea to the south, drains the hilly country south-east of Sikait. Very little is known about its course, the only part surveyed being the heads east of Gebel Sikait.
Wadi Gemalis the terminal portion, about sixty kilometres in length, of the main drainage channel from a basin nearly 200 square kilometres in area. With its numerous large feeders, the principal of which is Wadi Huluz, about eighty kilometres in length, the Wadi Gemal drains the Hafafit and Nugrus ranges of mountains on the north, and a great mass of high mountains, including Gebel Hamata, on the south. It will be convenient here to describe only the Wadi Gemal proper, leaving the great wadis which join to form it, and its major tributaries, for separate treatment.
The name Wadi Gemal is first given to the drainage at the point where Wadi Huluz turns sharply eastward in longitude 34° 39′.[89]At this point the country becomes more open than in the gorge-like Wadi Huluz. To the north is a mass of low granite hills, some of which have remarkable shapes, with a great deal of drift sand, while to the south are the higher dark hills flanking Gebel Um Suerab. Among these surroundings the wadi pursues a winding course, with a general north-easterly direction, receiving the Wadi Um Suerab lil Gemal and the Wadi Durunkat as tributaries from the south.
About six kilometres below the point of influx of Wadi Durunkat, on the right (south) side of Wadi Gemal, is a locality calledGeli, where there are extensive ruins. A very remarkable rock in the middle of the main wadi marks the place whence a track leads south-east past the ruins and across the heads of Wadis Um Ghazal and Mukhatatat into the upper part of Wadi el Abiad.
Passing a remarkable bell-shaped hill (Gebel Um Regeba, rising to 571 metres above sea, the “mosque rock” of Floyer’s map) about four kilometres on the left, Wadi Gemal receives two small feeders coming from among the hills to the south, and then the important tributary called Wadi Hafafit enters from the north-west.
Below the point of influx of Hafafit, the Wadi Gemal becomes more narrow, and shut in by high hills. Near the meridian of 34° 49′ there are some ruins on the north side of the wadi, and a little further on the Wadi Nugrus, one of the largest tributaries of Wadi Gemal, enters from the north-west at a rather sharp bend. Further down, Wadi Gemal receivesWadi el MukhatatatandWadi Um Suehfrom the south, andWadi Um HeranandWadi el Nasbiafrom the north. The Wadi Abiad, which next joins Wadi Gemal from the south, is an important feeder. Two kilometres below the mouth of Wadi el Abiad, theWadi Um Kabuenters Wadi Gemal from the north-west, while nearly opposite to it is a small wadi, calledUm Sellimi, in which there are water pools after rain. The wadi now curves more northward round the base of the double-topped hill mass called Madaret Um Gamil. Just beyond the northward turn a road[90]leads up a narrow tortuous gully in a north-westerly direction, passing close south of the hill summit and forming the most ready means of ascent of Madaret Um Gamil; the climb from the road at the top of the gully is only about 200 metres. The course of the Wadi Gemal to the seahas not been surveyed beyond four kilometres east of Madaret Um Gamil; it goes through low hilly country and enters the sea in about latitude 24°.
The fall of the Wadi Gemal averages about six metres per kilometre, being as low as four metres per kilometre in some places, and probably exceeding ten metres per kilometre where it emerges from the hills on to the coast-plain. It is interesting to note that the observations of level indicate a local increase of gradient above the place of influx of Hafafit and Nugrus. The Wadi Gemal is well supplied with trees, as are also almost all its tributaries with the exception of the sandy Wadi Hafafit.
Wadi Huluzis a long winding wadi, mostly shut in by high rock walls, draining the high mountains round Gebel Hamata and coursing north-east for a distance of over seventy-five kilometres to the point, near Gebel Um Suerab, where, turning sharply eastward, it enters more open country and takes the name of Wadi Gemal. The slope of Wadi Huluz averages fifty metres per kilometre for the first ten kilometres from its heads in the mountains. In the next ten kilometres the slope is much flatter, being twenty metres per kilometre. From twenty to forty kilometres from its head the average fall is only ten metres per kilometre, while still further down the rate of fall lessens till in the last reaches, just before entering the Wadi Gemal, it is only six and a half metres per kilometre.
The principal heads of Wadi Huluz are close to the south-east of Gebel Hamata, in acul-de-sacformed by the high mountains of Gebel Hamata (1,978 metres above sea) and Gebel Ras el Kharit (1,661 metres). Here a number of steep gorges unite to form the main channel, which due south of Hamata has an altitude of 1,053 metres above sea-level. Following a winding course among the mountains as a rapidly falling valley with a sandy floor averaging 100 metres or more in width, it passes west of the great mass of Hamata, receiving the drainages from the north-east flanks of that mountain and from the north face of Gebel Um Hasidok. At its crossing the meridian of 35° it receives as a feeder theWadi el Abiad lil Huluz, which drains the north face of Hamata and the south flanks of Gebel Abu Ghusun; draining mostly from granite country, this feeder has a floor of coarse granitic sand, from the whitish colour of which it takes its name.
The next feeder of Wadi Huluz, calledWadi Mahali, enters from the south, its head being on the main watershed between Gebels Um Usher and Um Hasidok. Passing between Gebels Um Usher and Um Laham, the Wadi Huluz receivesWadi Tarfawi, draining the mountain of the same name from the east. Further down, feeders come in from Gebel el Mehali on the south and from the high hills south of Gebel Um Heshenib on the north. Near the meridian of 34° 50′ two important tributaries enter Huluz near together from the south. The upper one,Wadi Hilgit lil Huluz, heads in a very steep and difficult pass, leading into Wadi Hilgit lil Kharit. The lower one, calledWadi Um Semiuki, drains the north-east flanks of Gebel Abu Hamamid. Nearly opposite the mouth of Wadi Um Semiuki is another feeder of Wadi Huluz, which I believe forms the main drainage channel for the south face of Gebel Um Heshenib; but it is said to be very steep and stony, and my Arabs preferred to reach Gebel Um Heshenib by a small wadi, containing several tombs, some four kilometres higher up Wadi Huluz, whence there is a stony pass leading into the above-mentioned main drainage channel at a point above the obstructions in it.
About eight kilometres further on, on the north-east side of the wadi, there is a low gap over which by a very easy pass one can descend into the head of Wadi Durunkat, leading to Wadi Gemal. Some three kilometres lower down, Huluz receives two tributaries together; one, from the south-east, is calledWadi Um Hegiligi lil Huluz, while the other, from the south-west, is calledWadi Marasanand heads in an easy pass on the main watershed, over which a track leads south-east and south to the well and tomb of Sheikh Shadli.
Two sheikhs’ tombs and some smaller graves exist at a bend in the Wadi Huluz, three kilometres below the point of influx of Wadi Marasan. Below these enter as feedersWadi Um Suerab lil Huluzfrom the north, andWadi Abu Gerifatfrom the south. The wadi now becomes very tortuous. Near the meridian of 34° 40′, on the south side of the wadi, at a bend where trees are very abundant, is a small gully containing the important water holes calledUm Gerifat. These are rock basins fed by rain water draining down steep gorges from the hills round the twin-peaked Gebel Um Sedri; they are easily accessible in a few minutes from the main wadi, and contained good supplies of water in the winter of 1905-1906. About four kilometres lower down,theWadi Um Iteilienters from the east, and about five kilometres beyond this Huluz opens out into a somewhat triangular space, when theWadi Gaetrienters from the west andWadi el Khiseifrom the east. The Wadi Gaetri leads by an important pass into the more open country to the west (wells of Wadi Khashab and Wadi Natash).
At the open space above-mentioned, Wadi Huluz turns northward, winding somewhat, for some eight kilometres, and then, after receiving theWadi Abu Etlas a feeder from the west, turns sharply eastward and becomes the Wadi Gemal.
Wadi Durunkat, a tributary of Wadi Gemal, forms an important road from Wadi Gemal into the higher parts of Huluz. By following it up to its head about twenty kilometres from its junction with Wadi Gemal, one can enter Wadi Huluz by a very easy pass in longitude 34° 46′, thus cutting off the long winding course of Wadi Huluz itself; and from this pass one can cross the main watershed by the Wadi Marasan to reach Bir Shadli.
Wadi Hafafit, another tributary of Wadi Gemal, has its head situated close to the east side of Gebel Migif, in latitude 24° 50′, on the main watershed, where there is an easy pass into the head of Wadi Shait. Following a very straight course for nearly forty kilometres south-east, with the remarkable range of high gneiss mountains called Gebel Hafafit on the left, and the sugar loaf granite hills of Abu Had on the right, Wadi Hafafit forms a broad barren valley in which there are heavy accumulations of blown sand.Wadi Abu Had, a small western feeder of Hafafit, is well known by reason of the well of bitter water,Bir Abu Had, at its head. An eastern feeder of Wadi Hafafit, which joins it shortly before the junction with Wadi Gemal, is called by the diminutive name ofWadi Hefeifit.
Wadi el Abiad, likewise a tributary of Wadi Gemal, derives its name from the coarse white granitic sand which forms its floor. Its heads are situated near latitude 24° 20′, among the granite mountains called Gebel el Abiad and on the northerly slopes of Gebel Um Heshenib. There is a very steep pass from its head, east of Gebel Um Heshenib, into Wadi Huluz. Pursuing an almost northerly course and falling rather rapidly, Wadi el Abiad is at first very wide, with high granite hills on each side. It narrows further down, at a point opposite Gebel Shoab, where a small eastern feeder leads by an easy sandy pass into the Wadi Shoab. A little lower down, passing into dioritecountry, it turns more to the east, and after receiving theWadis Um Seyal el Foqaniandel Tahtanifrom the south-east, enters the Wadi Gemal near Madaret Um Gamil. The wadis called Um Seyal receive their name from the abundance of acacia trees in them; at the head of Wadi Um Seyal el Foqani there is a pass leading by the Wadai el Anz into Wadi Um el Abbas.
Wadi Nugrus, an important tributary of Wadi Gemal, commences its course on the main watershed west of Gebel Nugrus, in latitude 24° 48′, at the pass into Wadi Gerf, 690 metres above sea-level, and courses south-east in almost a straight line for nearly forty kilometres to join the Wadi Gemal in latitude 24° 34′ and longitude 34° 50′. The fall to this point is some 450 metres, or an average of over ten metres per kilometre, but the fall is most rapid near the head, where the floor of the wadi is rocky and steep; the slope for the first few kilometres is over double the average.
The approach to the head of Wadi Nugrus from the north, by one of the heads of Wadi Gerf, is almost a plain. But as soon as Wadi Nugrus is entered one becomes very sensible of the greater steepness of the eastern drainage by the stony nature of the track and the rapid fall. The wadi here is in fact only a narrow gorge with the huge mountains of Hafafit and Nugrus on the west and east sides respectively. Some three kilometres below the pass, close to the west side of the wadi, in a narrow gorge, is the spring calledMegal el Harami, situated in gneiss rocks, and giving supplies of good water; the water infiltrates slowly, however, so that the yield is not sufficiently rapid to supply large quantities at once. Lower down, the wadi broadens out considerably, with a sandy floor in the middle of which low dark hills rise like islands. About thirteen kilometres below the head, an important feeder, theWadai el Nom, comes in from the north-east. This wadi drains the south-east flanks of Gebel Nugrus and the west flanks of Gebel Hangalia; it contains rock basins holding water for some time after rain, and leads to a steep winding pass which enables one to make a circuit round the great granite mountain of Gebel Nugrus. The pass is, however, impracticable for baggage camels, and one has to dismount from a riding camel in order to get over.
Beyond the junction of Wadai el Nom, the Wadi Nugrus continues its straight course south-east, between the long range of Gebel Hafafit on the west and Gebel Zabara on the east. Some thirty kilometresbelow its head, Wadi Nugrus receives theWadi Abu Rusheidfrom the north, and a little further on one encounters on the east the ruins of an old village calledMedina Nugrus. Just opposite the ruins is a small feeder calledWadi Abu Sada, a short distance up which are rock basins yielding water after rain, but these were dry in 1905. Not far below this, there are some old workings in a small feeder on the east side of the Wadi Nugrus, six kilometres above its junction with Wadi Gemal.
Wadi Sikait, a tributary of Wadi Nugrus, heads in some high red granite hills north-west of Gebel Sikait. A pass leads over the western head, while in the eastern one is a small spring, which, though a mere trickle, is said to be constant and to yield excellent water. These two heads join at a well recently sunk by miners. Lower down, on the flanks of Gebel Sikait, are numerous emerald mines, with an ancient tower and many other ruins, and in the wadi near these is another recently sunk well, which has only yielded water of inferior quality. From near the mines there lead two tracks on either side of the wadi. That to the west is a rough path over gneiss hills into Wadi Abu Rusheid. That to the east winds past the ancient tower, ascending gradually to a pass into one of the heads of Wadi Um Gamil. Lower down the Wadi Sikait are many ancient mines, and the ruins of three rock temples and an ancient village. Just before the Wadi Sikait enters Wadi Nugrus, a track leaves on the east forWadi Um Heran, in which I am told water is sometimes to be found. The length of the Wadi Sikait is about fourteen kilometres, and its fall is from 535 metres above sea at the pass at its head to about 250 metres where it enters Wadi Nugrus, or an average slope of twenty metres per kilometre. It is a narrow gorge shut in by high hills, with a fair abundance of trees.
Wadi Um el Abbasoriginates by the union of several heads in the neighbourhood of the high granite hills of Um el Abbas and Abu Hegilig. One of its heads leads to an easy pass calledKab el Haram, four and a half kilometres east of Gebel Abu Hegilig. Another, close east of Gebel Abu Hegilig, leads to another easy pass into the head of a tributary of Wadi Romit. A third head, called theWadai el Anz, leads to yet another pass into Wadi Um Seyal el Foqani, a tributary of Wadi el Abiad. The course of the Wadi Um el Abbas has only been surveyed for a short distance below the place where its headsunite; it pursues a north-easterly course among low hilly country and enters the sea in about latitude 24° 36′.