IIICOMPOSITION
The ability to write clearly and accurately can generally be acquired only by practice. If this practice is to be really effective it can not be confined to one semester or one year, but must extend through the whole course in English. Training in composition naturally includes a study of the principles of the art; and since these principles are of different degrees of difficulty, all can not be presented in one year, but must be developed from year to year as the ability and maturity of the pupil makes possible the comprehension and application of them. Practice in writing and instruction in the principles of composition, therefore, must form a part of all instruction in English throughout the four years.
Since it is only by constant practice that the average pupil can learn to write good English, it naturally follows that the essential part of the composition work is the writingof themes. The methods by which the pupil is given this practice are of the greatest importance. In the first place, as has already been indicated, it should be made clear to the pupil what original composition is, and what it is not. The belief, all too prevalent among pupils, that ideas for compositions are to be obtained largely if not entirely from books, should be promptly eradicated from their minds. They must be constantly impressed with the fact that the expression of their own ideas is the important factor in all original composition.
The direction of the pupils to a right choice of subject for their compositions is the first important consideration. The possibility of writing interesting themes on the everyday incidents in the life of the pupils and the school must be made clear to them at the beginning of the course. After the pupils have once been made to see the inexhaustible supply of material which their own experience affords, there will be no temptation to turn to books for inspiration. Throughout the course in composition it is necessary for a teacher of English to have a large supply of good subjects for themes. To secure these subjects the teacher must familiarize himself with local conditions, particularly as they affect the life and interests of his pupils. It is an essential part of the teacher’s preparation for teaching composition that he inform himself fully upon the subjects of local interest upon which he encourages the pupils to write. By his interest in the various activities of the pupils and by his sympathy in their efforts, the teacher not only comes to know what subjects to suggest for composition, but gains the pupils’ confidence, and arouses in them a desire to tell him of these activities in their written work. With proper encouragement and interest on the part of the teacher, pupils will soon come to take pleasure in writing of their everyday experiences, and the themes will become a source of greater pleasure and satisfaction to both teacher and pupils.
It is frequently desirable that the same subject be assigned to all pupils, so that the results may be compared and presented to the class as part of the regular instruction. At other times it is necessary to give the class a number of subjects from which each pupil may select the one that suitshim best; and at still others, to suggest general topics from which the pupil may frame his own subject. In announcing and assigning a subject for compositions the teacher can be of much assistance to the pupils by discussing with the class the subject under consideration. These discussions will stimulate interest in the subject, and will arouse a desire on the part of the pupils to write upon it. The teacher can direct the discussion so that the pupils will be led to consider the best method of treating the subject and can thus prevent waste of effort. It is necessary, however, to guard against giving the pupil so many suggestions that little original thought and observation will be required in writing the theme.
That clear, logical thinking is prerequisite for clear expression should also be constantly emphasized in teaching composition. Pupils must be made to realize, as has already been said, that unless thoughts are clear in their own minds, they cannot expect to make these thoughts clear to others. They should be taught, therefore, to get before their minds clearly what they desire to express before they undertake to express it. The first step can be taken early in the course when the pupils are writing narratives, by urging upon them the necessity of accuracy in observing what happens and how it happens, since the degree of completeness of the remembrance of the event depends upon the character of the impression. In description, likewise, careful observation of what is to be portrayed must be emphasized as the only means of obtaining a complete mental picture that can be described to others. The methods of exposition and argumentation presented in the third and fourth years naturally involve a discussion of the methods of reasoning and as much logic as the pupils can comprehend. So closely related are thinking and the expression of thought that, as has been pointed out before, much of the work of teaching pupils to express their thoughts clearly and accurately is really concerned with teaching them to think clearly and logically.
In all work of this kind the outline is of great value. An outline of a paragraph analyzed in connection with the reading will make clear the manner of arranging the subtopics and details in an orderly form. A similar outline of the subject of a theme, made in class by the cooperation of teacherand pupils, will indicate the method of grouping the pupil’s own ideas in a logical manner. After the process has been illustrated by such class exercises, the pupils should be required to make outlines of their themes, without assistance from the teacher. While it is not necessary to require that a complete outline be prepared by the pupils for every theme that is assigned, frequent exercises in outlining the material of the theme before it is written are desirable throughout the course. Like all formal devices, the outline, if made mechanically, may tend to curb the spontaneous expression of the pupils; but rightly employed by the teacher and pupils, it will readily become a valuable aid to clear thinking and expression.
From the beginning to the end of the course in English, the fact must be impressed upon the pupils’ minds that the only acceptable themes are those that are the result of thought and careful effort. Hastily and carelessly prepared compositions and those handed in after the appointed time, should not be accepted by the teacher. Promptness, neatness, and earnest effort are essentials for successful theme writing that pupils should never be permitted to neglect. While it may seem very exacting to require that all themes be written in black ink, on paper of uniform size, and that they be numbered or dated and indorsed in a prescribed form, experience has shown that these details in the organization of the work are important for economy of time and effort on the part of teacher and pupils.
Although most of the themes will be prepared by the pupils before coming to the class room, it is desirable to have some of them written during the recitation period in order to give the pupils practice in thinking and writing rapidly. At the beginning of the course the subject may be assigned at the preceding recitation so that the pupils may consider it carefully and come prepared to write. After the pupils have gained some fluency of expression, impromptu themes will prove interesting and valuable class room exercises. Considerable importance should be attached to these impromptu themes and exercises as tests of the pupils’ ability to write rapidly and accurately.
2. Correction of Themes
Of equal importance to the writing of themes is the prompt and careful correction of them by the teacher, and the revision or rewriting by the pupil. While doubtless the pupil will gain some facility in expression by writing frequently, he is not likely to learn how to write clear, accurate, forcible English unless his work is carefully corrected and returned to him promptly so that it may be revised or rewritten. In correcting themes the purpose should be to indicate to the pupil the errors and weaknesses of his style, in order that he may correct these faults. The teacher, therefore, should not correct the pupil’s errors, but should use some sign or abbreviation to indicate the character of the fault. Much if not all of the benefit derived by the pupil from the teacher’s correction is lost if he does not have the opportunity to correct his own errors in revising or rewriting the composition. Not only is this correction of the pupil’s mistakes by the teacher bad pedagogically, but it takes a needless amount of the teacher’s time. It is desirable to have a simple but complete system of signs and abbreviations indicating the exact character of the error. In this connection attention may be called to the value of having each school adopt some system of correction signs and abbreviations, so that the same marks may be used not only by all of the teachers of English, but by the teachers of all other subjects in correcting note-books, topics, examination papers, and all other written exercises. It is only by insisting that high school pupils be as careful of their English in all written work as in compositions prepared for English classes that the best results can be accomplished.
The following sign and abbreviations used in the English department of the University of Wisconsin for the correction of themes may serve to indicate the character and scope of a system of correction marks:
Besides indicating all the errors in every theme, the teacher should write a concise comment on each, pointing out the faults and merits of the theme. He should aim to make these comments as stimulating and suggestive as possible for judicious criticism must be constructive, encouraging the pupil in that which is praiseworthy in his efforts, as well as aiding him to eliminate that which is undesirable. These comments to be most helpful should be based on the teacher’s knowledge of the pupil’s personality and of the character of his other themes, for each piece of written work must be regarded as a step in the individual pupil’s progress toward the more effective expression of his thoughts. The teacher should also remember that firm insistence from the beginning to the end of the course on correctness in the fundamentals of expression such as grammar, spelling, punctuation, capitalization, is quite as necessary as the stimulating criticism that aims at developing more original and spontaneous thought and expression.
In order that the pupil may get the greatest benefit from the teacher’s correction of his themes, these should be returned for revision or rewriting as soon as possible. If the pupil does not receive his theme until a week or more after he has written it, the corrections and the revision and rewriting are much less interesting and valuable than if it is returned to him promptly. It is also easier for the teacher to correct themes as soon as they are received rather than to allow themto accumulate until their number makes the correction of them an exhausting task.
In addition to the careful correction of compositions by the teacher, other methods may be used to call attention to the merits and faults of the pupils’ themes. The teacher may have the pupils copy on the blackboard the themes which they have prepared before coming to class, and the recitation period may be devoted to the criticism of these compositions by teacher and pupils. The pupils may occasionally be required to correct each other’s written work, either in or out of the class room. A recitation period can sometimes be used to advantage for the rewriting by the pupils of themes corrected by the teacher, who by passing from one pupil to another during this exercise can assist each in correcting and improving his work. While these methods often prove interesting and valuable, they should not be regarded as an adequate substitute for the prompt and accurate correction of themes by the teacher.
After themes have been either rewritten or revised by pupils, they should be returned to the teacher, who must glance over them to be sure that the pupils have made the necessary changes. If the themes are rewritten, the original as well as the rewritten form should be returned to the teacher for the purpose of this comparison. It is also desirable to have some method of filing themes after they have been returned to the teacher. A simple method of keeping them is to use looseleaf note-books similar to the laboratory note-books in science. With this system the themes are first handed in on separate sheets of uniform size, and, after they have been corrected by the teacher and revised or rewritten by the pupil, are fastened in the note-book. If the themes are rewritten or corrected on the blank page of the note-book facing the original copy, the teacher can readily compare the two forms and can determine the character of the revision. Another plan adopted by a number of schools is to have a large filing case with a compartment for the themes of each pupil in the school. All the themes should be preserved until the end of the year, when they may be returned to the pupils.
4. Conferences on Written Work
In order to accomplish the best results in theme writing and correcting, it is desirable that the teacher talk over the written work with each pupil as frequently as his time permits. If the English teacher’s programme of recitations is properly arranged, he should have sufficient time to have conferences with all his pupils once a month. Regular appointments should be made with each pupil for holding these conferences during those periods in which both pupil and teacher have no recitation. At the conference the teacher can go over with the pupil the written work of the month, can answer questions, and give helpful suggestions for improving the pupil’s composition and class work.
Although the term “composition” as used in connection with English work usually refers only to written expression, it is evident that the oral expression of the pupils’ thoughts is worthy of consideration. Generally no particular provision is made in high school work for so-called oral composition, nor does it seem necessary to provide a distinct place for it in the outline of the course. The importance of the form of the recitation in every subject is emphasized by all good teachers. The topical recitation now so frequently required in all high school studies, if properly conducted, is the most effective kind of oral composition that can be given. A teacher of English, of course, should give especial attention to the form of recitation in English classes. Pupils, after some encouragement, will express their ideas freely in the course of the discussions which inevitably arise in connection with the reading and composition. Their attention should be directed to the fact that the same principles govern the clear and forcible expression in spoken, as in written language. The correction of common faults in recitation, such as the “and”, “and then” habit, will assist in eliminating these errors from the written work as well as in improving greatly the oral expression. During the first year the pupils may be assigned simple topics in connection with the reading and should be taught how to collect the material and arrange it in an outlineform from which to present it in the class room. After they have acquired the ability to present topics with the aid of notes, they should be encouraged to speak without any of these aids. The same method may be applied to the daily recitation. In fact, it is often best to begin by having the pupils outline the subject matter of the lesson and come to class prepared to recite upon any topic in the outline. In this manner the recitations in English and in practically all of the other subjects of the high school course may be used to give the pupils the necessary training in oral composition.
In connection with the writing and correction of themes must be studied the principles of composition and their application. These rhetorical principles may be presented either inductively or deductively. The pupil may either learn them from a definite statement in the text-book, which illustrates their application by selected examples, or he may be led to discover the principles of effective expression from the literature that he is studying in class as a part of the work in reading. While much may be said for the merits of each of these methods, the inductive plan seems to commend itself particularly, since it makes possible a close and effective correlation of the two elements of the English work—composition and reading.
During the first two years, when particular attention is given to the principles of sentence and paragraph construction in the composition work, these principles can be developed and their application readily illustrated from the selections that are read and studied in class. The object of the work in reading, as has already been stated, is to teach the pupil to get the thought clearly from the printed page. In order to do this effectively, it is necessary to study with some degree of care the sentence and paragraph structure of the selection which he is reading. To get the thought of each sentence it is necessary to understand clearly the relation of all its parts. By noting the separate ideas as expressed in words, phrases, and clauses, and by determining their relation in the sentence as the expression of the whole thought, the pupil is taught the principles of sentence unity and coherence. Ifhis attention is properly drawn to these principles as they are exemplified in the literature before him, the importance and application of them may be clearly demonstrated without spoiling the masterpiece of literature. In fact the appreciation of the skill of the literary artist is thereby increased, provided the teaching is done in a proper manner.
To follow the chain of thought in the paragraph, it is necessary to see clearly the relation of each thought as expressed in the sentence to the preceding and succeeding thoughts in order that the development of the topic may be clear, and that the pupil may grasp the subject in its entirety. In teaching the pupil to get the whole thought in the paragraph, it is necessary to consider the whole topic treated in the paragraph; that is, to study the unity of the paragraph; and also to consider the relation of each thought to the one central topic; that is, the principle of paragraph coherence. Thus, in the effort to teach the pupil how to get the thoughts of others by reading, the essential principles of composition are absolutely necessary. In a similar manner all the principles of narration, description, exposition, and argumentation may be developed inductively from the reading. By seeing the application of the rhetorical principles in literature, the pupil comes to realize their importance in effective writing, and is impressed by the varied forms of their application as he is not likely to be by selected examples isolated from their context, in text-books.
If the principles of composition may be developed from the masterpieces that are studied in class, the question naturally suggests itself, “Is it necessary to have a text-book at all in studying the principles of rhetoric and composition?” It is entirely possible to teach composition successfully without a text-book, but owing to difficulties in the organization of the schools, and the not infrequent change of teachers, it is often desirable for the sake of uniformity of work to make use of a text-book. It is also convenient, even where these difficulties do not exist, to have a good text-book to which the teacher may direct the pupil for a detailed statement of the principles after they have been developed and exemplifiedin the reading; that is, to use it as a reference book. In order that it may be used thus for reference, the text-book selected should take up the principles of composition and the forms of discourse in a logical manner, treating each fully and systematically in a separate division. Text-books of this character can be used throughout the first two years at least, and some of them are sufficiently complete to supply all the material needed for four years’ study of composition.
It is generally conceded that text-books in rhetoric and composition have very often been used to poor advantage by having the pupils memorize the definitions and statements of principles, and by devoting much of the period set aside for composition to recitation upon the subject matter of the text book. The principles of rhetoric and composition, of course, have little value except as the pupil is able to apply them in his own work or to recognize the application of them in the work of others. The real test of his knowledge of the subject matter of the text-book therefore is not made by having him recite what the book contains, but by requiring him to apply it in his own work and to perceive examples of it in that of others.