CHAPTER VI.

[89]Floyer’s map (Geog. Journal, 1893) gives the name Gemal as continuing further up as far as the pass into Wadi Durunkat; but my guides say this is an error.[90]This road is said to leadviaGhuel, Um Khariga, and Dabur, to Gebel Hamrat Wogud.[91]For a brief mention of the ruins of Berenice,seep. 29.[92]Each of the three vowels in Naait is pronounced broad and separately, so that the word has three syllables.[93]Allawi= crooked.[94]I did not hear anything of this in 1907 when in the neighbourhood, perhaps owing to the ignorance of my Ababda guides. The information was given me further south in 1908 by several Bisharin guides, who appeared to know the place well and who all agreed on the point.[95]The authors of “The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,” 1905 (Vol. I, p. 87) erroneously place Bir Shalatein in Wadi Hasium instead of at the mouth of Wadi Hodein. The mistake has led to erroneous delineation of the administrative boundary between Egypt and the Sudan in existing maps (seep. 74).[96]This and the other main feeders of Wadi Hodein are described in more detail in following pages.[97]The final syllable inSilsilais hardly heard when the name is spoken by an Ababda Arab; it sounds likeSilsiunless one is listening specially for the end of the word.[98]To be distinguished from the Wadi Gemal further north mentioned onp. 100.[99]Bir Madi, 12¼ kilometres north of Bir Sararat Seyet, was at this time open and giving good supplies.[100]This and the other main Egyptian tributaries of Di-ib are described in more detail in the following pages.[101]Geographical Journal, 1896.[102]Qoseir is in latitude 26° 6′ north, about 400 kilometres as the crow flies from Halaib.[103]The position given is that of the centre of the fort, as determined by my triangulation from the Nile Valley.[104]Kwolalais the Bishari word for circle.[105]Red Sea Pilot.1900. p. 130.CHAPTER VI.THE MOUNTAINS AND HILLS.It has been already mentioned (p. 19) that the principal mountain masses are divisible into ten main groups as follows:—i.The Migif — Hafafit — Nugrus — Hangalia — Zabara group;ii.The Abu Hamamid — Hamata — Abu Gurdi group;iii.The Um Gunud — Dahanib — Batoga group;iv.The Abu Dahr — Orga — Um Tenebda group;v.The Faraid group;vi.The Awamtib — Abraq — Dif — Aqab el Negum — Mishbih group;vii.The Gerf — Korabkansi — Abu Hodeid group;viii.The Meisah — Adar Qaqa — Is group;ix.The mountains of the Alaqi basin west of Gebel Adar Qaqa;x.The Elba — Shendib group;while there are numerous more or less isolated mountains and hills lying outside these principal masses. In the present chapter a more detailed account will be given of each of the main groups, taking them in order from north to south, the principal outlying hill-masses being considered along with the mountain group to which they are in greatest proximity. It may be remarked that the geographical positions of all the principal peaks are tabulated inChapter III.The Migif — Hafafit — Nugrus — Hangalia — Zabara Group.The highest mountains of the group (seethe detailed map onPlate VI) form a close cluster, round Gebel Nugrus (1,505 metres) as a centre, between latitudes 24° 40′ and 24° 55′, while other more or less detached masses are scattered to the north and west. A striking feature of the central cluster is the tendency to extension in a north-west and south-east direction, which is specially marked in the Hafafit and Hangalia ranges.Gebel Nugrus, the central and highest mountain of this northerly group, is a great boss of red granite rising to a height of 1,505 metres among schists and gneisses. It is an almost isolated mass, for though the Hangalia and Hafafit ranges close in on it from either side, there are passes both east and west of it by which a circuit of the mountain can be made. In plan, it is a pear-shaped mass, about fourteen kilometres in length by six kilometres in width, having its long axis north-west and south-east. Gebel Nugrus is on the main watershed; its north parts are drained Nilewards by the Wadi Hangalia and other feeders of Wadi Gerf, while the drainage from its south portion passes by the Wadi Nugrus and Wadai el Nom to the Wadi Gemal and thence to the sea. The ascent of the mountain was made from a camp about four kilometres west of the summit, at the top of the pass leading into the stony head of Wadi Nugrus. The divide here is flat and sandy, at an altitude of 691 metres above sea-level, so that the ascent from camp to summit was 814 metres. Striking eastwards over the lower ridges which flank the main back-bone of the mountain, the summit was reached after a climb of nearly four hours. When ascended from this side, there appear to be two main peaks, of which the further one, marked by a beacon, is the triangulation point; the best way up is between the two peaks, as the passage from one to the other is very rough and steep. Though tiring, the climb is not very difficult. The top of the mountain (seePlate VII) is a mass of great rounded knobs of granite, on which a suitable place for setting up instruments was only found after some searching. The beacon, in latitude 24° 48′ 34″, longitude 34° 35′ 47″, is on a rounded eminence not large enough to receive an instrument, so that eccentric observations were necessary; the distance between the eccentric point of observation and the beacon had to be found by a subtense method, as the roughness of the mountain top rendered any process of chaining or taping impossible. The view from the summit is very fine. To the west, one sees the pinnacles of Migif and the nearer long range of Hafafit; to the north-east is the black cone of Atut; northward, seen over a sea of hills, is Igli; to the east is the high ridge of Hangalia, culminating to the south in Gebel Zabara.The sea is visible to the north-east and east, but the sea horizon was obscured during the three days I spent on the summit by banks of clouds. These cloud banks simulated the sea horizon very closely,their upper surface appearing perfectly horizontal. They caused a peculiar phenomenon at sunrise, producing the optical effect of two suns rising one after the other owing to the refraction through the cloud. The first thing seen was a blood-red image of the sun rising over the true sea horizon, which was only thus discovered, the sun being seen through the cloud; about three minutes later, when a little more than half the blood-red disc had risen, the true sun rays flashed out from another and much brighter segment appearing over the top of the cloud, so that parts of two sun disks were seen at once, quite separately, one over the other.Before descending from the mountain, I went along the ridge south-east and north-west of the highest point to get plane-table stations; in either direction progress along the top is extremely difficult. To the north-west it appeared as though the way would be easier by keeping on the east side of the ridge, but in reality this was not so, as the slope was so steep and smooth that some stretches could only be got over by wriggling along with as much as possible of one’s body in contact with the rock. The descent from the north-west end of the ridge to camp was difficult and rather dangerous in places. It is possible that a better way up the mountain could be found from the pass at the head of Wadi Hangalia, on the opposite side to where I started; that pass is 120 metres higher than the west one, so that the total climb would be lessened by that amount, and the horizontal distance is about the same.Gebel Hafafitis a very long range, chiefly of gneiss, running in a nearly straight line south-eastward for over thirty kilometres. Its highest peaks are at its north end, where they are not very much lower than those of Gebel Nugrus; the heights decrease gradually further south. Half way down the range is a very conspicuous peak calledUm Moghar, 860 metres above sea, while another well marked summit, the only one which I climbed, exists near the south end and rises to 744 metres. This last-named point is marked by a beacon, in latitude 24° 35′ 32″, longitude 34° 45′ 22″. On either side of the main back-bone of Hafafit are high flanking ridges. The drainage of Hafafit practically all flows seaward by the Wadi Gemal; the west faces are drained by Wadi Hafafit, and the east ones by Wadi Nugrus.East of the south part of Gebel Hafafit are some remarkable bosses of granite, of which the chief, Gebel Abu Had, rises to 633metres above sea, and is a landmark for Bir Abu Had. Another remarkable hill, closer in to Hafafit and the Wadi Gemal, is shaped like a bell with a handle on the top; this hill, which forms a good landmark, is calledGebel Um Regeba, and its summit is 571 metres above the sea.PLATE VII.Summit of Gebel Nugrus. (Granite).Summit of Gebel Abu Hamamid. (Schists).Gebel Migifis a very spiky gneiss mass situated about thirteen kilometres west of Gebel Nugrus. It has several summits of about equal height, fairly close together, but separated by deep clefts. The triangulation beacon is on the western peak, in latitude 24° 47′ 23″, longitude 34° 27′ 30″, 1,199 metres above sea-level. The foliation planes of the rock dip to the north, and the only safe means of ascent is up the resulting north slopes. The south aspect is precipitous. When ascending the mountain, I pitched my camp 2·7 kilometres north of the beacon, in a gully draining into Wadi Shait, west of another gully containing the water holes called Galt Um Karaba, at an altitude of 607 metres above sea-level. The ascent, of 592 metres, took two hours steady climbing, and was not difficult. I kept on the west side of the gorge till near the top, and this is the best way up the mountain, for I found the gorge itself to be steep and abounding in impassable precipices. The view from Gebel Migif is shut in to the east by the high masses of Gebels Hafafit and Nugrus; Gebels Atut and Igli are conspicuous to the north; to the south-east, one overlooks the great sandy basin of Wadi Hafafit; while to the south-west is more open country in which the two remarkable cones of El Nahud, the sharp peak of Gebel Abu Khrug, the ridge of Gebel Hamrat Selma, and closer in the ranges called Gebel Dweig, are striking features. On a clear day, the huge mountains of Hamata and Abu Hamamid, eighty kilometres to the south-south-east, can be discerned. The photographs onPlate VIIIwill give an idea of the views looking towards Gebels Nugrus and Dweig respectively. In the upper view Gebel Nugrus is seen behind the Hafafit range; in the lower, the masses close in are Gebel Dweig, while in the distance, to the right of the centre, is Gebel Hamrat Selma, and behind it on the horizon the spike of Gebel Abu Khrug. The precipitous nature of the south side of Gebel Migif is evident in both views.The north and west sides of Gebel Migif are drained by the Wadi Shait, which passes the foot of the mountain; the steep south face drains into Wadi Dweig, a tributary of Shait; while the eastern face, flanked by low hills, is drained by Wadi Hafafit.Gebel Dweig is a small group of high hills close to the south of Gebel Migif, with which it combines to form acul-de-sacround the head of Wadi Dweig. Gebel Dweig resembles Gebel Migif in character, except that it is lower; the hill on the south side of the narrow opening by which Wadi Dweig leaves thecul-de-sacis 864 metres above sea, and this is believed to be the highest of the group. The eastern part of the mass is a curiously curved range sweeping round nearly in a semicircle.Gebel Hamrat Selmais a high ridge rising from the plain about fifteen kilometres south-west of Gebel Migif. I did not approach it closely, but fixed the position of its highest point, which is 761 metres above sea-level, by triangulation.El Nahud(the breasts) is the name given to two very remarkable conical hills of volcanic rock rising from the plain on the north side of Wadi Natash to the south of Gebel Hamrat Selma. The two hills are about five kilometres apart, one being south-east of the other. The north-eastern cone is the sharper of the two, but they have both the same altitude of 662 metres above the sea and rise about 130 metres above the surrounding country.Gebel Abu Khrugis a granite hill-mass with a remarkably sharp high peak, about twenty-five kilometres south-west of Gebel Migif. The summit, which is surmounted by a triangulation beacon, in latitude 24° 38′ 57″, longitude 34° 16′ 19″, has an altitude of 870 metres above sea-level. Abu Khrug, from its striking Matterhorn-like shape and its situation in fairly open country, is a conspicuous landmark for great distances. The Arabs who were sent to erect the beacon stated that the ascent was very difficult.Gebel Sufrais a mass of rather flat-topped high hills, partly of volcanic origin, about eighteen kilometres west of Abu Khrug, on the north side of Wadi Shait. The triangulation beacon on the summit is in latitude 24° 38′ 42″, longitude 34° 4′ 13″, at a height of 690 metres above sea-level, and 340 metres above the well of Um Gubur, which is in the Wadi Shait about three kilometres to the south-east.Gebels NazlaandUm Sergare moderately high hills lying to the south of Gebels Sufra and Abu Khrug, between the Wadis Shait and Natash.Gorf el Natashis a syenite hill on the south side of Wadi Natash, about five kilometres south-west of Bir Masur, whileGebels Muktil(470 metres),Derera, andUm Goraf, are prominent hills lying still further south near Wadi Antar.PLATE VIII.View from Gebel Migif, looking east, showing the Hafafit and Nugrus Ranges.View from Gebel Migif, looking south-west, showing Gebel and Wadi Dweig.Gebel Ras Shaitis a group of high rugged-looking reddish hills, probably of granite, at the head of Wadi Shait, near Gebels Nugrus and Migif. Its highest peak rises to 1,019 metres above sea. The west face drains directly into Shait, while the eastern and northern slopes drain into Wadi Gerf, which joins Shait far to the south-west. Between Gebels Migif and Ras Shait is a small range of hills dividing Wadi Shait from the head of Wadi Hafafit; across the south end of this range, which is composed of dark schists with white granite at its western foot, there runs a zigzag pass, fairly easy for camels, to the head of Wadi Nugrus.Gebel Mudergegis a high range of reddish hills, which with Gebels Ras Shait and Migif encloses the heads of Wadi Shait. Its highest point is 1,086 metres above sea. To the east of it are several other lower ranges, some of white and others of black aspect, which have not been approached closely.Gebel Hangaliais a great mountain ridge running south-south-east for about twelve kilometres, from Gebel Ghuel to Gebel Zabara, consisting chiefly of schists. Its highest peak is 1,241 metres above sea-level. Its western faces are drained partly to the Nile by the Wadi Hangalia (a tributary of Wadi Gerf) and partly to the sea by the Wadai el Nom (a tributary of Wadi Nugrus); its eastern faces, which are flanked by high ridges, drain into the various feeders of Wadi Ghadir.Gebel Zabara, a mountain mass rising to 1,361 metres above sea-level, forms a southward extension of the Hangalia range. The cairn on its summit is in latitude 24° 45′ 21″, longitude 34° 41′ 53″. The mountain is drained on the north and east sides by feeders of the Wadi Ghadir, while its western flanks are partly drained by the Wadai el Nom. Gebel Zabara is chiefly composed of schists of various types. The ancient emerald mines of Zabara are in the north-east part of the mountain, about two and a half kilometres from its summit. A triangulation beacon marks the highest point of the mountain, but this was only used as an intersection point. I ascended some of the flanking ridges near the old mines; these consisted of splintery schists, and though the climbing is steep and rough (seePlate IX), the schists give a good foothold so that the ascent to the top is probably not very difficult.The ruins in the Wadi Zabara, near the old mines, are at 514 metres above sea-level; the climb from them to the summit is thus one of 857 metres. Due south of Gebel Zabara is a high ridge, the north-west end of which is 1,104 metres above sea-level; this ridge is the most conspicuous of a mass of high hills flanking Gebel Zabara to the south, which have not been seen except from a distance, but which are probably drained by the Wadi Nugrus.Gebel Ghuel, which forms a northward extension of Gebel Hangalia, is likewise composed of schists. Its highest point, the south end of a conspicuous high ridge, is 1,104 metres above sea. Its eastern faces are drained by the Wadis Ghuel and Fegas, both tributaries of Wadi Ghadir, while its western flanks drain into the heads of Wadi Um Khariga. High hills flank the main ridge on both sides, especially the east, and through these the drainage channels form deep gloomy gorges. Wadi Ghuel contains important water holes.Gebel Um Kharigais the name given to several high hill ranges on either side of the Wadi Um Khariga. Two of these ranges, one on either side of the upper part of the wadi, form like Gebel Ghuel north extensions of the high ridge of Hangalia; the western range can be crossed at a gap by an easy pass, 773 metres above sea-level, which separates the heads of Wadi Gerf from those of Wadi Um Khariga. These two ranges shut in the wadi on either side for some ten kilometres of its northward course, beyond which the country becomes more open and the wadi curves round to the north-east, passing the north end of a third range of high hills which is likewise called Gebel Um Khariga. This third range extends northward for about ten kilometres from Gebel Ghuel, from which it is separated by a pass forming a good road over the head of Wadi Ghadir. Its most conspicuous feature is a twin peak at its north end, 674 metres above sea-level. The main ridge is flanked by high hills, especially on the east side. Only the north and west flanks of this range are drained by Wadi Um Khariga, the eastern side being cut up by feeders of Wadi Sukari. Besides the pass separating it from Gebel Ghuel, there are two other passes, one round its north end into Wadi Sukari, and another at its south end between Wadi Ghadir and Wadi Sukari, so that a complete circuit of this range can be made by camels. Some of the hills composing the mass consist of highly magnetic schists, and compass readings in the region may be disturbed by many degrees.PLATE IX.Descending Gebel Zabara. (Schists).Gebel Igli el Iswidis a rather rugged mountain mass rising among a sea of lower hills, thirty kilometres north of Gebel Nugrus. Its highest point, marked by a triangulation beacon, in latitude 25° 4′ 6″, longitude 34° 36′ 16″, is 975 metres above sea-level. The mountain forms a tripartite watershed between the basins of Wadi Um Khariga (draining the south slopes), Wadi Dabur (draining the north and west slopes), and Wadi Igli (draining the eastern face), each of which three wadis courses separately to the sea. In occupying the triangulation station on the summit, I placed my camp in a gully draining to Wadi Um Khariga, about two kilometres south-south-west of the summit at an altitude of 605 metres above sea. The climb of 370 metres to the top from this camp was not difficult, and occupied only a little over an hour and a half. The mountain consists of very hard grey siliceous rocks, which ring under the hammer, and are probably crushed and devitrified felsites (seep. 281). There are galts in some of the gullies draining from this mountain, hence it is sometimes calledIgli el Rayani. At the time of my visit (December 1905) there was said to be a little water in a galt on the west side of the mass; but the rock basins in the gully which I ascended were empty.Gebel Igli el Ahmar, sometimes calledEl Atshani, is a lower hill mass of granite some ten kilometres north-east of Igli el Iswid.Gebel Atutis a high black conical hill thirty kilometres north-west of Gebel Nugrus. Rising considerably above the hills which immediately surround it, Atut is visible from a great distance from the west, and its conical form renders it easy of recognition. Its summit, marked by a beacon, in latitude 25° 0′ 56″, longitude 34° 23′ 49″, is 908 metres above sea-level and 300 metres above the branches of the Rod el Atut which encircle its base. A camp can be placed close to the foot of the cone, and the ascent is easily made in about an hour. The rock of Gebel Atut is olivine gabbro (seep. 302), of great hardness, and the whole surface of the mountain is formed of great blocks, rounded and boulder-like below, but angular higher up. The blocks have rusty-looking surfaces, but are perfectly sound rock inside, and they ring like bells under the hammer. The upper illustration onPlate Xshows a view of the summit of Gebel Atut, from which its blocky nature will be evident. The view from Gebel Atut is a very extensive one. To the west and north (seethe lower illustration onPlate X) one can see the peaks of Gebels Muelih, Haggar Dungash,Iteima, Abu Diab, and Hamrat Wogud; to the south-east are the masses of Migif and Nugrus, while eastward one looks over a great expanse of hills towards Gebels Dabur and Um Khariga, with the sea beyond.The hills ofUm el Huetat, the highest of which rise over 200 metres above the wadis round them, are situated about eight kilometres due west of Gebel Atut; they are composed of schists of various types, and contain some old mines, mostly in talc schist. They are drained by the Rod el Farag, a tributary of Wadi Gerf.On the other side of the Rod el Farag,i.e., further west of Gebel Atut, are numerous scattered hills, the higher of which bear the names ofHamrat Mastura,El Hamra, andUm Himar. These are of granite, gneiss, and schists, with some coarse gabbro and numerous quartz veins.Still further west is the remarkable ridge calledErf el Fahid, a great quartz vein ten metres wide and two kilometres long, rising nearly one hundred metres above the Wadi Muelih. A beacon on its highest point, 579 metres above sea-level, marks the triangulation station, its position being latitude 25° 0′ 5″, longitude 34° 11′ 52″. South-east of Erf el Fahid is a line of similar but smaller ridges, also formed of great quartz veins rising through diorites and schists. Still further down the Wadi Muelih is a curious horse-shoe-shaped hill of aplite, calledMarwot Rod el Ligaia, round which the hills of crushed diorite are penetrated with a network of quartz veins running in various directions.Gebel Muelihis a great boss of white granite situated close to the north side of Wadi Muelih in longitude 34°. Its summit, marked by a beacon, in latitude 24° 52′ 44″, longitude 34° 0′ 37″, is 707 metres above sea and 350 metres above the wadi which courses round its south flank, and from which it is easily climbed. The upper view onPlate XIgives an idea of its appearance as seen from the base line camp in the wadi six kilometres east of it.Gebel Hagar Dungashis a great mass of high hills situated north of Gebel Muelih. The beacon on its highest point, in latitude 24° 59′ 12″, longitude 34° 2′ 33″, is 815 metres above sea-level. In the hills which flank the main mass are numerous sharp peaks, one of the most conspicuous of which, eight and a half kilometres south-west of the beacon, is calledGebel Um Dalalil. A ridge five kilometres due eastof the beacon bears the name ofErf Rod Um Rashid. The rocks of Haggar Dungash are chiefly dark schists.PLATE X.Summit of Gebel Atut.View from Gebel Atut, looking north-west, showing Gebels Abu Diab and Hamrat Wogud in the distance.PLATE XI.View in Wadi Muelih (Base-line Camp). Gebel Muelih in the Distance.Granite-boss of Gebel Selaia.Gebel Iteimais a group of high granite hills rising from the plain fifteen kilometres north of Erf el Fahid. Its highest peak is 849 metres above the sea. It is drained southwards by the Wadi Muelih.Gebel Hamrat Wogud, which is likewise of granite, is a higher mountain mass fifteen kilometres east of Iteima. Its highest point, marked by a beacon, is in latitude 25° 9′ 34″, longitude 34° 20′ 0″, and 1,103 metres above sea. It is drained southwards by the Rod Um el Farag, a tributary of Wadi Gerf.Between Gebels Muelih and Mudergeg is a sandy plain with low hills, the more conspicuous of which bear special names; among them areMarwot Rod el Ligah,Erf Sagur, andKhusa el Faraon, the last-named being a group of small but very remarkable black hills eleven kilometres due south of Erf el Fahid. Marwot Rod el Ligah is a triangulation point; its beacon is 514 metres above sea-level.Gebel Sukariis a very craggy high ridge of granitic rock twenty-two kilometres north of Gebel Zabara. Its highest point, which is at its north end, is 630 metres above sea-level, but the triangulation beacon was erected on a lower part of the ridge further south, in latitude 24° 56′ 50″, longitude 34° 42′ 50″, at an altitude of 476 metres, in order to be near to the extensive old mines and ruins which exist in the locality. Gebel Sukari is drained by various feeders of Wadi Sukari.Kurdemanis the name of a low hilly district on the east side of Wadi Ghadir, thirteen kilometres north of Gebel Zabara. It is interesting as containing some ancient mines, doubtless worked for gold. A triangulation beacon has been erected on a hill just above the workings, in latitude 24° 52′ 35″, longitude 34° 41′ 35″, at an altitude of 526 metres above sea, or about fifty metres above the wadi.Gebel Sabahiais a craggy felsite hill five kilometres south-east of Kurdeman, rising to 520 metres above sea, or about ninety metres above the wadi. It is drained by the Wadi Sabahia, a tributary of Wadi Ghadir. In the heads of the Wadi Sabahia, north-east of the hill, are some old gold mines.Gebel Um Tundebais a high granite hill near the head of Wadi Um Tundeba. Its summit is 550 metres above the sea. It formsa landmark for the water hole called Galt Um Tundeba, which is situated in a small gully, three kilometres west of the summit of the hill.Gebel Amba-ut, seven kilometres south of the foregoing, is likewise believed to be of granite; the southern hill of this group is of a red colour and very conspicuous as one passes from Um Tundeba to Ghadir.Gebel Ghadir, the summit of which, in latitude 24° 50′ 9″, longitude 34° 47′ 22″, and 636 metres above sea, is marked by a triangulation beacon, is thirteen kilometres north-east of Gebel Zabara. I ascended it from a camp 424 metres above sea-level in one of the gullies draining westward to Wadi Ghadir. The ascent is easy. The rocks are greenish serpentines and ophicalcites below, with a white quartz felsite above.Gebel Allawi, situated on the south side of the Wadi Allawi, is a diorite hill rising to 515 metres above sea. It is best approached by ascending a small feeder of Wadi Allawi, in which a camp can be placed within a kilometre of the summit and 160 metres below it. There are some interesting old gold mines in the quartz veins just below the beacon on the summit of the hill, and a band of graphitic schist crops out near the north foot of the hill. The position of the beacon is latitude 24° 46′ 42″, longitude 34° 49′ 39″.Gebel Lewewiis a dark craggy hill range eight kilometres east-south-east of Gebel Zabara, between Wadi Allawi and its tributary Wadi Lewewi. Its highest point, marked by a cairn, is 654 metres above sea-level. There are some old mines in the lower hills two and half kilometres south-east of Gebel Lewewi, and others a little further off in the same direction.Gebel Sikaitis a rugged ridge of schists and serpentine situated in the midst of hilly country fourteen kilometres south-east of Gebel Zabara. The triangulation beacon which marks its summit is in latitude 24° 39′ 55″, longitude 34° 48′ 5″, and 771 metres above sea-level, and 330 metres above the wadi which skirts its western foot. Gebel Sikait is of interest from the abundant ruins and old emerald mines which exist near it, as well as from the variety of minerals present in its rocks. It is the Sicily of the Eastern Desert. Beryl, tourmaline, actinolite, various micas, chlorite, talc and crystals of calcite are amongst the commoner minerals found. The serpentinewhich abounds in its upper parts is highly magnetic, and the compass was found to be disturbed by no less than 40° near the triangulation point. Gebel Sikait is drained from the west by the Wadi Sikait, a tributary of Wadi Nugrus, and from the east by the Wadi Um Gamil. The best place to climb it from is the Wadi Sikait, and the ascent, not a difficult one, is rendered interesting by the ruins and old mines encountered; part of the way one passes over an ancient made road, now broken in many places by the downwash from the hill.Gebel Ras Um GamilandGebel Um Gamilare two high hill ranges south-east of Sikait, which have only been sketched from a distance.Madaret Um Gamilis a conspicuous double-topped hill on the north side of the Wadi Gemal, seventeen kilometres south-east of Sikait. The beacon which marks its highest point is in latitude 24° 34′ 52″, longitude 34° 56′ 28″, and 454 metres above sea. It is best ascended by a very winding tributary of the Wadi Gemal; this gully, up which there is a road, leads past the south-west foot of the hill, and the climb is only one of some 200 metres. The rocks round Madaret Um Gamil are mostly schists, but the top of the hill is a hard gabbro like that of Gebel Atut, weathered into rusty looking blocks. A good view seawards is obtained from the summit, some very red granite forming a conspicuous feature in the low hills between it and the coast.The Abu Hamamid — Hamata — Abu Gurdi Group.This group of mountains is remarkable both for its extent and for the loftiness of many of its peaks, some of which are among the highest in Egypt. It is a mass of rugged ridges and peaks, covering about a quarter of a square degree of the earth’s surface between latitudes 24° 0′ and 24° 30′, in which the two dominant summits, Abu Hamamid (1,747 metres) and Hamata (1,978 metres) are the most conspicuous features in the west and east portions respectively, while Abu Gurdi (1,562 metres) forms the great terminal peak of a south-easterly extension of the mass.Plate XIIshows two typical views in this rugged region.Gebel Abu Hamamidis a great ridge of hard greenish schists towering above the surrounding mountains to a height of 1,747 metresabove sea. Its crest is broken into a number of separate summits, which appear from most aspects of almost a sugar loaf form; the beacon is on the most northerly and highest of these, its position being latitude 24° 14′ 41″, longitude 34° 47′ 38″. The mountain is best ascended from the Wadi Um Semiuki, a tributary of Huluz, which drains its north-east face. By ascending this wadi till camels could go no higher owing to its increasingly rough and stony floor, I was able to pitch a camp at 865 metres above sea-level and two and a quarter kilometres north-east of the summit, leaving an ascent of 882 metres to be made on foot. The ascent, which occupied four hours, was free from difficulty till within about one hundred metres of the top, but the last portion was extremely steep and was only negotiated with considerable trouble; it represents pretty nearly the limit of possibility in getting instruments up difficult places. Once the top was reached, however, the magnificence of the view obtainable, and the excellence of the point as a station for triangulating the principal peaks among the thousands visible, seemed an ample recompense for the trouble of reaching it. The top of the ridge (seePlate VII,p. 166) is very rough and narrow, only a little over a metre wide, and it is difficult to find a spot near the summit where one can spread one’s blankets for the night with even a slight approach to comfort. The eight nights of enforced bivouacking which I was obliged to spend on the top of Abu Hamamid in February 1906, before I could complete my observations, belong to the least pleasant of my experiences in the desert. A little work only was possible the first day, owing to haze obscuring the more distant peaks. On the second day clouds enveloped us in a wet drizzle, and a bitterly cold north wind blew with great violence; a rude rubble shelter which my men built on the summit, covered with a blanket, was a very poor protection, and I found it better to throw a rubble embankment across a steep gully on the lee side, forming a small level platform where we were sheltered from the biting wind. For the next five days, we were alternately wrapped in clouds or left free under a brilliant blue sky with clouds covering all the surrounding country. It was curious on these days to look over the surface of the clouds, as over a boundless level sea, with only the highest peaks projecting sharp and black above the white surface, and to see the sun rise and set exactly as though one were on the ocean. Then at last the clouds began to disappear, andon the first clear day a very large amount of triangulation was accomplished, all the more prominent peaks within a radius of about sixty kilometres being observed. Gebel Abu Hamamid forms a culminating point on the Nile — Red Sea watershed, its eastern parts draining to Wadi Huluz and its western ones to Wadi Abu Hamamid, a tributary of Wadi Kharit.PLATE XII.Typical Views among the Mountains of Hamata and Abu Hamamid. (The high peak in the distance in the lower view is Gebel Hamata).Gebel Um Semiukiis a sharp cone rising to 1,283 metres above the sea among a mass of lower hills three kilometres north-east of Gebel Abu Hamamid. It is of a reddish aspect, due to a film which covers the weathered surface of the green and grey hornfels of which it is composed. It is drained by the Wadi Um Semiuki.Gebel Abu Argubis a very conspicuous mountain, almost conical in shape, seven and a half kilometres south-south-west of Gebel Abu Hamamid, from which it is separated by lower hills. To the south, Gebel Abu Argub overlooks the plain of Selaia. Its peak, 1,690 metres above sea-level, is a good landmark from the south and west.Gebel Kahfais a many-peaked mountain of granite rising abruptly to a height of 1,018 metres above sea from among lower hills of dark schists, nineteen kilometres south-west of Gebel Abu Hamamid. It is detached from the main mountain-mass, being separated from it by the heads of Wadi Um Retba. Its faces are in many places sheer precipices of several hundred metres (seePlate XIII), but the ascent of it from the north is not very difficult. In occupying Kahfa as a station I approached it from Bir Shadli by a well-marked track which skirts the western foot-hills and leads to the Wadi Helie. Leaving this track where it crosses Wadi Um Hargal some six kilometres from Bir Shadli, I ascended the Wadi Um Hargal and crossed the pass at its head into the head of Wadi Um Retba, where I pitched my camp at an altitude of 563 metres, at the foot of Gebel Kahfa 1·3 kilometres north-north-east of the beacon on its summit. The climb of 455 metres from this camp to the top occupied three hours. There is good bivouacking ground close east of the summit, between two ridges. The beacon which marks the triangulation point is in latitude 24° 8′ 18″, longitude 34° 38′ 55″. A walk round the top is full of interest; one can reach many points overlooking tremendous precipices, and the forms assumed by the granite peaks are very remarkable. On the west side of the mountain is a ratherlarge open space forming the head of Wadi Helie, but elsewhere one is surrounded by low hills. The principal drainers of Kahfa are the Wadis Um Hargal and Um Retba (tributaries of Wadi el Sheikh) to the north, and Helie and Abu Hashim (tributaries of Wadi Kharit) to the south.Gebel Medsusis a small group of high hills rising among lower ones between Gebel Abu Hamamid and Bir Shadli.Gebel Metawitis a high granite hill rising conspicuously among much lower hills thirteen kilometres north-west of Bir Shadli. A track leading from Bir Shadli to Bir Metawit and other wells further north-west passes close east of the hill. Gebel Metawit is a good landmark for Bir Metawit, which is situated in the wadi of the same name about three kilometres north-west of it. The summit is 741 metres above sea-level or about 295 metres above the wadi floor at the well.Gebel Hamrat Mukbudis a great red granite mass rising from the plain about twenty-five kilometres west of Bir Shadli. Its isolated character and great altitude (892 metres above the sea and about 450 metres above the surrounding country) render Hamrat Mukbud one of the finest and best known landmarks in this part of the desert. A cairn on its summit marks the triangulation point, in latitude 24° 9′ 53″, longitude 34° 23′ 17″. Its ascent is a matter of some difficulty, owing to its great steepness.El Hamrais another red granite mass, much smaller than Hamrat Mukbud, lying about half-way between that mountain and Bir Shadli, and separating the Wadi Abu Hamamid from the Wadi el Sheikh.Gebel Homr Akarimis a hill about thirty-three kilometres west of Gebel Hamrat Mukbud, close to the north of Wadi el Khashab. Its summit, 490 metres above sea, is marked by a triangulation cairn.Gebel Marasanis a range of mountains north-west of Abu Hamamid. It is cut through by an important pass over the main watershed, 685 metres above sea-level, connecting the Wadis Huluz and Abu Hamamid by their respective tributaries Marasan and Marasani, which drain north-east and south-west from the pass. The highest peak of the mountains south of the pass is 1,261 metres above sea-level, while those to the north are lower. The name Gebel Marasan is, however, commonly given only to the peaks north of the pass, asthey rise more abruptly from it, while those to the south are unnamed or regarded as part of Gebel Hamamid because the Wadi Abu Hamamid drains their southern flanks.

[89]Floyer’s map (Geog. Journal, 1893) gives the name Gemal as continuing further up as far as the pass into Wadi Durunkat; but my guides say this is an error.

[90]This road is said to leadviaGhuel, Um Khariga, and Dabur, to Gebel Hamrat Wogud.

[91]For a brief mention of the ruins of Berenice,seep. 29.

[92]Each of the three vowels in Naait is pronounced broad and separately, so that the word has three syllables.

[93]Allawi= crooked.

[94]I did not hear anything of this in 1907 when in the neighbourhood, perhaps owing to the ignorance of my Ababda guides. The information was given me further south in 1908 by several Bisharin guides, who appeared to know the place well and who all agreed on the point.

[95]The authors of “The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,” 1905 (Vol. I, p. 87) erroneously place Bir Shalatein in Wadi Hasium instead of at the mouth of Wadi Hodein. The mistake has led to erroneous delineation of the administrative boundary between Egypt and the Sudan in existing maps (seep. 74).

[96]This and the other main feeders of Wadi Hodein are described in more detail in following pages.

[97]The final syllable inSilsilais hardly heard when the name is spoken by an Ababda Arab; it sounds likeSilsiunless one is listening specially for the end of the word.

[98]To be distinguished from the Wadi Gemal further north mentioned onp. 100.

[99]Bir Madi, 12¼ kilometres north of Bir Sararat Seyet, was at this time open and giving good supplies.

[100]This and the other main Egyptian tributaries of Di-ib are described in more detail in the following pages.

[101]Geographical Journal, 1896.

[102]Qoseir is in latitude 26° 6′ north, about 400 kilometres as the crow flies from Halaib.

[103]The position given is that of the centre of the fort, as determined by my triangulation from the Nile Valley.

[104]Kwolalais the Bishari word for circle.

[105]Red Sea Pilot.1900. p. 130.

THE MOUNTAINS AND HILLS.

It has been already mentioned (p. 19) that the principal mountain masses are divisible into ten main groups as follows:—

while there are numerous more or less isolated mountains and hills lying outside these principal masses. In the present chapter a more detailed account will be given of each of the main groups, taking them in order from north to south, the principal outlying hill-masses being considered along with the mountain group to which they are in greatest proximity. It may be remarked that the geographical positions of all the principal peaks are tabulated inChapter III.

The highest mountains of the group (seethe detailed map onPlate VI) form a close cluster, round Gebel Nugrus (1,505 metres) as a centre, between latitudes 24° 40′ and 24° 55′, while other more or less detached masses are scattered to the north and west. A striking feature of the central cluster is the tendency to extension in a north-west and south-east direction, which is specially marked in the Hafafit and Hangalia ranges.

Gebel Nugrus, the central and highest mountain of this northerly group, is a great boss of red granite rising to a height of 1,505 metres among schists and gneisses. It is an almost isolated mass, for though the Hangalia and Hafafit ranges close in on it from either side, there are passes both east and west of it by which a circuit of the mountain can be made. In plan, it is a pear-shaped mass, about fourteen kilometres in length by six kilometres in width, having its long axis north-west and south-east. Gebel Nugrus is on the main watershed; its north parts are drained Nilewards by the Wadi Hangalia and other feeders of Wadi Gerf, while the drainage from its south portion passes by the Wadi Nugrus and Wadai el Nom to the Wadi Gemal and thence to the sea. The ascent of the mountain was made from a camp about four kilometres west of the summit, at the top of the pass leading into the stony head of Wadi Nugrus. The divide here is flat and sandy, at an altitude of 691 metres above sea-level, so that the ascent from camp to summit was 814 metres. Striking eastwards over the lower ridges which flank the main back-bone of the mountain, the summit was reached after a climb of nearly four hours. When ascended from this side, there appear to be two main peaks, of which the further one, marked by a beacon, is the triangulation point; the best way up is between the two peaks, as the passage from one to the other is very rough and steep. Though tiring, the climb is not very difficult. The top of the mountain (seePlate VII) is a mass of great rounded knobs of granite, on which a suitable place for setting up instruments was only found after some searching. The beacon, in latitude 24° 48′ 34″, longitude 34° 35′ 47″, is on a rounded eminence not large enough to receive an instrument, so that eccentric observations were necessary; the distance between the eccentric point of observation and the beacon had to be found by a subtense method, as the roughness of the mountain top rendered any process of chaining or taping impossible. The view from the summit is very fine. To the west, one sees the pinnacles of Migif and the nearer long range of Hafafit; to the north-east is the black cone of Atut; northward, seen over a sea of hills, is Igli; to the east is the high ridge of Hangalia, culminating to the south in Gebel Zabara.

The sea is visible to the north-east and east, but the sea horizon was obscured during the three days I spent on the summit by banks of clouds. These cloud banks simulated the sea horizon very closely,their upper surface appearing perfectly horizontal. They caused a peculiar phenomenon at sunrise, producing the optical effect of two suns rising one after the other owing to the refraction through the cloud. The first thing seen was a blood-red image of the sun rising over the true sea horizon, which was only thus discovered, the sun being seen through the cloud; about three minutes later, when a little more than half the blood-red disc had risen, the true sun rays flashed out from another and much brighter segment appearing over the top of the cloud, so that parts of two sun disks were seen at once, quite separately, one over the other.

Before descending from the mountain, I went along the ridge south-east and north-west of the highest point to get plane-table stations; in either direction progress along the top is extremely difficult. To the north-west it appeared as though the way would be easier by keeping on the east side of the ridge, but in reality this was not so, as the slope was so steep and smooth that some stretches could only be got over by wriggling along with as much as possible of one’s body in contact with the rock. The descent from the north-west end of the ridge to camp was difficult and rather dangerous in places. It is possible that a better way up the mountain could be found from the pass at the head of Wadi Hangalia, on the opposite side to where I started; that pass is 120 metres higher than the west one, so that the total climb would be lessened by that amount, and the horizontal distance is about the same.

Gebel Hafafitis a very long range, chiefly of gneiss, running in a nearly straight line south-eastward for over thirty kilometres. Its highest peaks are at its north end, where they are not very much lower than those of Gebel Nugrus; the heights decrease gradually further south. Half way down the range is a very conspicuous peak calledUm Moghar, 860 metres above sea, while another well marked summit, the only one which I climbed, exists near the south end and rises to 744 metres. This last-named point is marked by a beacon, in latitude 24° 35′ 32″, longitude 34° 45′ 22″. On either side of the main back-bone of Hafafit are high flanking ridges. The drainage of Hafafit practically all flows seaward by the Wadi Gemal; the west faces are drained by Wadi Hafafit, and the east ones by Wadi Nugrus.

East of the south part of Gebel Hafafit are some remarkable bosses of granite, of which the chief, Gebel Abu Had, rises to 633metres above sea, and is a landmark for Bir Abu Had. Another remarkable hill, closer in to Hafafit and the Wadi Gemal, is shaped like a bell with a handle on the top; this hill, which forms a good landmark, is calledGebel Um Regeba, and its summit is 571 metres above the sea.

PLATE VII.Summit of Gebel Nugrus. (Granite).Summit of Gebel Abu Hamamid. (Schists).

PLATE VII.

Summit of Gebel Nugrus. (Granite).

Summit of Gebel Abu Hamamid. (Schists).

Gebel Migifis a very spiky gneiss mass situated about thirteen kilometres west of Gebel Nugrus. It has several summits of about equal height, fairly close together, but separated by deep clefts. The triangulation beacon is on the western peak, in latitude 24° 47′ 23″, longitude 34° 27′ 30″, 1,199 metres above sea-level. The foliation planes of the rock dip to the north, and the only safe means of ascent is up the resulting north slopes. The south aspect is precipitous. When ascending the mountain, I pitched my camp 2·7 kilometres north of the beacon, in a gully draining into Wadi Shait, west of another gully containing the water holes called Galt Um Karaba, at an altitude of 607 metres above sea-level. The ascent, of 592 metres, took two hours steady climbing, and was not difficult. I kept on the west side of the gorge till near the top, and this is the best way up the mountain, for I found the gorge itself to be steep and abounding in impassable precipices. The view from Gebel Migif is shut in to the east by the high masses of Gebels Hafafit and Nugrus; Gebels Atut and Igli are conspicuous to the north; to the south-east, one overlooks the great sandy basin of Wadi Hafafit; while to the south-west is more open country in which the two remarkable cones of El Nahud, the sharp peak of Gebel Abu Khrug, the ridge of Gebel Hamrat Selma, and closer in the ranges called Gebel Dweig, are striking features. On a clear day, the huge mountains of Hamata and Abu Hamamid, eighty kilometres to the south-south-east, can be discerned. The photographs onPlate VIIIwill give an idea of the views looking towards Gebels Nugrus and Dweig respectively. In the upper view Gebel Nugrus is seen behind the Hafafit range; in the lower, the masses close in are Gebel Dweig, while in the distance, to the right of the centre, is Gebel Hamrat Selma, and behind it on the horizon the spike of Gebel Abu Khrug. The precipitous nature of the south side of Gebel Migif is evident in both views.

The north and west sides of Gebel Migif are drained by the Wadi Shait, which passes the foot of the mountain; the steep south face drains into Wadi Dweig, a tributary of Shait; while the eastern face, flanked by low hills, is drained by Wadi Hafafit.

Gebel Dweig is a small group of high hills close to the south of Gebel Migif, with which it combines to form acul-de-sacround the head of Wadi Dweig. Gebel Dweig resembles Gebel Migif in character, except that it is lower; the hill on the south side of the narrow opening by which Wadi Dweig leaves thecul-de-sacis 864 metres above sea, and this is believed to be the highest of the group. The eastern part of the mass is a curiously curved range sweeping round nearly in a semicircle.

Gebel Hamrat Selmais a high ridge rising from the plain about fifteen kilometres south-west of Gebel Migif. I did not approach it closely, but fixed the position of its highest point, which is 761 metres above sea-level, by triangulation.

El Nahud(the breasts) is the name given to two very remarkable conical hills of volcanic rock rising from the plain on the north side of Wadi Natash to the south of Gebel Hamrat Selma. The two hills are about five kilometres apart, one being south-east of the other. The north-eastern cone is the sharper of the two, but they have both the same altitude of 662 metres above the sea and rise about 130 metres above the surrounding country.

Gebel Abu Khrugis a granite hill-mass with a remarkably sharp high peak, about twenty-five kilometres south-west of Gebel Migif. The summit, which is surmounted by a triangulation beacon, in latitude 24° 38′ 57″, longitude 34° 16′ 19″, has an altitude of 870 metres above sea-level. Abu Khrug, from its striking Matterhorn-like shape and its situation in fairly open country, is a conspicuous landmark for great distances. The Arabs who were sent to erect the beacon stated that the ascent was very difficult.

Gebel Sufrais a mass of rather flat-topped high hills, partly of volcanic origin, about eighteen kilometres west of Abu Khrug, on the north side of Wadi Shait. The triangulation beacon on the summit is in latitude 24° 38′ 42″, longitude 34° 4′ 13″, at a height of 690 metres above sea-level, and 340 metres above the well of Um Gubur, which is in the Wadi Shait about three kilometres to the south-east.

Gebels NazlaandUm Sergare moderately high hills lying to the south of Gebels Sufra and Abu Khrug, between the Wadis Shait and Natash.

Gorf el Natashis a syenite hill on the south side of Wadi Natash, about five kilometres south-west of Bir Masur, whileGebels Muktil(470 metres),Derera, andUm Goraf, are prominent hills lying still further south near Wadi Antar.

PLATE VIII.View from Gebel Migif, looking east, showing the Hafafit and Nugrus Ranges.View from Gebel Migif, looking south-west, showing Gebel and Wadi Dweig.

PLATE VIII.

View from Gebel Migif, looking east, showing the Hafafit and Nugrus Ranges.

View from Gebel Migif, looking south-west, showing Gebel and Wadi Dweig.

Gebel Ras Shaitis a group of high rugged-looking reddish hills, probably of granite, at the head of Wadi Shait, near Gebels Nugrus and Migif. Its highest peak rises to 1,019 metres above sea. The west face drains directly into Shait, while the eastern and northern slopes drain into Wadi Gerf, which joins Shait far to the south-west. Between Gebels Migif and Ras Shait is a small range of hills dividing Wadi Shait from the head of Wadi Hafafit; across the south end of this range, which is composed of dark schists with white granite at its western foot, there runs a zigzag pass, fairly easy for camels, to the head of Wadi Nugrus.

Gebel Mudergegis a high range of reddish hills, which with Gebels Ras Shait and Migif encloses the heads of Wadi Shait. Its highest point is 1,086 metres above sea. To the east of it are several other lower ranges, some of white and others of black aspect, which have not been approached closely.

Gebel Hangaliais a great mountain ridge running south-south-east for about twelve kilometres, from Gebel Ghuel to Gebel Zabara, consisting chiefly of schists. Its highest peak is 1,241 metres above sea-level. Its western faces are drained partly to the Nile by the Wadi Hangalia (a tributary of Wadi Gerf) and partly to the sea by the Wadai el Nom (a tributary of Wadi Nugrus); its eastern faces, which are flanked by high ridges, drain into the various feeders of Wadi Ghadir.

Gebel Zabara, a mountain mass rising to 1,361 metres above sea-level, forms a southward extension of the Hangalia range. The cairn on its summit is in latitude 24° 45′ 21″, longitude 34° 41′ 53″. The mountain is drained on the north and east sides by feeders of the Wadi Ghadir, while its western flanks are partly drained by the Wadai el Nom. Gebel Zabara is chiefly composed of schists of various types. The ancient emerald mines of Zabara are in the north-east part of the mountain, about two and a half kilometres from its summit. A triangulation beacon marks the highest point of the mountain, but this was only used as an intersection point. I ascended some of the flanking ridges near the old mines; these consisted of splintery schists, and though the climbing is steep and rough (seePlate IX), the schists give a good foothold so that the ascent to the top is probably not very difficult.The ruins in the Wadi Zabara, near the old mines, are at 514 metres above sea-level; the climb from them to the summit is thus one of 857 metres. Due south of Gebel Zabara is a high ridge, the north-west end of which is 1,104 metres above sea-level; this ridge is the most conspicuous of a mass of high hills flanking Gebel Zabara to the south, which have not been seen except from a distance, but which are probably drained by the Wadi Nugrus.

Gebel Ghuel, which forms a northward extension of Gebel Hangalia, is likewise composed of schists. Its highest point, the south end of a conspicuous high ridge, is 1,104 metres above sea. Its eastern faces are drained by the Wadis Ghuel and Fegas, both tributaries of Wadi Ghadir, while its western flanks drain into the heads of Wadi Um Khariga. High hills flank the main ridge on both sides, especially the east, and through these the drainage channels form deep gloomy gorges. Wadi Ghuel contains important water holes.

Gebel Um Kharigais the name given to several high hill ranges on either side of the Wadi Um Khariga. Two of these ranges, one on either side of the upper part of the wadi, form like Gebel Ghuel north extensions of the high ridge of Hangalia; the western range can be crossed at a gap by an easy pass, 773 metres above sea-level, which separates the heads of Wadi Gerf from those of Wadi Um Khariga. These two ranges shut in the wadi on either side for some ten kilometres of its northward course, beyond which the country becomes more open and the wadi curves round to the north-east, passing the north end of a third range of high hills which is likewise called Gebel Um Khariga. This third range extends northward for about ten kilometres from Gebel Ghuel, from which it is separated by a pass forming a good road over the head of Wadi Ghadir. Its most conspicuous feature is a twin peak at its north end, 674 metres above sea-level. The main ridge is flanked by high hills, especially on the east side. Only the north and west flanks of this range are drained by Wadi Um Khariga, the eastern side being cut up by feeders of Wadi Sukari. Besides the pass separating it from Gebel Ghuel, there are two other passes, one round its north end into Wadi Sukari, and another at its south end between Wadi Ghadir and Wadi Sukari, so that a complete circuit of this range can be made by camels. Some of the hills composing the mass consist of highly magnetic schists, and compass readings in the region may be disturbed by many degrees.

PLATE IX.Descending Gebel Zabara. (Schists).

PLATE IX.

Descending Gebel Zabara. (Schists).

Gebel Igli el Iswidis a rather rugged mountain mass rising among a sea of lower hills, thirty kilometres north of Gebel Nugrus. Its highest point, marked by a triangulation beacon, in latitude 25° 4′ 6″, longitude 34° 36′ 16″, is 975 metres above sea-level. The mountain forms a tripartite watershed between the basins of Wadi Um Khariga (draining the south slopes), Wadi Dabur (draining the north and west slopes), and Wadi Igli (draining the eastern face), each of which three wadis courses separately to the sea. In occupying the triangulation station on the summit, I placed my camp in a gully draining to Wadi Um Khariga, about two kilometres south-south-west of the summit at an altitude of 605 metres above sea. The climb of 370 metres to the top from this camp was not difficult, and occupied only a little over an hour and a half. The mountain consists of very hard grey siliceous rocks, which ring under the hammer, and are probably crushed and devitrified felsites (seep. 281). There are galts in some of the gullies draining from this mountain, hence it is sometimes calledIgli el Rayani. At the time of my visit (December 1905) there was said to be a little water in a galt on the west side of the mass; but the rock basins in the gully which I ascended were empty.

Gebel Igli el Ahmar, sometimes calledEl Atshani, is a lower hill mass of granite some ten kilometres north-east of Igli el Iswid.

Gebel Atutis a high black conical hill thirty kilometres north-west of Gebel Nugrus. Rising considerably above the hills which immediately surround it, Atut is visible from a great distance from the west, and its conical form renders it easy of recognition. Its summit, marked by a beacon, in latitude 25° 0′ 56″, longitude 34° 23′ 49″, is 908 metres above sea-level and 300 metres above the branches of the Rod el Atut which encircle its base. A camp can be placed close to the foot of the cone, and the ascent is easily made in about an hour. The rock of Gebel Atut is olivine gabbro (seep. 302), of great hardness, and the whole surface of the mountain is formed of great blocks, rounded and boulder-like below, but angular higher up. The blocks have rusty-looking surfaces, but are perfectly sound rock inside, and they ring like bells under the hammer. The upper illustration onPlate Xshows a view of the summit of Gebel Atut, from which its blocky nature will be evident. The view from Gebel Atut is a very extensive one. To the west and north (seethe lower illustration onPlate X) one can see the peaks of Gebels Muelih, Haggar Dungash,Iteima, Abu Diab, and Hamrat Wogud; to the south-east are the masses of Migif and Nugrus, while eastward one looks over a great expanse of hills towards Gebels Dabur and Um Khariga, with the sea beyond.

The hills ofUm el Huetat, the highest of which rise over 200 metres above the wadis round them, are situated about eight kilometres due west of Gebel Atut; they are composed of schists of various types, and contain some old mines, mostly in talc schist. They are drained by the Rod el Farag, a tributary of Wadi Gerf.

On the other side of the Rod el Farag,i.e., further west of Gebel Atut, are numerous scattered hills, the higher of which bear the names ofHamrat Mastura,El Hamra, andUm Himar. These are of granite, gneiss, and schists, with some coarse gabbro and numerous quartz veins.

Still further west is the remarkable ridge calledErf el Fahid, a great quartz vein ten metres wide and two kilometres long, rising nearly one hundred metres above the Wadi Muelih. A beacon on its highest point, 579 metres above sea-level, marks the triangulation station, its position being latitude 25° 0′ 5″, longitude 34° 11′ 52″. South-east of Erf el Fahid is a line of similar but smaller ridges, also formed of great quartz veins rising through diorites and schists. Still further down the Wadi Muelih is a curious horse-shoe-shaped hill of aplite, calledMarwot Rod el Ligaia, round which the hills of crushed diorite are penetrated with a network of quartz veins running in various directions.

Gebel Muelihis a great boss of white granite situated close to the north side of Wadi Muelih in longitude 34°. Its summit, marked by a beacon, in latitude 24° 52′ 44″, longitude 34° 0′ 37″, is 707 metres above sea and 350 metres above the wadi which courses round its south flank, and from which it is easily climbed. The upper view onPlate XIgives an idea of its appearance as seen from the base line camp in the wadi six kilometres east of it.

Gebel Hagar Dungashis a great mass of high hills situated north of Gebel Muelih. The beacon on its highest point, in latitude 24° 59′ 12″, longitude 34° 2′ 33″, is 815 metres above sea-level. In the hills which flank the main mass are numerous sharp peaks, one of the most conspicuous of which, eight and a half kilometres south-west of the beacon, is calledGebel Um Dalalil. A ridge five kilometres due eastof the beacon bears the name ofErf Rod Um Rashid. The rocks of Haggar Dungash are chiefly dark schists.

PLATE X.Summit of Gebel Atut.View from Gebel Atut, looking north-west, showing Gebels Abu Diab and Hamrat Wogud in the distance.

PLATE X.

Summit of Gebel Atut.

View from Gebel Atut, looking north-west, showing Gebels Abu Diab and Hamrat Wogud in the distance.

PLATE XI.View in Wadi Muelih (Base-line Camp). Gebel Muelih in the Distance.Granite-boss of Gebel Selaia.

PLATE XI.

View in Wadi Muelih (Base-line Camp). Gebel Muelih in the Distance.

Granite-boss of Gebel Selaia.

Gebel Iteimais a group of high granite hills rising from the plain fifteen kilometres north of Erf el Fahid. Its highest peak is 849 metres above the sea. It is drained southwards by the Wadi Muelih.

Gebel Hamrat Wogud, which is likewise of granite, is a higher mountain mass fifteen kilometres east of Iteima. Its highest point, marked by a beacon, is in latitude 25° 9′ 34″, longitude 34° 20′ 0″, and 1,103 metres above sea. It is drained southwards by the Rod Um el Farag, a tributary of Wadi Gerf.

Between Gebels Muelih and Mudergeg is a sandy plain with low hills, the more conspicuous of which bear special names; among them areMarwot Rod el Ligah,Erf Sagur, andKhusa el Faraon, the last-named being a group of small but very remarkable black hills eleven kilometres due south of Erf el Fahid. Marwot Rod el Ligah is a triangulation point; its beacon is 514 metres above sea-level.

Gebel Sukariis a very craggy high ridge of granitic rock twenty-two kilometres north of Gebel Zabara. Its highest point, which is at its north end, is 630 metres above sea-level, but the triangulation beacon was erected on a lower part of the ridge further south, in latitude 24° 56′ 50″, longitude 34° 42′ 50″, at an altitude of 476 metres, in order to be near to the extensive old mines and ruins which exist in the locality. Gebel Sukari is drained by various feeders of Wadi Sukari.

Kurdemanis the name of a low hilly district on the east side of Wadi Ghadir, thirteen kilometres north of Gebel Zabara. It is interesting as containing some ancient mines, doubtless worked for gold. A triangulation beacon has been erected on a hill just above the workings, in latitude 24° 52′ 35″, longitude 34° 41′ 35″, at an altitude of 526 metres above sea, or about fifty metres above the wadi.

Gebel Sabahiais a craggy felsite hill five kilometres south-east of Kurdeman, rising to 520 metres above sea, or about ninety metres above the wadi. It is drained by the Wadi Sabahia, a tributary of Wadi Ghadir. In the heads of the Wadi Sabahia, north-east of the hill, are some old gold mines.

Gebel Um Tundebais a high granite hill near the head of Wadi Um Tundeba. Its summit is 550 metres above the sea. It formsa landmark for the water hole called Galt Um Tundeba, which is situated in a small gully, three kilometres west of the summit of the hill.

Gebel Amba-ut, seven kilometres south of the foregoing, is likewise believed to be of granite; the southern hill of this group is of a red colour and very conspicuous as one passes from Um Tundeba to Ghadir.

Gebel Ghadir, the summit of which, in latitude 24° 50′ 9″, longitude 34° 47′ 22″, and 636 metres above sea, is marked by a triangulation beacon, is thirteen kilometres north-east of Gebel Zabara. I ascended it from a camp 424 metres above sea-level in one of the gullies draining westward to Wadi Ghadir. The ascent is easy. The rocks are greenish serpentines and ophicalcites below, with a white quartz felsite above.

Gebel Allawi, situated on the south side of the Wadi Allawi, is a diorite hill rising to 515 metres above sea. It is best approached by ascending a small feeder of Wadi Allawi, in which a camp can be placed within a kilometre of the summit and 160 metres below it. There are some interesting old gold mines in the quartz veins just below the beacon on the summit of the hill, and a band of graphitic schist crops out near the north foot of the hill. The position of the beacon is latitude 24° 46′ 42″, longitude 34° 49′ 39″.

Gebel Lewewiis a dark craggy hill range eight kilometres east-south-east of Gebel Zabara, between Wadi Allawi and its tributary Wadi Lewewi. Its highest point, marked by a cairn, is 654 metres above sea-level. There are some old mines in the lower hills two and half kilometres south-east of Gebel Lewewi, and others a little further off in the same direction.

Gebel Sikaitis a rugged ridge of schists and serpentine situated in the midst of hilly country fourteen kilometres south-east of Gebel Zabara. The triangulation beacon which marks its summit is in latitude 24° 39′ 55″, longitude 34° 48′ 5″, and 771 metres above sea-level, and 330 metres above the wadi which skirts its western foot. Gebel Sikait is of interest from the abundant ruins and old emerald mines which exist near it, as well as from the variety of minerals present in its rocks. It is the Sicily of the Eastern Desert. Beryl, tourmaline, actinolite, various micas, chlorite, talc and crystals of calcite are amongst the commoner minerals found. The serpentinewhich abounds in its upper parts is highly magnetic, and the compass was found to be disturbed by no less than 40° near the triangulation point. Gebel Sikait is drained from the west by the Wadi Sikait, a tributary of Wadi Nugrus, and from the east by the Wadi Um Gamil. The best place to climb it from is the Wadi Sikait, and the ascent, not a difficult one, is rendered interesting by the ruins and old mines encountered; part of the way one passes over an ancient made road, now broken in many places by the downwash from the hill.

Gebel Ras Um GamilandGebel Um Gamilare two high hill ranges south-east of Sikait, which have only been sketched from a distance.

Madaret Um Gamilis a conspicuous double-topped hill on the north side of the Wadi Gemal, seventeen kilometres south-east of Sikait. The beacon which marks its highest point is in latitude 24° 34′ 52″, longitude 34° 56′ 28″, and 454 metres above sea. It is best ascended by a very winding tributary of the Wadi Gemal; this gully, up which there is a road, leads past the south-west foot of the hill, and the climb is only one of some 200 metres. The rocks round Madaret Um Gamil are mostly schists, but the top of the hill is a hard gabbro like that of Gebel Atut, weathered into rusty looking blocks. A good view seawards is obtained from the summit, some very red granite forming a conspicuous feature in the low hills between it and the coast.

This group of mountains is remarkable both for its extent and for the loftiness of many of its peaks, some of which are among the highest in Egypt. It is a mass of rugged ridges and peaks, covering about a quarter of a square degree of the earth’s surface between latitudes 24° 0′ and 24° 30′, in which the two dominant summits, Abu Hamamid (1,747 metres) and Hamata (1,978 metres) are the most conspicuous features in the west and east portions respectively, while Abu Gurdi (1,562 metres) forms the great terminal peak of a south-easterly extension of the mass.Plate XIIshows two typical views in this rugged region.

Gebel Abu Hamamidis a great ridge of hard greenish schists towering above the surrounding mountains to a height of 1,747 metresabove sea. Its crest is broken into a number of separate summits, which appear from most aspects of almost a sugar loaf form; the beacon is on the most northerly and highest of these, its position being latitude 24° 14′ 41″, longitude 34° 47′ 38″. The mountain is best ascended from the Wadi Um Semiuki, a tributary of Huluz, which drains its north-east face. By ascending this wadi till camels could go no higher owing to its increasingly rough and stony floor, I was able to pitch a camp at 865 metres above sea-level and two and a quarter kilometres north-east of the summit, leaving an ascent of 882 metres to be made on foot. The ascent, which occupied four hours, was free from difficulty till within about one hundred metres of the top, but the last portion was extremely steep and was only negotiated with considerable trouble; it represents pretty nearly the limit of possibility in getting instruments up difficult places. Once the top was reached, however, the magnificence of the view obtainable, and the excellence of the point as a station for triangulating the principal peaks among the thousands visible, seemed an ample recompense for the trouble of reaching it. The top of the ridge (seePlate VII,p. 166) is very rough and narrow, only a little over a metre wide, and it is difficult to find a spot near the summit where one can spread one’s blankets for the night with even a slight approach to comfort. The eight nights of enforced bivouacking which I was obliged to spend on the top of Abu Hamamid in February 1906, before I could complete my observations, belong to the least pleasant of my experiences in the desert. A little work only was possible the first day, owing to haze obscuring the more distant peaks. On the second day clouds enveloped us in a wet drizzle, and a bitterly cold north wind blew with great violence; a rude rubble shelter which my men built on the summit, covered with a blanket, was a very poor protection, and I found it better to throw a rubble embankment across a steep gully on the lee side, forming a small level platform where we were sheltered from the biting wind. For the next five days, we were alternately wrapped in clouds or left free under a brilliant blue sky with clouds covering all the surrounding country. It was curious on these days to look over the surface of the clouds, as over a boundless level sea, with only the highest peaks projecting sharp and black above the white surface, and to see the sun rise and set exactly as though one were on the ocean. Then at last the clouds began to disappear, andon the first clear day a very large amount of triangulation was accomplished, all the more prominent peaks within a radius of about sixty kilometres being observed. Gebel Abu Hamamid forms a culminating point on the Nile — Red Sea watershed, its eastern parts draining to Wadi Huluz and its western ones to Wadi Abu Hamamid, a tributary of Wadi Kharit.

PLATE XII.Typical Views among the Mountains of Hamata and Abu Hamamid. (The high peak in the distance in the lower view is Gebel Hamata).

PLATE XII.

Typical Views among the Mountains of Hamata and Abu Hamamid. (The high peak in the distance in the lower view is Gebel Hamata).

Gebel Um Semiukiis a sharp cone rising to 1,283 metres above the sea among a mass of lower hills three kilometres north-east of Gebel Abu Hamamid. It is of a reddish aspect, due to a film which covers the weathered surface of the green and grey hornfels of which it is composed. It is drained by the Wadi Um Semiuki.

Gebel Abu Argubis a very conspicuous mountain, almost conical in shape, seven and a half kilometres south-south-west of Gebel Abu Hamamid, from which it is separated by lower hills. To the south, Gebel Abu Argub overlooks the plain of Selaia. Its peak, 1,690 metres above sea-level, is a good landmark from the south and west.

Gebel Kahfais a many-peaked mountain of granite rising abruptly to a height of 1,018 metres above sea from among lower hills of dark schists, nineteen kilometres south-west of Gebel Abu Hamamid. It is detached from the main mountain-mass, being separated from it by the heads of Wadi Um Retba. Its faces are in many places sheer precipices of several hundred metres (seePlate XIII), but the ascent of it from the north is not very difficult. In occupying Kahfa as a station I approached it from Bir Shadli by a well-marked track which skirts the western foot-hills and leads to the Wadi Helie. Leaving this track where it crosses Wadi Um Hargal some six kilometres from Bir Shadli, I ascended the Wadi Um Hargal and crossed the pass at its head into the head of Wadi Um Retba, where I pitched my camp at an altitude of 563 metres, at the foot of Gebel Kahfa 1·3 kilometres north-north-east of the beacon on its summit. The climb of 455 metres from this camp to the top occupied three hours. There is good bivouacking ground close east of the summit, between two ridges. The beacon which marks the triangulation point is in latitude 24° 8′ 18″, longitude 34° 38′ 55″. A walk round the top is full of interest; one can reach many points overlooking tremendous precipices, and the forms assumed by the granite peaks are very remarkable. On the west side of the mountain is a ratherlarge open space forming the head of Wadi Helie, but elsewhere one is surrounded by low hills. The principal drainers of Kahfa are the Wadis Um Hargal and Um Retba (tributaries of Wadi el Sheikh) to the north, and Helie and Abu Hashim (tributaries of Wadi Kharit) to the south.

Gebel Medsusis a small group of high hills rising among lower ones between Gebel Abu Hamamid and Bir Shadli.

Gebel Metawitis a high granite hill rising conspicuously among much lower hills thirteen kilometres north-west of Bir Shadli. A track leading from Bir Shadli to Bir Metawit and other wells further north-west passes close east of the hill. Gebel Metawit is a good landmark for Bir Metawit, which is situated in the wadi of the same name about three kilometres north-west of it. The summit is 741 metres above sea-level or about 295 metres above the wadi floor at the well.

Gebel Hamrat Mukbudis a great red granite mass rising from the plain about twenty-five kilometres west of Bir Shadli. Its isolated character and great altitude (892 metres above the sea and about 450 metres above the surrounding country) render Hamrat Mukbud one of the finest and best known landmarks in this part of the desert. A cairn on its summit marks the triangulation point, in latitude 24° 9′ 53″, longitude 34° 23′ 17″. Its ascent is a matter of some difficulty, owing to its great steepness.

El Hamrais another red granite mass, much smaller than Hamrat Mukbud, lying about half-way between that mountain and Bir Shadli, and separating the Wadi Abu Hamamid from the Wadi el Sheikh.

Gebel Homr Akarimis a hill about thirty-three kilometres west of Gebel Hamrat Mukbud, close to the north of Wadi el Khashab. Its summit, 490 metres above sea, is marked by a triangulation cairn.

Gebel Marasanis a range of mountains north-west of Abu Hamamid. It is cut through by an important pass over the main watershed, 685 metres above sea-level, connecting the Wadis Huluz and Abu Hamamid by their respective tributaries Marasan and Marasani, which drain north-east and south-west from the pass. The highest peak of the mountains south of the pass is 1,261 metres above sea-level, while those to the north are lower. The name Gebel Marasan is, however, commonly given only to the peaks north of the pass, asthey rise more abruptly from it, while those to the south are unnamed or regarded as part of Gebel Hamamid because the Wadi Abu Hamamid drains their southern flanks.

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